QUEST REVIEW CENTER Scope in the Study of Criminology

1550 Espana Blvd. Cor. Lacson Ave., Sampaloc, Manila 1. Study of the origin and development of criminal law
2. Study of the causes of crimes and development of criminals
SOCIOLOGY OF CRIMES, ETHICS AND HUMAN RELATIONS
3. Study of the other sciences that examine criminal behavior using
CRIM. 1: INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY AND scientific methods such as: criminal demography – the study of the
PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIMES CRIMINOLOGY relationship between criminality and population criminal
- according to Edwin H. Sutherland, “criminology is the entire body of knowledge epidiomology – the study of the relationship between environment and
regarding crime as criminality
a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope the process of making of
criminal ecology – the study of criminality in relation to the spatial distribution in a
laws, of breaking of laws, and the society’s reaction towards the breaking of
community criminal physical anthropology – the study of criminality in relation
laws.”
to physical constitution of men criminal psychology – the study of human behavior
- Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding crimes, criminals and the efforts in relation to criminality
of society to prevent and repress them. criminal psychiatry – the study of human mind in relation to criminality
- the scientific study of the causes of crime in relation to man and society who set victimology – the study of the role of the victim in the commission of a crime
and define rules and regulations for himself and others to govern
CRIMES AND CRIMINALS
Criminologist (R.A. 6506) CRIME
- any person who is a graduate of the Degree of Criminology, who has passed the – refers to an act committed or omitted in violation of public law (Phil. Law
examination for criminologists and is registered as such by the Board of Dictionary).
Examiners of the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC). - It also refers to an act committed or omitted in violation of a public law
forbidding or commanding it (Reyes 2006).
Origin of the word “Criminology”
Etymologically, the term criminology came from the Latin word “crimen” meaning CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES LEGAL
crime and Greek word “Logos” which means “to study”. CLASSIFICATIONS:
In 1885, Rafael Garofalo, an Italian Law Professor coined the term criminologia.
In 1889, Paul Topinard, French Anthropologist, used the term criminology in 1. According to law violated
French criminologie for the first time a. Felony – an act or omission punishable by law which is committed by
means of dolo (deceit) or
Principal Divisions of Criminology culpa (fault)and punishable under the Revised Penal Code
1. Etiology of Crimes – the scientific analysis of the causes of crimes and the criminal b. Offense – an act or omission in violation of a special law
behavior. c. Infraction – an act or omission in violation of a city or municipal ordinance
2. Sociology of Law – refers to the investigation of the nature of criminal law and its 2. According to the manner of committing crime:
administration
a. By means of dolo or deceit – if the crime is committed with deliberate
3. Penology – the study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of offender
intent. Thus, it is called intentional felonies.
Is criminology a science?  freedom or voluntariness
According to George Wilker, criminology cannot become a science because it has not  intelligence
yet acquired universal validity. Edwin H. Sutherland, the Dean of Modern Criminology, hoped  intent
that it will become a science in the future since the causes of crimes are almost the same which b. By means of culpa or fault
may be biological, environmental or combination of the two.
- felonies committed by means of culpa (fault)
Nature of Criminology - the act or omission of the offender is not malicious and the injury
1. It is applied science because criminology as a body of knowledge has already caused by the offender is unintentional, it being the simply the incident of
established universally accepted principles and concepts and these are used by other another act performed without malice
field of study. (INSTRUMENTATION)  lack of foresight
2. It is a social science because it studies crime as a social phenomenon. Crime is a  lack of skill
social problem which has a great impact to society.
3. It is dynamic because the concepts of criminology and their applications adapt to the  negligence
changing time.  imprudence
4. It is nationalistic because the study of criminology takes into consideration the
history, the culture and the social norms and the laws of the country. Each country 3. According to the stages in the commission:
has its own set of laws and crimes are defined by the laws of the country. a. Attempted – the crime is attempted when the offender commences the
commission of a felony directly or over acts, and does not perform all the
 acts of execution which should produce the felony by reason of some
cause or accident other than this own spontaneous desistance.
b. Frustrated - when the offender performs all the acts of execution which
would produce the felony as a consequence but which, nevertheless do not
produce it by reason of causes independent of the will of the perpetrator.
c. Consummated - when all the elements necessary for its accomplishment
and execution are present
4. According to plurality:
a. Simple Crime – is a single act constituting only one offense.
b. Complex Crime – single act constituting two or more grave felonies
or an is a necessary means for committing the other
Two (2) Kinds of Complex Crime:
1. compound crime (delito compuesto)
2. complex crime proper (delito complejo)
5. According to gravity:
a. Grave felonies - are those to which the law attaches the capital punishment or
penalties which in any of their period are afflictive.
b. Less grave felonies - are those which the law punishes with penalties
which in their maximum period are correctional.
c. Light felonies - are infraction of laws for the commission of which the penalty
of arresto menor or a fine not exceeding 200 pesos or both is provided.
