Nongonoko wa matheme ma nkoka (APPLIED LINGUISTICS)

Nongonoko lowu wu katsa matheme lama tirhisiweke eka timojulu leti landzelaka:

HAPL481; HAPL482; HAPL483; HAPL484

Accuracy Precision of language when speaking, writing or reading aloud.

Ku kotlana khaqa Nkotlano wa ririmi loko ku vulavuriwa, ku tsariwa na ku hlayela ehenhla.

Additional language (AL) Any language learnt after the first language.

Ririmi ro Engetela (AL) Ririmi rin’wana na rin’wana leri dyondziwaka endzhaku ka ririmi ro sungula

Affective factors Emotional factors, such as motivation and anxiety, which may influence
language learning and use.

Mikucetelo leyi Swilo swa mintlhaveko, swo fana na mintlhaveko na ku tsana, leswi swi nga va
nga nghenelelaka ku na nkucetelo eka ku dyondza ririmi no ri tirhisa.

Affected filter hypothesis One of five hypotheses in the Monitor Model. The affective filter hypothesis
states that learners acquire language best in an environment that is pleasant.

Swiendlo leswi nga endlaka mudyondzi a nga dyondzi ririmiAffective filter hypothesis Yin’wana ya
tihaphothesisi eka Monitor Model. Affective filter hyphothesis yi vula leswo
vadyondzi va kota ku dyondza ririmi ku antswa eka mbangu lowu tsakisaku.

Alphabetic principle The belief that there is a correspondence between letters and sounds.

Nsinya wa swa alifabete Ku tshemba leswaku ku na ku fambisana exikarhi ka maletere na

mimpfumawulo

Anaphor A word that refers back to another word already mentioned in the text, e.g. Siya
did so well on the test because she studied hard.

Anaphor Rito leri ri vulaku rito rin’wana ro fana, leri se vhele ri nga tirhisiwa eka tsalwa,
Xik., Siya u tirhe kahle eka xikambelo hikuva u hlayile swinene.
Assimilation Learners are integrated into classrooms where the medium of instruction is
different from the learners’ first language; the goal being that learners learn the
additional language in a natural environment.

Asimilexini Vadyondzi va hlanganisiwa etitlilasini laha ririmi leri ku dyondziwaka hi rona ri

hambaneke na ririmi ra vadyondzi ro sungula; xikongomelo ku ri leswaku
vadyondzi va dyondza ririmi ro ngetela eka xiyimo xa mbangu wa ntumbuluko.

Attitude A person’s orientation towards themselves and their own cultural group, as well
as one’s orientation towards others (for example an additional language
speaker group).

Vonelo (athichudi) Ndlela leyi munhu a vonaku swilo hi yona mayelana na yena n’winyi na ntlawa
wa yena wa swa mfuwo, xikan’we na ndlela leyi munhu a vonaku hi yona vanhu
van’wana (xikombiso, ndlela leyi a vonaku hi yona ntlawa wa vanhu va ririmi
rin’wana ro ngetela).

Audiolingual method A method of language teaching that using drills and dialogues and emphasises
listening speaking before reading and writing and that discourages the use of
the mother tongue in class. Also known as the ‘Army method’, as it was used to
teach foreign languages to American troops during the Second World War.

Endlelo ra mpfumawulo wa ririmi Endlelo ra ku dyondzisa ririmi leri tirhisaka ku dirila na n’wangulana ku
tshikilela ku yingisela na ku vulavula emahlweni ka ku dyondza ku hlaya na ku
tsala, swi lwisana na ku tirhisa ririmi ra manana loko va ri etlilasini. Wu tlhela wu
tiviwa tanihi ‘Army method’ ku nga endlelo ra vutho ra nyimpi, hikuva wu
sunguriwe ku dyondzisa tindzimi timbe eka mavutho ya vusocha ya Amerika hi
nkarhi wa Nyimpi ya Misava ya Vumbirhi.

Automaticity When the use of a skill becomes increasingly rapid and automatic with practice
and does not require conscious effort.

Endlelo ra xiothomatisiti Loko ku tirhisiwa ka swikili swi ya ehenhla hi xihatla na swona swi va swa
othomatisiki hi ku endla mikarhi hinkwayo na swona swi nga ha lavi leswo
munhu a anakanya hi swona swo tiendlekela kunene.
Barking at print The process in which a learner places emphasis on sounding out words in a text,
which results in poor comprehension of the text’s meaning.

Ku huwelela marito Endlelo leri mudyondzi a tshikilelaka ngopfu eka mpfumawulo eka matsalwa, ko
ma twisisa , leswi swi endlaku leswaku a nga twisisi nhlamuselo ya marito

Basic Interpersonal Refers to oral language competence and are the language skills that
Communicative Skills (BICS) people need on a day-to-day basis to interact with others in social situations.

vuswikoti bya Swi vula vuswikoti bya ririmi ro vulavula kunene, na swona i swikili swa ririmi
ririmi ro vulavula leri vanhu va ri tirhisaku masiku hinkwawo ku vulavula na van’wana eka
swiyimo swo vulavulao na van’wana

Bilingual classroom A classroom where two languages are used for communication, to support
teaching and learning.

Tlilasi ya tindzimimbirhi Tlilasi laha ku tirhisiwaka kona tindzimi timbirhi ku vulavurisana na ku seketela
ku dyondza no dyondzisa.

Bilingualism The ability of a speaker to communicate fluently in two languages.

Vundzimimbirhi Vuswikoti bya muvulavuri ku vulavula tindzimi timbirhi ku ringana.

Bilingual education An educational setting where two languages are used in a systematic way to
teach the curriculum.

Dyondzo ya tindzimimbirhi Xiyimo xa dyondzo laha ku tirhisiwaka tindzimi timbirhi ku dyondzisa

kharikhulamu.

Biliteracy The ability to read and write in two languages.

Bayilitheresi Vuswikoti bya ku hlaya na ku tsala tindzimi timbirhi.

Blends Consonant clusters such as bl-, thr-, str- in English.

Nhlangano wa switatisi Ntlawa wa switwatisi swo fana na bl-, thr, str- eka Xinghezi
Bottom-up processes Information processing where material is processed from smaller units (such as
letters/symbols) using perception, to larger units (such as
sentences/paragraphs), using higher-order mental processes.

Maendlelo yo sukela Ku fambisa vuxokoxoko laha switirhisiwa swiendliwaka ku sukela eka tiyuniti
ehansi ku ya ehenhla titsongo (to fana na maletere/mimfungho) hi ku tirhisa mavonelo
ku ya eka tiyuniti letikulu (to fana na swivulwa/tipharagrafu) hi ku tirhisa
maendlelo ya xiyimo xa le henhla xa miehleketo.

Cataphor Pronouns which refer to someone or something to be introduced later in the

text, e.g. Knowing that he would be hungry soon, Tebtaso set off for the shops.

Cataphor Masivi lama ya vulaku munhu kumbe nchumu lowu wu nga ta tivisiwa ka
ndzhaku eka tsalwa, xik., (Hi ku tiva leswaku u ta twa ndlala, Tebtaso u ye e
switolo.)

Cloze test An activity where words are left out of a sentence (e.g. every fifth or ninth word)
and the learner is required to fill in the word most likely to fit in the open space.
Also known as gap-fill tests.

Xikambelwana xo pfala Nghingiriko laha marito ya siyiwaka eka xivulwa (xik., rito ra vuntlhanu kumbe ra
swivandla vukaye) kasi mudyondzi ku laveka leswo a tatisa rito leri ri faneleke eka xivandla
xivandla lexi pfulekeke. Swi tlhela swi tiveka tanihi xikambelwana xa ku pfala
swivandla.

Code-switching A practice where one moves between different languages, dialects or registers
in a conversation.

Khodi swichini Endlelo laha munhu a tirhisaka tindzimi to hambana, tindzin’wana kumbe ti
rhejistara eka mbulavulo.

Code mixing The mixing of two or more languages or dialects in conversation. The emphasis
is on the hybridisation/fusion of the two codes involved, to create a third, new
code which has unique structural characteristics.

Khodi mikisini Ku hlanganisa tindzimi timbirhi kumbe ku tlula kumbe tindzin’wana eka
mbulavulo. Ku tshikileriwa ngopfu hayibiradayizexini/mpfangano wa tikhodi
timbirhi leti nga na xiave, ku endla ya vunharhu, khodi leyintshwa leyi yi nga na
xivumbeko xa swihlawulekisi swo fana swi ri swoxe.
Codification Developing a writing system, establishing rules of grammar and developing
vocabulary for standardised language use.

Khodifikhexini Ku tumbuluxa sisiteme ya matsalelo, ku sungula milawu ya matsalelo (girama)

no endla vhokhebulari leyi yi ringanisiweke ya matirhiselo ya ririmi.

Cognate words Words in different languages with the same etymological origin whose forms
and meanings are similar. For example, nurse and unesi (isiZulu).

