Neurotransmitters

Neuroscience Fundamentals > The Nerve Cell > The Nerve Cell

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

SUMMARY

EXCITATORY VS INHIBITORY

• Neurotransmitters can be either excitatory or Inhibitory

Excitatory

• Excitatory – pushes membrane potential closer to depolarization

Inhibitory

• Inhibitory – pushes membrane potential farther from depolarization (hyperpolarization)

Both Excitatory & Inhibitory

• Based on the channel activated, not the neurotransmitter itself (some neurotransmitters can be both excitatory or
inhibitory)

DIRECT VS INDIRECT

• Neurotransmitters can perform direct or indirect activation.

Direct Activation

• Bind to and open ligand-gated ion channels

Indirect Activation

• Signal through intracellular second messenger pathways

6 CLASSES WITH EXAMPLES

• Acetylcholine – Acetylcholine (first neurotransmitter discovered)

• Biogenic Amines – Dopamine and Serotonin

• Amino Acids – GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) and Glutamate

• Peptides – Endorphins and Substance P

• Purines – ATP and Adenosine

• Gasses and Lipids – Nitric oxide and endocannabinoids

NEUROTRANSMITTER FATE

• Reuptake – Channel proteins take neurotransmitters back up into cells

• Degradation – Enzymes in the synaptic cleft break down the neurotransmitters

• Diffusion – Neurotransmitters eventually diffuse away from the synapse

AXONAL TRANSPORT

Retrograde Transport

From axon to cell body

• Fast – 50-250mm per day and uses dynein

• Viruses (rabies, polio, herpes simplex) and tetanus toxin use it to transport themselves to the cell body

Anterograde Transport

From cell body to axon

• Slow – ~1mm per day though the mechanism is unclear

• Fast – 100-400mm per day and uses kinesin

• Nerves use slow anterograde transport to heal themselves

FULL-LENGTH TEXT

• Here we will learn about neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system.
• First, let's draw a table to denote some key concepts about neurotransmitters.

• Denote that neurotransmitters, along with electrical signals, make up the "language" of the nervous system.

• Denote that neurotransmitters are often divided into 6 classes based on their structure.

- There is some textual variation on the exact division and number of classes neurotransmitters are divided into.

• Denote that neurotransmitters can be classified as either excitatory or inhibitory based on whether their effects push
the membrane potential of the receiving cell closer to depolarization (making them excitatory) or hyperpolarization
(making them inhibitory).

• Denote that it is not the neurotransmitter itself that is excitatory or inhibitory, but rather the channel that the
neurotransmitter is binding to that makes it so.

- Some neurotransmitters can be both excitatory and inhibitory depending on the channels they bind to. We discuss the
concepts of excitatory and inhibitory elsewhere.

• Denote that neurotransmitters can be classified as having either direct or indirect actions.

Now, let's explore neurotransmitters in more detail.

• Start a table, so we can list the 6 classes of neurotransmitters.

• First, acetylcholine, the first neurotransmitter discovered and which is often considered its own class (though some
sources include it in other classes).

- It is synthesized from ascetic acid (as acetyl-CoA) and choline.

- Among its many functions, it is released by all neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles.

• Next, the biogenic amines, such as dopamine and serotonin.

• Then, the amino acids, such as GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) and glutamate.

• Next peptides, such as endorphins or Substance P.

• Then, purines, which include ATP or adenosine.

• Finally, write that gases and lipids make up the final class.

- Nitric oxide and endocannabinoids are examples of this class.

Now, let's distinguish direct and indirect neurotransmitters.

• Write that direct neurotransmitters bind to and open ligand-gated ion channels.

• Write that indirect neurotransmitters signal through intracellular second messenger pathways (typically G-protein
coupled receptor pathways).

We've explored elsewhere that neurotransmitters are released into the synapse as part of signaling between cells, but
what happens to the neurotransmitters afterwards?

• First draw a synapse between two neurons.

• Label the presynaptic cell.

• Label the postsynaptic cell.

• Step 1, neurotransmitter release:

- Show a vesicle fuse with the plasma membrane and release neurotransmitters.

• Step 2, neurotransmitter binding and cellular response:

- Draw a channel in the membrane of the postsynaptic cell bound to a neurotransmitter.

• Step 3, neurotransmitter effect termination in 3 ways:

- a.) Reuptake: Draw a channel protein in the membrane of the presynaptic cell, and indicate that neurotransmitters may
be taken back up into the presynaptic cell via this channel.

- b.) Degradation: Draw bits of neurotransmitters floating in the synaptic cleft that have been broken down by enzymes.

- c.) Diffusion: With an arrow, indicate that neurotransmitters float away.

Finally, let's look at how neurotransmitters (and other molecules and organelles) are transported along the axon.
 • Draw the cell body and axon of a neuron.

• Indicate that transport from the cell body towards the end of the axon is anterograde transport.

- New organelles, cytoskeletal elements, membrane components and some enzymes are transported from the cell body
in this direction.

• Indicate that transport from the end of the axon towards the cell body is called retrograde transport.

- Old organelles in need of degradation or recycling are transported this way.

- An axon is also able to communicate with the cell body about its condition using this transport method.

• Draw a table to compare the transport speeds of anterograde and retrograde transport.

- Use Type, Speed, and Protein for the headers

• Write that anterograde transport can transport cargo either fast or slow.

- Slow is about 1mm per day (though its protein mechanism is not fully known).

- Fast occurs at about 100 – 400mm per day and uses kinesin.

• Write that retrograde transport is fast, transports cargo at about 50 to 250mm per day, and uses dynein.

• As clinical correlations, write that nerves rely on anterograde transport to heal themselves, which occurs at rate of ~1
mm/day (making it slow transport).

- Retrograde transport is used by certain viruses (rabies, polio, herpes simplex) and tetanus toxin to transport
themselves to the cell body.

- Also note that viruses such as rabies, polio, and herpes simplex as well as the tetanus toxin hijack retrograde transport
to get to the cell body of a neuron.

This concludes our tutorial on neurotransmitters.

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