6. According to the nature of the act:
a. Crimes mala in se – are acts that are inherently evil. Examples are murder,
robbery, etc.
b. Crimes mala prohibita – are acts which are prohibited only because there
are laws forbidding such acts. Examples are Illegal Possession of firearms,
Traffic Violations, etc.
CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIME
1. According to the result of the crime:
a. Acquisitive crime – if the offender acquired or gained something by
committing the crime. Examples are robbery, estafa, bribery, etc.
b. Destructive crime – if the crime resulted in destruction, damage or even
death. Examples are arson, murder and homicide, damage to property, etc.
2. According to the time or period of commission:
a. Seasonal crimes – are crimes that happen only during a particular season or
period of the year. Examples are violation of election law, tax law violations,
etc.
b. Situational crimes – are crimes committed when the situation is conducive to
the commission of the crime and there is an opportunity to commit it. Examples
are pickpocketing, theft, etc.
3. According to the length of time of the commission:
a. Instant crimes – are those crimes that can be committed in a very short time.
Example: theft
b. Episoidal crimes – are crimes committed through series of acts or episodes and
in much longer time. Example: serious illegal detention
4. According to place or location:
a. Static crimes – are committed only in one place. examples are theft and robbery
b. Continuing crimes – are crimes that take place in more than one place
or several places. examples: abduction, kidnapping, etc.
5. According to the use of mental faculties:
a. Rational crimes – when the offender is capable of knowing what he is doing
and understanding the consequences of his actions.
b. Irrational Crimes – when the offender suffers from any form of mental
disorders, insanity or abnormality. Thus, the offender doesn’t know what he is
doing.
6. According to the type of offender:
a. White Collar Crimes – crimes committed by those persons belonging to the
upper socio-economic status or in the course of his occupational activities.
b. Blue Collar Crimes – are those crimes committed by ordinary criminals as a
means of livelihood.
CRIMINAL
- in the legal sense, a criminal is any person who has been found to have
committed a wrongful act in the course of the standard judicial process; there
must be a final verdict of his guilt
- in the criminological sense, a person is already considered a criminal the
moment he committed a crime
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIMINALS
1. According to etiology
a. Acute criminal – is a person who committed crime as a result of reacting to a
situation or during a moment of anger or burst of feeling.
b. Chronic criminal – is one who committed a crime with intent or deliberated
thinking.
1. Neurotic criminal – is one who has mental disorder.
2. Normal criminal – a person who commits crimes because he looks
up to, idolizes people who are criminals.
2. According to the type of offender:
a. Ordinary criminal – a criminal who engages in crimes which do not require
specialized or technical skill
b. Organized criminal – is one who possesses some skills and know-how
which enable him to commit crimes and evade detection.
c. Professional criminal – a highly skilled criminals which are engaged in a
large scale criminal activities ad usually operate in groups.
3. According to criminal activities:
a. Professional criminal – a criminal who earns his living through criminal
activities.
b. Situational criminal – a person who got involved in criminal act because the
situation presented itself.
c. Habitual criminal – one who repeatedly commits criminal act for different
reasons.
d. Accidental criminal – a person who accidentally violated the law due to some
circumstances.
STUDY OF CRIMINAL LAW
EVOLUTION OF CRIMINAL LAWS
A) PREHISTORIC CRIME AND PUNISHMENT effect in the country on July 14, 1887 and was in force until Dec. 31, 1931 was revised by the
Primitive Tribes Committee created by Administrative Order No. 94 of the Department of Justice, dated Oct. 18,
- punishment may be in the form of ostracism and expulsion 1927, composed of Anacleto Diaz as Chairman, Alex Reyes and Mariano de Joya as
- adultery may be punished by the aggrieved husband who may kill the adulterer and members.The RPC was approved on Dec. 8, 1930 and took effect on January 1, 1932.
his own offending wife
Principal Parts of the RPC
- crime may be avenged by the victim himself or by the victim’s family It is composed of two books; book one which is composed of Articles 1-113 and
book two covering Articles 114-367.