Marito ya khogineti Marito eka tindzimi to hambana lama nga na timitsu to fana kasi mavumbekelo
na tinhlamuselo ta wona swa fana. Xikombiso, nurse kasi unesi (Xizulu), nese
(Xitsonga)

Cognitive Academic Familiarity with the conventions of academic language and the ability
Language Proficiency (CALP) to process and produce written academic language in complex ways.

Cognitive Academic Vutivi hi Mafambiselo ya ririmi ra xiakhademiki na vuswikoti bya maendelo yo

Language Proficiency (CALP) no humesa ririmi ra xiakhademiki hi tindlela to hambanahambana.

Cognitive strategies Mental tools and tactics used by learners to organise the learning material to
support the learning process.

Maqhinga ya mianakanyo Switirhisiwa na mianakanyo na tithekiniki leti tirhisiwaka hi vadyondzi ku

kondletela metheriyali ya ku dyondza ku seketela maendlelo yo dyondza.

Coherence The organisation and integration of information within a text to produce a

unified whole.

Khohiyerense Nkondletelo na nhlanganiso wa vutivi eka tsalwa ku humesa nchumu wun’we

lowu hlanganeke.

Cohesion The ways that clauses in a text are linked together.

Nhlengelo Tindlela leti swivulwana eka tsalwa swi khomanakaku swin’we.

Communicative competence The skills needed to communicate effectively (which includes knowledge of the
grammatical, sociolinguistic, strategic and discourse rules of a language).

Vuswikoti bya vutihlanganisi Swikili leswi lavekaka ku tihlanganisa kahle na van’wana (leswi swi katsaka vutivi
bya girama kumbe matsalelo, swa soxiyolingwistiki, na matirhiselo ya milawu ya
ririmi).

Communicative interference The inappropriate transfer of first language culture and communicative patterns
to an additional language culture, which often leads to miscommunication.

Swikavanyeti swa Ku hundzisela hi ndlela leyi nga fanelangiki ya mfuwo wa ririmi ro sungula
vutihlanganisi eka tipheteni ta vutihlanganisi eka mfuwo wa ririmi ro ngetela, leswi swi
vangelaka mpfanganampfangano eka vutihlanganisi.

Communicative language An approach to language teaching that emphasises communicative

teaching (CLT) approach competence in real-world situations through authentic interaction.

Communicative language Mafambiselo ya ku dyondzisa ririmi lama tshikilelaku eka vuswikoti bya ku
teaching (CLT) approach vulavula eka xiyimo xa xiviri hi ku tirhisa ku tihlanganisa ka vanhu.

Competence The ability to do something successfully or efficiently.

Khompithensi Vuswikoti bya ku endla nchumu hi ku humelela kumbe kahle swinene.

Comprehension The ability to understand language input. Reading comprehension refers to the
reader’s understanding of written information. Listening comprehension refers
to a listener's understanding of oral information.

Ntwisiso Vuswikoti bya ku twisisa mavonelo ya ririmi. Ntwisiso wa ku hlaya wu vula loko
muhlayi a twisisa vutivi lebyi tsariweke. Ntwisiso wa ku yingisa swi vula loko
muyingiseri a twisisa vutivi lebyi nyikiwaka hi nomu.

Consolidation stage The period in a learner’s scholastic career during which reading skills become
increasingly refined.

Xiteji xa khonsolidexini Nkarhi eka ntirho wa mudyondzi laha swikili swa ku hlaya swi ya ku ehenhla
swinene.
Constructs Theoretical entities that form the key components of theories. ‘Intelligence’,
‘motivation’ and ‘anxiety’ are examples of constructs. In psychology, a construct
is a skill, attribute, or ability that is based on one or more established theories.
Constructs are not directly observable.

Ku vumba Tthiyori ya tienthinthi leti ti vumbaka swiyenge swa thiyori swa nkoka.
‘Vutlharhi’, ‘nsusumeto’ na ku karhateka i swikombiso swa ku vumbas. Eka
sayikholoji, ku vumbat i xikili, ku vanga, kumbe vuswikoti lebyi seketeriweke eka
thiyori yin’we kumbe ku tlula. Ku vumba a hi nchumu lowu vonakaku hi mahlo hi
ku languta kunene.

Context disembedded/ Language in which the context is explained and meaning construction does
context reduced not rely on interaction.

Context disembedded/ Ririmi laha vuandlalo bya xiyimi byi hlamuseriwaka na swona ku twisisa
context reduced nhlamuselo a swi yi hi vuxakelani.

Context embedded Language that contains many linguistic items whose meaning must be
recovered from the interactional context.

Context embedded Ririmi leri nga na swiyenge swa ririmi swo tala laha nhlamuselo yi faneleke yi
nghenisiwa eka vuxakelani bya xiyimo.

Contrasts Differences between languages that may give rise to errors.

Contrasts Ku hambana exikarhi ka tindzimi leswi swi nga endlaka swihoxo swi tala.

Contrastive The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis states that errors in the second/additional
analysis hypothesis language can be predicted through a systematic analysis of the differences
between a speaker’s first and second languages.

Contrastive analysis Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis yi vula leswo swihoxo eka ririmi ra vumbirhi/leri
hyphothesis ngeteleriwaka swi nga ha voniwa ku sungula hi ku endla nxopaxopo wa ku
hambana exikarhi ka ririmi ro sungula ra muvulavuri na ririmi ra vumbirhi.
Correlation In statistics, a correlation coefficient describes the relationship between two
variables. Correlation coefficients range from 0 (no overlap between variables)
to 1 (complete overlap between variables). A positive correlation means that as
one variable increases the other variable increases. A negative correlation
means that as one variable increases the other variable decreases.

Vufambelani Eka tistatistiki, vufambelani bya tinomborot swi hlamusela vuxaka exikarhi ka
swilo swimbirhi. Vufambelano bya tinomboro swi sukela eka 0 (a ku na ku
ovhalepa exikarhi ka swilo) ku ya eka 1 (ku va na overlap exikarhi ka swilo).
Vuxaka bya kahle yi vula leswo nchumu wun’we wu ngetela minchumu yin’wana.
Kasi vuxaka byo ka byi nga ri kahle yi vula leswo loko nchumu wun’wana wu
ngetelela kasi wun’wana wu ta hunguteka.

Covert errors Errors which only become evident in the broader context; i.e. errors that cause
a semantic breakdown, even though the sentence is grammatically well-formed.

Swihoxo leswi nga ri Swihoxi leswi swi vonakaku ntsena eka xiyimo lexikulu; xik, swihoxo leswi
ku rivaleni vangelaka ku onhaka ka marito, hambileswi xivulwa xivumbeke kahle hi ku
landza girama ku nga milawu ya matsalelo.

Criterion A standard used to judge something. You may know this word in its plural form
(criteria).

Swi fikilelo I ndzinganiso (xitandati) lexi tirhisiwaka ku ahlula nchumu. U nga ha tiva rito
leri hi vunyingi bya rona ku nga (swipimelolo).

Criterion-referenced testing Testing that assesses performance in relation to a criterion.

Swipimelo swo kongomisa Xikambelwana lexi kambelaka matirhelo hi ku landza ndzinganiso lowu nga
eka xikambelwana vekiwa.

Critical period hypothesis A specific period of time in a human being’s life which is optimal for acquiring a
particular skill, such as language.

Hayipothesisi ya Nkarhi wo karhi eka vutomi bya munhu wa xiyimo xa le henhla ku kuma swikili
nkarhi wa nkoka swo karhi, swo fana na ririmi.

Cross-linguistic transfer A transfer of linguistic knowledge/skills between two languages.

Ku hundzisa vutivi bya ririmi Vuhundziseri bya vutivi bya ririmi/swikili exikarhi ka tindzimi timbirhi.
Debilitative anxiety The state in which a person is so overcome with worry that they are unable to
use the additional language effectively.

Debilitative anxiety Xiyimo laha munhu a angarheriweke hi ku karhateka ku fikela laha a nga kotiku
ku tirhisa ririmi leri ngeteleriweke kahle.

Decoding Reading a word by converting the word’s orthographic (written) form to a

phonological (sound) form to access the word’s meaning.

Ku kandziyisa Ku hlaya rito hi rito hi ku hundzuluxa othogirafi ya rito ku nga milawu ya

matsalelo (matsalwa) ku vumba xiyimo xa fonoloji (mpfumawulo) ku fikelela
nhlamuselo ya rito.

Decolonization Rejecting colonial cultures and languages as part of a process to release a

country from the political and economic control of a more powerful country.

Vuhetavukoloni Ku alana na mimfumo ya vukoloni na tindzimi tanihi xiyenge xa maendlelo ya ku

ntshunxa tiko eka ku lawuriwa ka swa tipolitiki na ikhonomi hi tiko ra matimba
swinene.

Dialect A regional or social variety of a language which is distinguished from the

standard variety through characteristic features in the vocabulary, grammar and
pronunciation.

Ririn’wana (dayalekti) Muxaka wa ririmi ra ndhawu kumbe vanhu vo karhi, leri ri hambanaka na ririmi
leri ringanisiweke hi ku va na swihlawulekisi eka vhokhebulari, girama na
matwariselo.