B) THE EARLY CODES a. Articles 1-20 – principles affecting criminal liability
1) CODE OF HAMMURABI
b. Articles 21-113 – penalties including criminal and civil liability
- Hammurabi, the king of Babylon during the eighteenth century BC, is recognized c. Articles 114-367 – felonies
as the first codifier of laws
- it provides the first comprehensive view of the laws in the early days Characteristics of the RPC
1. Generality – the law is applicable to all persons within the territory irrespective
- the Code was carved in stone of sex, race, nationality or civil status except:
- the “law of talion”, or the principle of “tit for tat”,(an eye for an eye, tooth a. Head of state
for a tooth) appears throughout the Code b. Foreign diplomats, ambassadors, who are duly accredited to our country
- under the principle of the law of talion, the punishment should be the same as the c. Foreign troops permitted to march within the territory
harm inflicted on the victim 2. Territoriality - the RPC is applicable to felonies committed within the
Philippine territorial jurisdiction.
2) THE HITTITES a. Philippine archipelago – all the islands that comprise the Philippines
- the Hittites existed about two centuries after Hammurabi and eventually conquered b. Atmosphere water – all bodies of water that connect all the islands such as bays, rivers
Babylon and streams
c. Maritime zone – the twelve (12) Nautical Mile limit beyond our shore measured at low
tide
3) CODE OF DRAKON
- knows as the “ultimate in severity” EXCEPTIONS TO THE TERRITORIAL CHARACTER OF THE REVISED PENAL CODE:
- codified by Drakon, the Athenian lawgiver of the seventh century BC The Revised Penal Code shall be applicable to all cases committed outside the
Philippine territorial jurisdiction under the following circumstances:
4) LAWS OF SOLON a) should commit an offense while on Philippine ship or airship;
- Solon was appointed archon and was given legislative powers b) should forge or counterfeit any coin or currency note of the Philippine
- Solon repealed all the laws of the Code of Drakon, except the law on homicide Island or obligations and securities issued by the government of the
Philippines;
- Solon was one of the first to see that a lawgiver had to make laws that applied c) while being a public officer or employee, should commit an offense in the
equally to all citizens and also saw that the law of punishment had to maintain exercise of their functions’
proportionality to the crimes committed d) should commit any of the crimes against national security and law of nations
5) ROME’S TWELVE TABLES
- Roman law began with the Twelve Tables which were written in the middle of the
sixth century BC
- the Twelve Tables were the foundation of all laws in Rome and written in 1. Prospectivity - the provisions of the RPC
tablets of bronze cannot be applied if the act is not yet punishable on the time the felony was committed.
- the Twelve Tables were drafted by the Decemvirs, a body of men composed of However, it may have a retroactive effect if it is favorable to the accused who is not a habitual
patricians delinquent.

CRIMINAL LAW 2. It is specific and definite.

– is that branch of public law which defines crimes treats of their nature and
provides for their punishment.
Revised Penal Code or Act No. 3815
– book that contains the Philippine Criminal Law and different special laws and
decrees which are penal in nature. It is called as RPC because the old penal code which took
Criminal law must give a strict definition of a specific act which constitutes an offense. Where
there is doubt as to whether a definition embodied in the Revised Penal Code applies to the
accused or not, the judge is obligated to decide the case in favor of the accused. Criminal law
must be construed liberally in favor of the accused and strictly against the state.
3. It is uniform in application.
An act described as a crime is a crime no matter who committed it, wherever committed in the
Philippines and whenever committed. No exceptions must be made as to the criminal liability.
The definition of crimes together with the corresponding punishment must be uniformly
construed, although there may be a difference in the enforcement of a given specific provision of
the penal law.
4. There must be a penal sanction or punishment.
Penal sanction is the most essential part of the definition of the crime. If there is no penalty to a
prohibited act, its enforcement will almost be impossible. The penalty is acting as a deterrence
and as a measure of self-defense of the state to protect society from the threat and wrong
inflicted by the criminal.
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN CRIMINOLOGY
School of Thought – refers to a group of beliefs or ideas that support a specific theory.
Theory – set of statements devised to explain behavior, events or phenomenon, especially
one that has been repeatedly tested and widely accepted.
1. DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY - asserts that a person commits wrongful acts
due to the fact that he was possessed by demons.
2. CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
The classical school of criminology grew out of a reaction against the barbaric system of
law, punishment and justice that existed. There was no real system of criminal justice in
Europe at that time. Some crimes were specified, some were not. Judges had discretionary
power to convict a person for an act not even legally defined as criminal.
This school of thought is based on the assumption that individuals choose to commit
crimes after weighing the consequences of their actions. According to classical criminologists,
individuals have free will. They can choose legal or illegal means to get what they want, fear of
punishment can deter them from committing crime and society can control behavior by making
the pain of punishment greater than the pleasure of the criminal gains.