Diglossia The use of two varieties (for example a ‘high’ and ‘low’ variety) of the same
language in different situations in a speech community, typically by the same
speakers, but in non-overlapping roles.

Dayaglosiya Ku tirhisiwa ka mixaka mimbirhi (xikombiso, muxaka wa le ‘henhla’ na wa le

‘hansi’ wa ririmi rin’we eka swiyimo swo hambana eka vavulavuri va ririmi,
hakanyingi, leswi swi endliwa hi vavulavuri va ririmi kambe ku nga ri hi tindzimi
to tsemakanyana.

Differential performance Differences in proficiency between additional language learners.

Matirhelo yo hambana Ku hambana eka vutivi exikarhi ka ririmi ro ngetela eka vadyondzi.
Direct testing Tasks that require the learner to perform the skill that is being tested, for
example asking learners to write a paragraph if writing is being assessed.

Xikambelwana xo kongoma Mitirho leyi yi lavaku leswaku mudyondzi a tirhisa xikili lexi xi kamberiwaka,
xikombiso, ku byela vadyondzi ku tsala ndzimana loko ku kamberiwa matsalelo.

Discourse analysis A range of approaches used to critically analyse texts.

Nxopaxopo wa matsalwa Tindlela to hambana leti ti tirhisiwaka ku xopaxopa matsalwa.

Eclecticism The selection of various techniques or activities from different language

teaching methods when planning and presenting a lesson.

Mpfanganiso Ku hlawula maendlelo mo hambanahambana kumbe migingiriko eka timethodi

wa mianakanyo to hambanahambana to dyondzisa ririmi loko ku kunguhatiwa no endla dyondzo.

Emergent bilingualism The practice of gaining competence in an additional language while the first
language is maintained.

Ngetelo wa ririmi ra vumbirhi Ntolovelo wo va na vutivi bya ririmi ro ngetela loko ku karhi ku hlayisiwa ririmi ro
sungula

Emergent literacy Children’s early knowledge about reading and writing.

Litheresi leyi ya Ntivo wo sungula wa vana hi ku hlaya na ku tsala.

ha sungulaku

Encoding Putting the phonemes of a word together to create meaning.

Encoding Ku hlanganisa tifonimi ta rito ku aka nhlamuselo.

Environmental print Text that occurs in everyday life, such as logos and names of products.

Pirinti ya mbangu Tsalwa leri ri nga kona eka vutomi bya masiku hinkwawo, ku fana na tilogo na
mavito ya swimakiwa.
Epistemological Relating to, or based on epistemology. Epistemology is the study of the nature,
origin and limits of human knowledge, especially with regards to the distinction
between justified beliefs and opinions.

Tithiyori ta swihlovo Swi fambelana na, kumbe ku va ehansi ka epistemology. Epistemology i

(epistemological) ndzavisiso swa vutivi hi muxaka, timitsu na swihingakanyi eka vutivi bya vanhu,
ngopfungopfu mayelana na ku endla ku hambana exikarhi ka swikholwa (beliefs)
na mianakanyo (opinions).

Error A faulty utterance which occurs because the learner has not yet mastered a
particular feature of the additional language.

Xihoxo Mbulavulo lowu nga hoxeka lowu wu endlekaka hikuva mudyondzi a nga si tiva
kahle swihlawulekisi swo karhi swa ririmi ro ngetelela.

Ethnography of speaking The original name of the SPEAKING framework that Dell Hymes developed for
the analysis of communication within the wider context of the social and cultural
practices and beliefs of the members of a particular culture or speech
community.

Vuxopaxopi bya mbulavulo Rito ro sungula ra rimba ra MBULAVULO leri ri nga sunguriwa hi Dell Hymes ku
xopaxopa mbulavulo eka xiyimo xo nava xa mafambiselo ya vanhu na swa
mfuwo na swikholwa swa swirho swa mfuwo wo karhi kumbe vavulavuri va
ririmi ro karhi.

Explicit Clearly expressed communication or instruction that leaves nothing to be

assumed. Explicit instruction, for example, directs attention to the object of
learning.

Leswi nga rivaleni Mbulavulo lowu humeseriwaku erivaleni kumbe xilexiso lexi twakalaku kahle xi
nga tumbeti swin’wana. Xileriso lexi nga rivaleni, xikombiso, xi lerisa ku
kongomisa eka nchumu wo karhi eka ku dyondza.

Expository texts A text type that contains facts and information.

Expository texts Muxaka wa tsalwa leri nga na mitiyiso na vutivi.

Extensive reading program Readers read as many texts as they can. The focus is not on completely
understanding all the information in every text, but on the quantity of texts
being read.

Nongonoko wa vuhlayi Vahlayi va hlaya matsalwa yo tala hi laha swi nga kotekaku. Ntshikilelo a wu le
byo enta ku hlayeni ku twisisa hinkwabyo vutivi eka tsalwa, kambe eka ku hlaya matsalwa
mo tala i hilaha swi kotekaku.

Facilitative anxiety The state in which a person feels alert, energised and able to cope with the
demands of learning an additional language.

Facilitative anxiety Xiyimo laha munhu a titwaku a ri ku lemukeni, a ri na matimba na swona a kota
ku hlanganyetana na swilaveko swa ku dyondza ririmi ro ngetelela.

False cognates Words that have similar forms and/or sounds in different languages, but have
different meanings. For example, English assist (to help) and Spanish asistir (to
attend).

False cognates Marito lama fananaku na swona/kumbe ya ri na mimpfumawulo yo fana eka

tindzimi to hambana, kambe ya vula swilo swo hambana. Xikombiso, rito ra
Xinghezi assist (ku pfuna) na rito ra Spanish (asistir) ku nga (to attend/ku
fambela swo karhi).

Feedback Information provided by a teacher regarding a group or an individual’s

performance.

Xiviko xa mudyondzisi Vutivi lebyi nyikiwaka hi thicara mayelana na matirhelo ya ntlawa kumbe munhu
wun’we.

Field dependent learning A learning style in which the learner tends to approach concepts holistically
rather than analytically and prefers inductive styles of learning.

Field dependent learning Xitayele xa ku dyondza laha mudyondzi a pfelelaku tikhonsepe hi ku helela ku ri
na ku xopaxopa na swona a tshembeleke eka switayele swa ku tekela vutivi eka
swiyimo swo karhi swa leswi nchumu wo karhi wu nga xona (inductive learning
styles) eka ku dyondzo.

Field independent learning A learning style in which the learner tends to be analytical and prefers deductive
approaches to learning material.
Field independent learning Xitayele xa ku dyondza laha mudyondzi a tirhisaku mafambiselo ya vuxopaxopi
na swona a tshembeleke eka fambiselo ra ku landzela lojiki na nxopaxopo wa
swilo eka metheriyali ya ku dyondza.

First language (L1) The language that a child learns first and maintains throughout life or the
language the child feels most comfortable using. In the South African context
also referred to as the Home Language and in other context also referred to as
the mother tongue.

Ririmi ro sungula (L1) Ririmi leri n’wana a sungulaka ku dyondza hi rona na swona a ri tirhisaka eka
vutomi bya yena hinkwabyo, kumbe ririmi leri n’wana a titwaka a tshamisekile
eka rona ku ri tirhisa. EAfrika-Dzonga ririmi leri ri tlhela ri vuriwa Ririmi ra le Kaya
kasi eka swiyimo swin’wana ri tlhela ri vuriwa ririmi ra manana.

Fluency A measure of both speed and accuracy i.e. efficiency; Speaking fluency: Ability to
speak rapidly with some mistakes but overall coherence in meaning; Reading
fluency: Reading with accuracy and speed which enables understanding
(comprehension); Writing fluency: ability to write with sufficient speed and
accuracy for the task demands.

Vuswikoti byo Xikalo xa rivilo na nkotlano, hi leswaku vutivinene; vuswikoti bya ku vulavula;
tsala ririmirimbe vuswikoti bya ku vulavula hi xihatla kambe hi ku endla swihoxonyana kambe ku
va na vuheleri bya nhlamuselo; Vuswikoti bya ku hlaya: Ku hlaya kahle na swona
hi rivilo leri endlaku leswaku swi twisiseka (comprehension); Vuswikoti bya ku
tsala: vuswikoti bya ku tsala kahle hi rivilo leri faneleke na ku tsala leswi nga
swona eka swilaveko swa ntirho wa kona.

Foreign language (FL) A language to which a learner has very limited contact outside the classroom.

Ririmi ra le handle (FL) Ririmi leri mudyondzi a nga hlanganiku na rona ngopfu ehandle ka tlilasi.

Formative assessment Assessment that takes places continually throughout the year or course.

Nkambelo wo ya emahlweni Nkambelo lowu wu endliwaka mikarhi hinkwayo exikarhi ka lembe kumbe khoso.
Fossilisation In second language learning, a state where persistent errors in a learner’s
additional language occur and are hard to overcome.

Swihoxo swa mikarhi Swihoxo leswi swi endlekaka mikarhi hinkwayo eka mudyondzi eka ririmi ro
hinkwayo eka ririmi ngetela ra mudyondzi.
(fossilisation)

Functional literacy Reading and writing skills that are adequate to manage daily living and
employment tasks that require literacy skills.

Functional literacy Vuswikoti bya ku hlaya na ku tsala leswi swi ringaneleke leswaku munhu a kota
ku lawula swiendlo swa yena swa ntolovelo na mitirho leyi yi lavaku leswaku
munhu a va na vuswikoti bya litheresi ku nga ku tsala na ku hlaya.

Genre A group of texts which have the same purpose or audience, and share certain
textual and linguistic features. For example, texts in the business email genre
have the purpose to give or request information, the audience is usually
someone at the workplace, and the emails will use the same format (a subject
header, main body, salutation).

Ntlawa wa matsalwa Mitlawa ya matsalwa lama ya nga na xikongomelo xin’we kumbe vahlayi van’we,
na swona ya na na swiyenge swo karhi swa matsalwa na tifichara ta ririmi swo
fana. Xikombiso, matsalwa ya swa imeyili eka mabindzu ya na xikongomelo xa ku
nyiketa kumbe ku kombela vutivi, na swona muamukeri wa mahungu i munhu
loyi a nga le ntirhweni, na swona tiimeyili ti na fomati yo fana (ku nga
nhlokomhaka, mirhi na nxeweto).

Genre pedagogy The instructional approach in which teachers familiarise learners with different
texts by teaching them the format and writing conventions of various text
genres.

Genre pedagogy Mapfelelo ya vudyondzisi laha mathicara va tolovetaka vadyondzi hi matsalwa

mo hambana hi ku va dyondzisa fomati na maendlelo ma matsalelo ya tinxaka to
hambana ta matsalwa.

Grammatical competence See linguistic competence.

Vuswikoti bya girama Languta eka vuswikoti bya lingwistiki.

Grapheme Symbols used in writing. In an alphabet, graphemes refer to letters.

Girafimi Mimfungho leyi yi tirhisiwaka eka ku tsala. Eka alifabete, tigirafimi ku

kongomisiwa eka maletere.

Habit An automatic response to a particular stimulus.

Ntolovelo Vuanguri bya othometiki eka xiyimo xo karhi.

High-frequency words A collection of the most common words in a language measured by their
frequency of occurrence in written or spoken corpora.

Marito yo Nhlengelo wa marito yo toloveleka swinene eka ririmi lama ya pimiwaka hi ku

toloveleka swinene tirhisiwa ka wona ngopfu eka matsalwa na le ka khopora ya mbulavulo.

Hypothesis A hypothesis is a claim or proposed explanation about a single observed or

expected phenomenon.

Hayipothesisi Hayipothesisi i nkoxo kumbe nhlamuselo leyi ringanyetiwaka hi nchumu wun’we

lowu voniweke kumbe nchumu lowu rindzeriweke.

Implicit learning Implicit learning happens unconscious or is presumed from the context.

Ku dyondza lo ku nga Ku dyondza loku ku tiendlekelaku hi koxe kumbe loku ku tekiwaka hi leswo
kunguhatiwangiki ka endleka eka xiyimo xo karhi.

Incidental learning Learning of information or ability as a by-product of focusing on another

learning activity. For example, learning vocabulary while being engaged in
reading for meaning.

Ku dyondza ko tiendlekela Ku dyondza hi vutivi kumbe vuswikoti hikokwalaho ka swin’wana kumbe

nghingiriko wun’wana wo dyondza kambe wu dyondzisa swin’wana swo
hambana. Xikombso, ku dyondza vhokhebulari hi nkarhi wa ku dyondza ku
hlayela ku twisisa nhlamuselo.

Indirect testing Tasks that test abilities that underlie the skills used in the assessment.

Xikambelwana xo ka Mitirho leyi yi kambelaka vuswikoti lebyi byi fambisanaka na ku tirhisiwa eka
xi nga kongomangi asesimente.
Inferencing Information derived from texts that is not stated explicitly but is deduced from
elements in the text and from our background knowledge.

Inferencing Vutivi lebyi kumekaku eka matsalwa kambe lebyi nga hlamuseriwangiki hi ndlela
leyi nga rivaleni kambe byi kumeka eka tielemente ta matsalwa na le ka vutivi
lebyi hi nga na byona bya khale.

Information gap task A task where only some learners have the information that is required to
complete an activity.

Information gap task Ntirho laha vadyondzi van’wana va nga na vutivi lebyi byi lavekaka eka ku hetisa
nghingiriko.

Initial bilingualism The use of both the first language and additional language in the classroom in
the early school years.

Initial bilingualism Ku tirhisiwa ka ririmi ro sungula na ro ngetela etlilasini eka malembe ya dyondzo
ya le hansi.

Input hypothesis Asserts that learners acquire language when they are exposed to language that
is comprehensible.

Input hypothesis Yi tiyisa leswo vadyondzi va dyondza ririmi loko va hlangana na ririmi leri ri
twisisekaku eka vona.

Instrumental motivation The state of being interested in learning the additional language to further other
goals such as employment or to complete a qualification.

Ku dyondzela Xiyimo laha mudyondzi a lavaka ku dyondza ririmi ro ngetela ku endlela ku yisa
xikongomelo xo karhi emahlweni swikongomelo swo fana na ku kuma ntirho kumbe ku huta tidyondzo
ta yena..

Integrative motivation The state of being interested in the people and culture of the additional
language and desiring to establish closer contacts with native speakers of the
additional language.

Integrative motivation Xiyimo xa ku tsakela ku tiva hi vanhu na mimfuwo ya vona eka ririmi ro ngetela
na ku navela ku va na vuxaka na vanhu va mfuwo wa vavulavuri va ririmi ro
ngetela.
Intensive reading program A reading program where each text is read thoroughly, and repeatedly until
completely understood.

Nongonoko wa ku Nongonoko wa ku hlaya laha tsalwa na tsalwa ri hlayiwaka hi vuenti, na swona

hlaya hi vuenti hi ku vuyelela ri kala ri twisiseka hi ku helela.

Interactive reading The process between an adult and child of actively engaging while reading a text.

Interactive reading Endlelo exikarhi ka munhu lonkulu na n’wana laha ku nga na ku burisana hi
tsalwa leri hlayiwaka.

Intercultural communication Interaction that happens between people which is influenced by differing
cultural conventions.

Vutihlanganisi bya Ku khumbana loku ku humelelaka exikarhi ka vanhu loku ku kuceteriwaka

mimfumo yo hambana hi mafambiselo ya mimfuwo yo hambana.

Interference When structures in the first language and the additional language differ
substantially, and the learner imposes first language patterns on the additional
language.

Vukavanyeti Loko swivumbeko eka ririmi ro sungula na ririmi ro ngetela swi hambana
swinene, kasi mudyondzi a nghenisa tiphetheni ta ririmi ro sungula eka ririmi ro
ngetela.

Interlanguage A learner’s developing language which contains characteristics of the learner’s

first language and characteristics of the second/additional language, as well as
some characteristics that fall between the two languages

Interlanguage Loko ririmi ra mudyondzi leri dyondziwaka ri ri na swihlawulekisi swa ririmi ro

sungula ra mudyondzi na swihlawulekisi swa ririmi ro ngetela, na ku tlhela ri va
na swihlawulekisi leswi swi welaka exikarhi ka tindzimi timbirhi.

Interlingual errors Errors caused by the differences between the first language and the additional
language.

Swihoxo swa tindzimi to Swihoxo leswi vangiweke hi ku hambana exikarhi ka ririmi ro sungula na ririmi
hambana ro ngetela.
Interlingual transfer The shift of a linguistic item or structure from the first language to the
additional language.

Interlingual transfer Ntshukontshuko lowu humelelaka eka ayitheme ya ririmi kumbe xivumbeko ku
suka eka ririmi ro sungula ku ya eka ririmi ro ngetela.

Intralingual transfer The shift of a linguistic item or structure within the additional language.

Intralingual transfer Ku cinca ko karhi ka ririmi kumbe xivumbeko endzeni ka ririmi ro ngetela.

Language acquisition The unconscious and natural process of gaining competence in a language.

Vudyondzi bya ririmi Maendlelo yo tiendlekela kunene na ya ntumbuluko ya vuswikoti bya ririmi.

Language acquisition A theoretical construct, proposed by Chomsky, that makes it possible to acquire
device (LAD) language. Also called the inborn language faculty, it later developed into
Universal Grammar (UG).

Language acquisition Vuaki bya thiyori, leyi yi humesiweke hi Chomsky, leyi yi endlaka leswaku swi
device (LAD) koteka ku dyondza ririmi. Yi tlhela yi vuriwa fakhalithi leyi munhu a velekiwaka
na yona ya ririmi, kasi ka ndzhaku yi pfuneta leswi vuriwaka Universal Grammar
(UG).

Language anxiety The fear a person feels when they are not fully proficient in the AL but they are
in a situation that requires use of the AL.