This theory, however, does not give any distinction between an adult and a minor or a
mentally- handicapped in as far as free will is concerned. Founders of classical school of
criminology are Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham.
Cesare Beccaria (Cesare Bonesana Marchese di Beccaria) (1738-1794)
- best known for his essay, “On Crimes and Punishment” which presented key
ideas on the abolition of torture as legitimate means of extracting confession.
- His book contains almost all modern penal reforms but its greatest contribution
was the foundation it laid for subsequent changes in criminal legislation
- his book was influential in the reforms of penal code in France, Russia, Prussia
and it influenced the first ten amendments to the US Constitution
Beccaria believed that:
a. people want to achieve pleasure and avoid pain.
b. Crime provides some pleasure to the criminal.
c. To deter crime, he believed that one must administer pain in an
appropriate amount to counterbalance the pleasure obtain from crime.
d. Famous in sayings “ Let the punishment fit the crime”
HIGHLIGHTS OF CESARE BECCARIA’S IDEAS REGARDING CRIMES AND
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
1. In forming a human society, men and women sacrifice a portion of their libery so as
to enjoy peace and security.
2. Punishments that go beyond the need of preserving the public safety are in their nature
unjust.
3. Criminal laws must be clear and certain. Judges must make uniform judgments in
similar crimes.
4. The law must specify the degree of evidence that will justify the detention of an
accused offender prior to his trial.
5. Accusations must be public. False accusations should be severely punished.
6. To torture accused offenders to obtain a confession is inadmissible.
7. The promptitude of punishment is one of the most effective curbs on crime.
8. The aim of punishment can only be to prevent the criminal from committing new
crimes against his countrymen, and to keep others from doing likewise. Punishments,
therefore, and the method of inflicting them, should be chosen in due proportion to the
crime, so as to make the most lasting impression on the minds of men…
9. Capital punishment is inefficacious and its place should be substituted life
imprisonment.
10. It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them. That is the chief purpose of all good
legislation.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
- his contribution to classical school of criminology is the concept of
utilitarianism and the felicific calculus.
- proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism” which explains that person always acts in such
a way to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
- founded the concept of UTILITARIANISM – assumes that all our actions are
calculated in accordance with their likelihood of bringing pleasure and pain
- devised the pseudo-mathematical formula called “felicific calculus” which states
that individuals are human calculators who put all the factors into an equation in
order to decide whether a particular crime is worth committing or not
- he reasoned that in order to deter individuals from committing crimes, the
punishment, or pain, must be greater than the satisfaction, or pleasure, he would
gain from committing the crime
Utilitarianism
– is a philosophy which argues that what is right is the one that would cause the
greatest good for the greatest number of people.
- others refer to it as the greatest happiness principle or the principle of utility.
- from this principle, Bentham formulated the “felicific calculus”.
Felicific Calculus or the pleasure-and-pain principle – is a theory that proposes that individuals
calculate the consequences of his actions by weighing the pleasure (gain) and the pain
(suffering) he would derive from doing the action.
3. NEOCLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
This theory modified the doctrine of free will by stating that free will of
men may be affected by other factors and crime is committed due to some compelling
reasons that prevail. These causes are pathology, incompetence, insanity or any
condition that will make it impossible for the individual to exercise free will entirely.
In the study of legal provisions, this is termed as either mitigating or exempting
circumstances.
4. POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
- The term “positivism”, refers to a method of analysis based on the collection of
 observable scientific facts.
- Positivists believe that causes of behavior can be measured and observed.
- It demands for facts and scientific proof, thus, changing the study of crimes
and criminals into
scientific approach.
- Positive theorists were the first to claim the importance of looking at individual
difference among criminals. These theorists who concentrated on the individual
structures of a person, stated that people are passive and controlled, whose Raffaelle Garofallo
behaviors are imposed upon them by biological and environmental factors.
August Comte
- was a French philosopher and sociologist and is believed to be the one who
reinvented the French term sociologie.
- he was recognized as the “Father of Sociology and Positivism”.
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
THE (UN) HOLY THREE (3) OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. Cesare Lombroso 1. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
2. Enricco Ferri
3. Raffaelle Garofalo
Cesare Lombroso
- recognized as the “Father of Modern and Empirical Criminology” due to his
application of modern scientific methods to trace criminal behavior, however, most
of his ideas are now discredited
- known for the concept of atavistic stigmata (the physical features of creatures at
an earlier stage of development).