Nkarhateko hi ririmi Nchavo lowu munhu a titwaka a ri na wona loko a nga ri na vutivi kahle hi ririmi
leri a ri dyondzaka kambe xiyimo xi lavaka leswaku u tirhisa ririmi relero u ri
dyondzaka.

Language aptitude The extent to which one has the ability to learn new languages.

Apitichudi ya ririmi Mfikelelo wa laha munhu a nga na vuswikoti bya ku dyondza tindzimi letintshwa.

Language learning The deliberate and effortful task of gaining competence in a language.

Ku dyondzo ririmi Matshalatshala na migingiriko ya vomu yo tikarhatela ku dyondza ririmi.

Language of learning A South African term to refer to the language which is the medium
and teaching (LoLT) of instruction in a classroom.

Language of learning Theme ra Afrika-Dzonga leri vulaka ririmi leri ri tirhisiwaka ku dyondzisa
and teaching (LoLT) etlilasini.

Language Planning The concerted effort to influence the function, structure or acquisition of
language in a linguistic community.

Nkunguhato wa ririmi Matshalatshala yotala yo kucetela ku tirha, xivumbeko na ku dyondziwa ka ririmi

eka vaaki.

Language planning Measures to influence how languages are used within the education sector.
-in-education

Nkunguhato wa Matirhelo ya ku kucetela leswo xana ririmi ri ta tirhisiwa ku yini eka xiyenge
ririmi eka dyondzo xa dyondzo.

Language Policy A policy which determines how languages should be used and cultivated in
specific contexts.

Pholisi ya ririmi Pholisi leyi yi vekaka leswaku ririmi ri fanele ri tirhisiwa ku yini na swona ri
khutaziwa njhani eka swiyimo swo karhi.

Learner autonomy A learner's ability to take responsibility for their own learning and to set goals
that would improve their performance.

Vutiyimeri bya mudyondzi Vuswikoti bya mudyondzi ku teka vutihlamuleri eka ku dyondza ka yena na ku
veka swikongomelo leswi swi nga ta pfuneta matirhelo ya yena.

Learning strategies Specific methods or techniques that learners use to tackle a particular task or to
solve a problem.

Tipulani ta ku dyondza maendlelo yo karhi kumbe tithekiniki leti tirhiswaka hi vadyondzi ku langutana
na ntirho wo karhi kumbe ku tlhantlha xirhalanganyi.

Learning styles The fairly characteristic way in which a learner approaches a learning
environment or engages in the learning process.
Switayele swa ku dyondzo Ndlela leyi yi tihlawulekisaku laha mudyondzi a pfelelaku mbangu wa ku
dyondza kumbe ku langutana na swilo eka endlelo ra ku dyondza.

Lexeme A meaningful unit in a language, consisting of a word or group of words. A

single-word lexeme (e.g. talk) may have a number of inflectional forms (talks,
talked, talking). A multiword lexeme consist of more than one orthographic
word (e.g. speak up).

Lexeme Yuniti leyi nga na nhlamuselo eka ririmi, yi nga va rito kumbe ntlawa wa marito.
Lexeme ya rito rin’we (xik., /vulavula) yi nga va na swiyenge swo hambana swo
hlayanyana ( mimbulavulo/ leswi vulavuriweke/ ku vulavula). Lexeme ya marito
manyingi yi nga va ya matsaleloi ya rito rin’we kumbe ku tlula (xik., /vulavulela
ehenhla).

Lexicon The complete set of meaningful units in a language; a language's inventory of

lexemes.

Mavulavulelo Tiyuniti leti heleleke leti nga na nhlamusel eka ririmi; nongonoko wa
o
mavulavulelo ma marito ma ririmi.

Lexical access Being able to recall the meaning of a word from memory, as it is stored in the
lexicon.

Lexical access Ku kota ku tsundzuka nhlamuselo ya rito hi ku tsundzuka, hikuva yi hlayisiwile

eka lexicon.

Linguistic competence The ability to correctly apply the phonological, grammatical and pragmatic rules
of a language.

Vuswikoti bya ririmi Vuswikoti bya ku tirhisa kahle milawu ya fonoloji, girama na matirhiselonene ya
ririmi.

Literacy Literacy at the most basic level refers to the ability to read and write. It can also
refer to more general knowledge or ability in an area. For example, emergent
literacy refers to one’s early ideas about reading and writing, and digital literacy
refers to an ability to use digital platforms to access and share information.

Litheresi Litheresi eka levhele ya masungulo swi vula vuswikoti bya ku hlaya na ku tsala.
Swi nga tlhela swi vula na vutivi byo nava kumbe vutivi eka xiyenge xo karhi.
Xikombiso, litheresi leyi ya ha sungulaka yi vula miehleketo ya munhu yo
 sungula hi ku hlaya na ku tsala, na litheresi ya dijitali leyi vulaka vuswikoti bya
ku tirhisa tipulatifomo ta dijitali ku fikelela ku avelana mahungu.

Logical relations/ The relationship between two concepts within or across sentences.
semantic relations

Vuxakelani bya lojiki/ Vuxaka exikarhi ka tikhonsepe timbirhi kumbe exikarhi ka swivula.
vuxakelani bya semantiki

Macro language planning Language planning on a large scale (for example at state level).

Nkunguhato wa ririmi Nkunguhato wa ririmi eka xiyenge lexikulu (xikombiso, ku nga va eka xiyenge
eka xiyimo xa le henhla xa mfumo).

Macrostructure The conventional or expected text structure of a genre.

Xivumbekonkulu Xivumbeko xa ntolovelo kumbe xivumbeko lexi rindzeriweke xa muxaka wa

tsalwa.

Mainstream When learners who are not first language speakers of the target language are
integrative support grouped with native speakers and receive language support during lessons.

Mainstream Loko vadyondzi lava va nga ri ku va vulavuri va ririmi ro sungula

integrative support va ntlawahatiwa na vavulavuri va ririmi ro sungula na swona va kuma nseketelo
hi nkarhi wa tidyondzo.

Matthew effect The phenomenon where children with lower levels of a skill (such as reading)
are less inclined to practice the skill and as a result further entrench low levels
of the skill.

Matthew effect Fenominoni laha vana lava va nga na vuswikoti bya swiyenge swa le hansi (swo
fana na ku hlaya) va nga kolovelanga xikili kutani hikokwalaho ka sweswo kutani
hikwalaho ka swaleswo va ya ehansi hi vupfumari bya xikili.

Medium of The language of teaching and learning that teachers and learners use at a
instruction school.

Midiyamu ya ku Ririmi ra ku dyondzisa na ku dyondza leri mathicara na vadyondzi va ri tirhisaka

dyondza eswikolweni eswikolweni.
Metacognition Awareness and understanding of cognitive processes.

Metacognition Vulemuki na ntwisiso wa maendlelo ya swa mianakanyo na miehleketo.

Metacognitive strategies A learner’s ability to think about what is happening during learning and to plan,
monitor and evaluate their learning.

Maendleloi ya Vuswikoti bya mudyondzi ku ehleketa hi leswi swi humelelaku hi nkarhi wa ku

metacognitive dyondza na ku kunguhata, ku monithara na ku evhaluweyita ku dyondza ka vona.

Method A teaching technique used and perpetuated by supporters of a particular

theoretical understanding.

Methodi Maendlelo ya ku dyondzisa lama ai tirhisiwaka no yisiwa emahlweni hi

vaseketeri va thiyori ya ntwisiso wo karhi.

Micro language planning Language planning on a small scale (e.g. family language planning).

Nkunguhato wa ririmi Nkunguhato wa ririmi eka xiyenge xitsongo (xik., nkunguhato wa ririmi eka
eka xiyenge xitsongo ndyangu).

Mistakes Incorrect utterances that occur when a learner knows how to use the particular
word or construction correctly, but due to inattention, fatigue, anxiety or
nervousness produce an incorrect utterance.

Swihoxo Swivulavulo leswi nga hoxeka leswi swi endlekaka loko mudyondzi a tiva
matirhiselo ya rito kumbe mavumbekelo ya rona kahle, kambe hi ku ka a nga ri
na vuxiyaxiyi, a karhele, a karhatekile, ku va na nyanyuko, a humesa mbulavulo
wo hoxeka.

Model A model describes processes or sets of processes related to a phenomenon and

how different components of a phenomenon interact.

Modlele Modlele wu hlamusela maendlelo kumbe tinxaka ta maendlelo leti fambisanaka

na fenominoni na leswo swiyenge swa fenominoni swi xakelana njhani.
Modified interaction When first language speakers adjust their speech when communicating with an
additional language speaker.

Modified interaction Loko vavulavuri va ririmi ro sungula va hunguta mbulavulo wa vona loko va
vulavula na vavulavuri va ririmi ro ngetela.

Monitor hypothesis Asserts that learners use the grammar rules of a language as an editor, allowing
them to correct errors while communicating.

Hayipothesisi ya ku Yi tiyisa leswo vadyondzi va tirhisa milawu ya matsalelo ya ririmi tanihi vahleri,
monithara ku pfumelela leswo va lulamisa swihoxo loko va karhi va vulavula na van’wana.

Monolingualism Fluency of a speaker in only one language.

Ntivoririmi rin’we Vuswikoti bya muvulavuri eka ririmi rin’we ntsena.

Monolingual classroom A classroom where only one language is used for teaching and learning.

Tlilasi ya ririmi rin’we Tlilasi laha ku tirhisiwaka ririmi rin’we ntsena ku dyondzisa na ku dyondza.

Morpheme The smallest meaningful unit of language. For example, unkind consists of two
morphemes, kind (root/stem word) and un- (negative prefix).

Mofimi I xiphemu xitsongo xa ririmi lexi nga na nhlamuselo. Xikombiso, unkind yi na

timofimi timbirhi, kind (root/stem word) na un- (negative prefix).

Morphology The study of the structure of words and how they are formed (see Morpheme).

Mofoloji I dyondzo ya xivumbeko xa marito na leswi ya vumbisiwaka xi swona (vona

mofimi).

Motivation Inner drive or desire that moves someone to a particular action.

Nsusumeto Nchumu wa wa le ndzeni kumbe ku navela loku ku susumetaka munhu ku teka

goza ro karhi.

Multilingualism The ability of a speaker to communicate in more than two languages.

Ntivotinyiminyingi Vuswikoti bya muvulavuri ku vulavula tindzimi to tlula timbirhi.

Multilingual classroom A classroom where more than two languages are used for communicating.

Tlilasi ya tinyiminyingi Tlilasi laha ku tirhisiwaka tindzimi to tlula timbirhi eka ku vulavurisana.

Multiple intelligences Different types of abilities which can be developed during a person’s life
(including verbal, logical, spatial, musical, kinaesthetic, interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligences).

Multiple intelligences Tinxaka to hambana ta vuswikoti lebyi byi nga hluvukisiwaka eka vutomi bya
munhu (ku katsa mbulavulo, lojiki, vundhawu, tinsimui, kinaesthetic, na vutlhari
bya ku xakelana na vanhu van’wana.

Narrative texts A text type that is characterised by stories and that is mainly fictional.

Matsalwa ya vurunguli Muxaka wa matsalwa lowu wu tihlawulekisaka hi switori, leswi hakanyingi swi
nga switori swa fikixini kumbe minchumu leyi nga humeleriki hikunene.

Natural order hypothesis The Natural order hypothesis states that learners acquire grammar rules in a
specific order and not necessarily in the order in which they are taught.

Natural order hypothesis Natural order hypothesis yi vula leswo vadyondzi va dyondza milawu ya girama
(matsalelo na mavulavulelo) hi nxaxamelo wo karhi na swona ku nga ri ntsena hi
nxaxamelo wa leswi va dyondzisiwaka hi swona.

Negative transfer When structures in the first language and the additional language differ
substantially, and the learner imposes the first language patterns on the
additional language.

Negative transfer Loko swivumbeko eka ririmi ro sungula na ririmi ro ngetela swi hambanile
swinene, na swona mudyondzi a sungula ku nghenisa tiphetheni ta ririmi ro
sungula eka ririmi ro ngetela.

Norm Refers to a skill level that is typically expected based on information from many
people. For example, the norm is that children produce their first two-word
sentence around the age of two.

Ntolovelo Swi vula levhele ya xikili lexi xi rindzeriweke hi ku landza vutivi byo huma eka
vanhu vanyingi. Xikombiso, ntolovelo hi leswo vana va sungula ku humesa
xivulwa xa marito mambirhi loko va ri na malembe mambirhi.
Norm-referenced testing Learner performance reported as a score which indicates a learner’s ability in
relation to other learners’ abilities.

Ntoloveloxikambelo Matirhelo ya mudyondzi lama ya vekiwaka tanihi xikoro lexi xi kombisaka

vuswikoti bya mudyondzi mayelana na vuswikoti bya vadyondzi van’wana.

Observable behaviour These are actions that can be seen, e.g. talking, gesturing, smiling, yawning etc.

Hanyelo leri vonakaku Leswi i magoza lama ya vonakaka, xik., (ku vulavula, ku endla no kombisa hi
mavoko na xikandza, ku n’wayitela, ku ahlamula, na swin’wana swo tano).

Opaque orthography Written language in which the spelling of words is inconsistent and where a
one-to-one relationship between graphemes and phonemes does not occur.

Opaque orthography Ririmi leri tsariweke laha ku peleta ka marito ku nga fambelaniku na vuxakelani
bya grafimi na timofimi.

Overgeneralisation When a learner applies a rule learnt elsewhere in inappropriate contexts.

Ku pima ku tlurisa Loko mudyondzi a tirhisa nawu wa ririmi lowu nga dyondziwa kun’wana eka
swiyimo leswi swi nga fanelangiki.

Overt errors Errors that are clearly incorrect, for example subject-verb agreement errors.

Swihoxa swa le rivaleni Swihoxo leswi swi nga le rivaleni , xikombiso, loko xitwananisi xi nga fambelani
na riendli.

Parallel processing mode The simultaneous processing of language in terms of decoding and
comprehension in order to derive meaning during reading.

Parallel processing mode Maendlelo ma nkarhi wun’we ma ririmi hi ku landza decoding na ntwisiso
leswaku u ta kuma nhlamuselo hi nkarhi wa ku hlaya.

Performance Actual (and often flawed) use of a language in real situations.

Matirhelo Matirhelo ya nkarhi wolowo (lama ya talaka ku va ya hoxekile) lama ya

endlekaka eka swiyimo swa xiviri.
Personality traits Aspects of a person’s character that they are born with.

Personality traits Swihlawulekisi swa munhu leswi munhu a velekiwaka na swona.

Phonemic awareness The understanding that a word is made up of a series of discrete phonemes; a
subskill of phonological awareness.

Vulemuki hi tifonemiki Ntwisiso wa leswaku rito ri endliwa hi nxaxameto wa tifonimi; ku nga vulemuki
bya swikili swa fonoloji.

Phonemic segmentation The ability to break words down into their component parts at the phoneme
level.

Kavanyisiwa ka fonemiki Vuswikoti byo tlhanhla rito hi swiyenge swa rona eka levhele ya fonimi.

Phonics approach An instructional approach in which children are explicitly taught sound-symbol
correspondences in their language and how to use them to decode unfamiliar
words.

Mapfelelo hi foniki Mapfelelo ya ku dyondzisa laha vana va dyondzisiwaka mfambelano wa

mimfungo ya mpfumawulo eka ririmi ra vona na leswaku leswi va swi tirhisa ku
yini ku dikhoda marito lama ya nga tolovelekangiki.

Phonics instruction The process of developing phonemic awareness and phonemic analysis through
explicit teaching of letter-sound correspondences.

Madyondziselo ya foniki Endlelo ra ku tiyisa vulemuki ya fonemiki na nxopaxopo wa fonemiki hi ku

dyondzisa hi ndlela leyi nga rivaleni ku fambelana ka mpfumawulo na letere.

Phonological awareness Being able to hear and manipulate the sounds of your language e.g. knowing
that dog starts with the /d/ sound and that there are three syllables in butterfly.

Vulemuki hi fonoloji Ku kota ku twa na ku tirhana na mimpfumawulo ya ririmi ra wena, xikombiso, ku

tiva leswaku rito ra dog ri sungula hi mpfumawulo wa /d/ na leswaku ku na
mapeletwana manharhu eka butterfly (damu ri sungula hi mpfumawulo wa /d/
na leswaku ku na mapeletwana manharhu eka rito ra basisa).

Plurilingualism Plurilingualism is the ability to communicate in multiple languages. The

difference with multilingualism is that plurilingualism is less about the level of
 fluency and competency and more about the ongoing ability to use multiple
language repertoires for specific purposes.

Puluralingwalizimu Puluralingwalizimu i vuswikoti bya ku vulavula no tirhisa tindzimi to hlaya. Ku

hambana eka ntivotindziminyingi (multilingualism) na puluralingwalizimu hi
leswaku puluralingwalizimu a yi mayelana na levhele ya vuswikoti bya tindzimi
kambe yi mayelana na vuswikoti lebyi ya ka emahlweni bya ku tirhisa tindzimi to
hlaya hi xikongomelo xo karhi.

Pragmalinguistic failure Occurs when speech act strategies are inappropriately transferred from the first
language to and additional language.

Pragmalinguistic failure Leswi swi endleka loko switiratheji swa xipici kumbe mbulavulo swi
hundziseriwa eka ririmi rin’wana hi ndlela leyi nga ri ku yona ku suka eka ririmi
ro sungula ku ya eka ririmi ro ngetela.

Pragmatics The study of how language is used in real-life communication, by considering

the context.

Pragmatics I dyondzo kumbe ndzavisiso wa leswaku xana ririmi ri tirhisiwa ku yini eka
vutihlanganisi kumbe mbulavurisano wa xiyimo xa xiviri, hi ku langutisisa xiyimo
laha ririmi ri tirhisiwaka kona.

Primary language The language that a child learns first and maintains throughout life or the
language a person uses most regularly.

Ririmi ro velekiwa na rona Ririmi leri n’wana a sungulaka ku dyondza hi rona na swona leri ri tirhisiwaka
eka vutomi hinkwabyo bya munhu, kumbe ririmi leri munhu a ri tirhisaku
hakanyingi.

Principled eclecticism A teacher’s considered use of various teaching techniques to achieve the
planned outcome (e.g. communicative competence).

Principles eclecticism Tithekiniki to karhi leti ti tirhisiwaka hi tichara eka ku dyondzisa ku fikelela
mimbuyelo yo karhi leyi kunguhatiweke (xik., vuswikoti bya ku vulavurisana na
van’wana).
Process The stages followed during the act of writing which include planning, writing,
editing, rewriting and publishing.

Maendlelo Switeji leswi swi landzeleriwaka hi nkarhi wa ku tsala, leswi swi katsaka ku
kunguhata, ku tsala, ku hlela, ku tlhela nakambe u tsala na ku kandziyisa (ku
phabulixa)

Product The text created as a result of the act of writing.

Xiendliwa/Xikumiwa Tsalwa leri endliwaka tanihi vuyelo bya goza ra ku tsala.

Reading fluency A reader’s ability to read (silently or aloud) with few errors and hesitations, to
group words into meaningful units and to read with expression.

Vuswikoti bya ku hlaya Vuswikoti bya muhlayi ku hlaya (ku hlaya a miyerile kumbe ku hlayela ehenhla)
hi ku endla swihoxo switsongo kumbe ku nga kanakani, ku ntlawahata marito ku
va tiyuniti leti nga na nhlamuselo na swona ku hlaya hi ku kombisa ku twisisa.

Reading instruction stage The phase in a child’s academic development in which formal literacy instruction
begins.

Xiteji xa ntwisiso wa ku hlaya Xiteji eka nhluvuko wa n’wana eka swa dyondzo laha ku sungulaka dyondzo ya
litheresi leyi kunguhatiweke.

Reading readiness The skills required to create ideal conditions for a child to begin learning to read.

Ku lulamela ku hlaya Swikili leswi lavekaka ku vanga xiyimo xa leswaku n’wana a sungula ku dyondza
ku hlaya.

Reading speed An individual’s rate of oral or silent reading as measured in words per minute.

Rivilo ra ku hlaya Rivilo ra munhu ra ku hlayela ehenhla kumbe ku hlaya a miyerile leswi pimiwaka
hi marito hi minete.

Realia Objects used in lessons to demonstrate phenomena in the real world.

Realia Swilo swo khomeka leswi tirhisiwaka eka tidyondzo ku kombisa swilo eka misava
ya xiviri.
Recast The process of repeating a learner’s incorrect utterance, but making changes
that convert the error to a linguistically correct utterance.

Recast Maendlelo ma ku phindaphinda mbulavulo wa swihoxo xa mudyondzi, kambe hi

ku endla ku cinca loku cincaka xihoxo ku va mbulavulo wa leswi nga hoxekangiki.

Reliability Refers to how consistently a test measures the construct of interest. Reliability
applies to the items in the test, as well as to the raters (scorers) and how
consistently the test is scored.

Reliability Swi vula mikarhi yo fanana leyi xikambelwana xi kambelaku vumbekelo ra

ntsakelo. Reliability yi tirha eka tiayitheme eka xikambelwana, xikan’we na
vanyiketi va swikoro na leswaku xana xikambelwana xi tirhisiwa ku fanana ka
ngani.

Referent A word in a text that has a logical relationship to another word in the same text.

Referent Rito eka tsalwa leri nga na vuxaka bya lojiki na rito rin’wana eka tsalwa ro fana.

Reproductive function The purpose of the written word to preserve information as faithfully as
possible of literacy so that established knowledge can be reproduced.

Reproductive function Xikongomelo xa rito leri tsariweke ku hlayisa mahungu (vuxokoxoko) hi ku

tshembeka hilaha swi nga fikeleriwaka kona leswo litheresi yi va vutivi lebyi nga
kona na lebyi byi nga tlhelaku byi humesiwa nakambe.

Restructuring in L2 learning Restructuring is the process by which learners change their interlanguage
system and restructure that system.

Restructuring in L2 learning Restructuring i maendlelo lama vadyondzi va cincaka kona sisiteme ya ririmi na
ku aka nakambe sisiteme yeleyo.

Risk-taking A person’s willingness to express themselves in the additional language even

though they are not fully proficient.

Risk-taking Ku tiyimisela ka munhu ku vulavula eka ririmi leri ngeteriweke hambiloko a nga
si ri tiva swinene.
Scaffolding The support given to a learner to move them from their current ability to
greater proficiency and independence.

Xikhafula Nseketelo lowu nyikiwaka mudyondzi ku va a susa eka vutivi lebyi va nga na
byona sweswi ku ya eka xiyenge xa le henhla xa vutivi na ku tiyimela.

Second language (L2) Any language learnt after the first language which is used for particular
purposes (such as access to business or education), or which carries particular
social status.

Ririmi ra vumbirhi (R2) Ririmi rin’wana na rin’wana leri dyondziweke endzhaku ka ririmi ro sungula, leri
ri tirhiseriwaka swikongomelo swo karhi (swo fana na ku fikelela bindzu kumbe
dyondzo) kumbe leri ri nga na xiyimo xa le henhla xo karhi eka vanhu.

Segment The skill of breaking up and sounding out a word according to its phonemes.

Xipetlu Xikili xa ku tlhanhla rito na mpfumawulo hi ku landza tifonimi.

Short-term memory A temporary storage facility used during cognitive processing to store auditory
and visual information.

Ntsundzuko wa xinkadyana Fasiliti ya xinkadyana ya ku hlayisa leyi yi tirhiseriwaka maendlelo ma

mianakanyo ku hlayisa vutivi lebyi twiwaka na lebyi vonakaku.

Sight words Words which need to be recognized by sight rather than read letter by letter
because they are spelled irregularly, e.g. sugar, island (note to translators –
these examples need to remain in English).

Marito yo vonaka Marito lama ya faneleke ku tsundzukiwa hi ku ma vona ku nga ri hi ku hlaya

letere hi letere hikuva a ya peletiwi ku fana, xikombiso, sugar, island.

Self-efficacy A learner's own belief in their ability to acquire language skills in an additional
language.

Self-efficacy Xikholwa xa mudyondzi hi yexe eka vuswikoti bya yena ku dyondza swikili eka
ririmi ro ngetela.
Semilingualism When an individual is not fully proficient in any of the languages they have
acquired, resulting in partial knowledge of two or more languages.

Semilingualism Loko munhu a nga ri na vutivi lebyi heleleke eka ririmi rin’wana na rin’wana leri
a nga ri dyondza, leswi swi endlaku leswaku a va na vutivi byo ka byi nga
helelangi eka tindzimi timbirhi kumbe ku tlula.

Sequentiality The movement of the eyes during reading word for word across the page in a
particular direction (such as from left to right).

Sequentiality Ku fambafamba ka mahlo hi nkarhi wa ku hlaya rito na rito eka pheji hi ndlela yo
karhi, (ko fana na ku suka eka ximatsi ku ya ra ku dya).

Socioaffective strategies Interacting with interlocutors in additional language communicative situations

and taking steps to ensure that the message is conveyed effectively.

Socioaffective strategies Ku vulavurisana na vavulavuri hi ririmi ro ngetela eka swiyimo swa

mbulavurisano na ku teka magoza ya ku tiyisa leswaku hungu ri hundziseriwa
eka wun’wana hi ndlela leyi faneleke na leyi heleleke.

Sociolect A dialect associated with a particular social group (such as a socio-economic

group, an age group or a religious group).

Sociolect Xindzin’wana lexi famberisiwanaku na ntlawa wo karhi wa vanhu (ku fana na

ntlawa wa va xiyimo xo karhi eka ikhonomi, ntlawa wa tintangha kumbe ntlawa
wa vugandzeri.

Sociolinguistic competence The ability to negotiate meaning in culturally appropriate ways.

Vuswikoti bya Vuswikoti bya ku tirhana na tinhlamuselo hi tindlela leti faneleke ta mfuwo.
soxiyolingwistiki

Sociopragmatic failure Occurs when additional language speakers transfer social rules from their first
language and culture to the target language in an inappropriate manner.

Sociopragmatic failure Swi endleka loko vavulavuri va ririmi ro ngetela va hundzisela milawu ya ririmi ro
sungula eka mfuwo wa ririmi leri va ri dyondzaku hi ndlela yo ka yi nga ri yona.
Speech act theory The study of the performative function of utterances in communication.

Speech act theory Dyondzo kumbe ndzavisiso hi ntirho wa swivuriwa eka ku vulavurisana.

Speech event A set of utterances made in communication.

Speech event Swivuriwa swo karhi eka mbulavurisano.

Storybook reading When a child and an adult are jointly focused on the common activity of reading
a storybook, during which they interact and the adult mediates the meaning of
the text for the child.

Ku hlaya buku ya switorhi Loko n’wana na munhu lonkulu va ri ku tshikileleni ka nghingiriko wo hlaya buku
ya switori, hi nkarhi wolowo va ri karhi va tirhisana na swona munhu lonkulu a
hlamusela n’wana tinhlamuselo eka tsalwa.

Story scheme The structure of narrative texts.

Xikimu xa xitori Xivumbeko xa ndzungulo eka matsalwa.

Strategic competence A component of communicative competence which refers to the ability to

overcome difficulties when communication breakdowns occurs, using verbal
and non-verbal tools.

Strategic competence Xiyenge xa vuswikoti bya mbulavurisano lexi xi vulaka vuswikoti bya ku tlhantlha
swirhalanganyi loko ku va na ku kala ntwisisano eka mbulavurisano, ku tirhisa
mathulusi ya marito kumbe yo kala marito.

Subtractive bilingualism The situation in which the additional language is learned at the expense of the
first language.

Subtractive bilingualism Xiyimo laha ku dyondziwaka ririmi ro ngetela kambe leswi swi kayiveta eka ririmi
ro sungula.

Summative assessment Assessment that takes the form of a single, credit-bearing task which takes place
at the end of a year or qualification and which measures overall competence.

Summative assessment Asesimente leyi yi endliwaka kan’we, na swona yi nyiketa mipimo, leyi yi
(xikambelo) endliwaka ekuheleni ka lembe kumbe khwalifikhexini na swona leyi yi pimaka
vuswikoti hi ku helela.

Syntax Grammar rules of a language which determine the way words can be combined
to form sentences.

Vulongoloxamarito (syntax) Milawu ya grama ya ririmi leyi yi vekaka leswo marito ma nga hlanganisiwa ku
yini ku endla swivulwa.

Target language (TL) The additional language which is being learnt.

Target language (TL) Ririmi ro ngetela leri dyondziwaka.

Text structure The overall organisation of information in a text.

Xivumbeko xa tsalwa Makondletelo ya mahungu eka tsalwa.

Theme The main idea (or gist) of a text.

Nkongomelo (theme) Muehleketo wukulu (mongo) wa tsalwa.

Theory A theory is a set of statements about natural phenomena that explains why
these phenomena occur the way they do. A theory can make predictions and
contains multiple hypotheses based on generalizations.

Thiyori Thiyori i sete ya switatimende hi fenomina ya ntumbuluko leyi yi hlamuselaka

leswaku hikokwalaho ka yini fenomina yi endleka hi ndlela leyi yi endlekaku hi
yona. Thiyori yi nga pimanyeta leswi nga ta endleka na swona yi na tihayiphosisi
tinyingi leti endliwaka hi ku angarhela swin’wana.

Top-down processes Higher-order processes of reading which move from comprehension down to
the basic processes of decoding.

Prosese yo suka Maendlelo ma xiyenge xa le henhla xa ku hlaya leswi sukelaku eka ku twisisa ku
ehenhla ku ya ehansi ya eka maendlelo ma masungulo ma decoding.

Transformative The purpose of the written word to transform knowledge by offering new
function of literacy ways of seeing the world and challenging existing knowledge.
Ntirho wa vuhundzuluxi Xikongomelo xa rito leri tsariweke ku hundzuluxa vutivi hi ku nyiketa tindlela
bya litheresi tintshwa ta ku vona misava na ku va ntlhontlho eka vutivi lebyi byi nga kona.

Transitional stage The phase in a learner’s academic development in which the emphasis changes
from learning to read to reading to learn.

Transitional stage Xiyenge eka ku hluvuka ka mudyondzi laha ku tshikilela swi cincaku ku suka eka
ku dyondza ku hlaya ku ya eka ku hlayela ku dyondza.

Translanguaging The pedagogical practice where the language mode of input and output are
deliberately switched in bi/multilingual classrooms.

Translanguaging Ntoloveto wa phedagoji laha ku cinciwaka kona swinghenisiwa na swihumesiwa

hi vomu eka titlilasi laha ku tirhisiwaka kona tindzimi timbirhi/ kumbe
tindziminyingi etlilasini.

Universal Grammar (UG) Chomsky's theory that explains humans’ ability to acquire languages as an
innate set of mental principles and parameters of grammar that act as a
blueprint for language acquisition and which can be applied to all languages.

Universal grammar (UG) Thiyori ya Chomsky leyi yi hlamuselaka vuswikoti bya vanhu ku dyondza tindzimi
tanihi sete ya leswi vanhu va velekiwaka na swona na minsinya ya mianakanyo
na tipharamitara ta milawu ya matsalelo na mavulavulelo (girama) leti tirhaku
tanihi bluprinti ya ku dyondza ririmi na swona leswi swi nga tirhisiwaka eka
tindzimi hinkwato.

Validity The accuracy with which a test measures the construct of interest, thereby
supporting the interpretation of test scores.

Vutirhiseki Nkotlano khaqa lowu ku pimiwaka hi wona xikambelwana ku kota ku fikelela, hi

ku seketela matolikelo ya swikoro swa xikambelwana.

Vocabulary The body of words used in a particular language.

Vhokhebyulari Nhlengelo wa marito lama tirhisiwaka eka ririmi ro karhi.

Vocabulary knowledge Refers to knowledge of words and multiword units. Receptive vocabulary refers
to the words people understand, while productive vocabulary refers to the
words people can use.

Ntivomarito Swi vula vutivi bya marito na tiyuniti tinyingi ta marito. Receptive vocabulary swi
vula marito lama vanhu va ma twisisaku, kasi productive vocabulary swi vula
marito lama vanhu va nga ma tirhisaka.

Vocabulary breadth Refers to how many words people know.

Vuanami bya marito Swi vula leswaku xana i marito mangani lama vanhu va ma tivaka.

Vocabulary depth Refers to the quality of a person’s vocabulary knowledge, i.e. knowledge of the
form, meaning, collocations and associations of a word.

Vuenti bya marito Swi vula khwaliti ya vutivi bya munhu bya marito, hileswaku, vutivi bya
xivumbeko, nhlamuselo, vundhawu bya marito na leswi rito ri fambelanaku na
swona.

Washback The effect that a test has on teaching and learning activities. The effect can be
positive (encourage good teaching and coverage of the curriculum) or negative
(encourage a narrow focus on only specific parts of the curriculum) depending
on the test itself.

Washback Vuyelo lebyi xikambelwana xi nga na byona eka migingiriko ya ku dyondza.

Vuyelo byi nga va lebyinene (lebyi khutazaku ku dyondzisa lokunene na ku
angarhela kharikhulamu) kumbe lebyi nga ri ku lebyinene (lebyi byi khutazaku
ku tshikilela eka swiyenge swo karhi ntsena eka kharikhulamu) swi ya hi muxaka
wa xikambelwana.

Whole-word approach An approach to reading instruction in which children are taught to recognise
words from their overall shape and from cues in the context.

Mpfelelo hi rito hinkwaro Mapfelelo ya ku dyondzisa ku hlaya laha vana va dyondzisiwaka ku tiva marito hi
ku languta xiyimo xa wona hinkwaxo na swikombiso swin’wana eka xiyimo.
Withdrawal Additional language speakers are given a language proficiency test, and if
proficiency is lacking, are placed with learners of the same age, demoted one
grade or given extra lessons outside the classroom to catch up.

Ku tlherisiwela endzhaku Vavulavuri va ririmi ro ngetela va nyiketiwa xikambelwana xa vutivi bya ririmi,
kasi loko va nga ri na vutivi bya ririmi, va tlheriseriwa endzhaku eka vadyondzi va
ririmi va tintangha ta vona, hi leswo va tlheriseriwela endzhaku hi greyidi kumbe
ku nyiketiwa tidyondzo to ngetela ehandle ka klasi leswo va tlakusa vutivi bya
vona.

Word recognition The process of perceiving written symbols and converting the symbols into a
word.

Ku tsundzuka rito Maendlelo ma ku tsundzuka mimfungho leyi tsariweke na ku yi hundzuluxa ku

va rito.

Working memory The facility in the brain that controls processing and storage of verbally or
visually presented information in real time; also called short-term memory.

Ntsundzuko lowu tirhaka Fasiliti eka byongo leyi yi lawulaku ku purosesa na ku hlayisa vutivi bya marito
kumbe vutivi bya ku vona kunene lebyi byi nyikiweke hi nkarhi wolowo; swi
tlhela swi tiviwa tanihi ntsundzuko wa nkarhi wo koma.

Zone of proximal The distance between what someone is able to do with assistance at their level
current development (ZPD) and what they can do independently in the future.

Zone of proximal Mpfhuka exikarhi ka leswi munhu a kotaku ku swi endla hi ku pfuniwa hi swilo
current development (ZPD) leswi swi nga le ka levhele ya yena na leswi a nga kotaku ku swi endla hi yexe hi
xa mundzuku.