- he claimed that criminals are distinguishable from non-criminals due to the
presence of atavistic stigmata and crimes committed by those who are born with
certain recognizable heredity traits.
- according to his theory, criminals are usually in possession of huge jaws and strong
canine teeth, the arm span of criminals is often greater than their height, just like that
of apes who use their forearms to push themselves along the ground.
- he focused his study on the influences of psychological factors and sociological
factors such as economics, on crimes.
- He believed that criminals could not be held morally responsible because they
did not choose to commit crimes, but rather were driven to commit crimes by
conditions in their lives.
- He treated the roots of the criminals’ behavior not to physical features but
to their psychology equivalent, which he referred to as moral anomalies.
- He rejected the doctrine of freewill.
- Classified criminals as Murderers, Violent Criminals, Deficient Criminals, and
Lascivious Criminals.
- this refers to the set of theories that point to physical, physiological and other
natural factors as the causes for the commission of crimes of certain individuals.
- This explanation for the existence of criminal traits associates an
individual’s evil disposition to physical disfigurement or impairment.
a. Physiognomy – the study of facial features and their relation to human behavior.
1. Giambiatista dela Porta
- founder of human physiognomy
- according to him criminal behavior may be predicted based on facial
features of the person.
2. Johann Kaspar Lavater
- supported the belief of dela Porta
- he believed that a person’s character is revealed through his facial
characteristics.

- other physical stigmata include deviation in head size and shape, asymmetry of the b. Phrenology, Craniology or Cranioscopy – the study of the external
face, excessive dimensions of the jaw and cheekbones, eye defects and peculiarities, formation of the skull in relation to the person’s personality and tendencies
ears of unusual size, nose twisted, upturned or flattened in thieves, or aquiline or toward criminal behavior.
beaklike in murderers, fleshy lips, swollen and protruding, and pouches in the cheek
like those of animal’s toes 1. Franz Joseph Gall
- he developed cranioscopy which was later renamed as phrenology.
- Lombroso’s work supported the idea that the criminal was a biologically and
physically inferior person 2. Johann Kaspar Spurzheim
- assistant of Gall in the study of phrenology.
- according to him, there are three (3) classes of criminals: - he was the man most responsible for popularizing and spreading
a. born criminals – individuals with at least five (5) atavistic stigmata phrenology to a wide audience
b. insane criminals – those who became criminals because of some brain
defect which affected their ability to understand and differentiate what is c. Physiology or Somatotype – refers to the study of body build of a
right from what is wrong. person in relation to his temperament and personality and the type of offense
c. criminaloids - those with makeup of an ambiguous group that he is most prone to commit.
includes habitual criminals, criminals by passion and other diverse types 1. Ernst Kretschmer
- he distinguished three (3) principal types of physiques: asthenic,
Enricco Ferri athletic, pyknik and
 dysplastic.
a. asthenic – characterized as thin, small and weak.
b. athletic – muscular and strong.
c. pyknic – stout, round and fat.
d. dysplastic – combination of two body types
2. William Herbert Sheldon
formulated his own group of somatotype: ectomorph, mesomorph and
endomorph.
a. ectomorph – tall and thin and less social and more intellectual
than the other types.
b. mesomorph – have well-developed muscles and an athletic
appearance.
c. endomorph – heavy builds and slow moving.
3. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
d. Heredity – the transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
1. Richard Louis Dugdale
- conducted a study of the Jukes family by researching their family tree
as far back 200 years. He discovered that most of the ascendants of the
Jukes were criminals.
2. Henry Goddard
- he traced the descendants of the Martin Kallikak from each of his
two wives and found a distinct difference in termsof quality of lives
of descendants. He coined the term “moron”.
3. Charles Goring
- he believed that criminal traits can be passed from parents to offspring
through the genes.
- he proposed that individuals who possess criminal characteristics should
be prohibited from having children.
INTELLIGENCE AS A FACTOR IN CRIMINALITY
The classic studies of the Juke and Kallikak families were among the first to show
that feeblemindedness or low-intelligence can be inherited and transferred from one generation
to the next. Numerous test were also conducted that lead to the development of the use of IQ
tests as a testing procedure for offenders. The very first results seemed to confirm that
offenders had low mental abilities and they were found to be mentally impaired.
ALFRED BINET – a French psychologist who developed the first IQ test.
- the test measured the capacity of individual children to perform tasks or solve
problems in relation to the average capacity of their peers.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
- refers to the theories that attribute criminal behavior of individuals to
psychological factors, such as emotion and mental problems.
MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
a. Sigmund Freud
- he is recognized as the FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
- known for his psychoanalytic theory
- according to him, criminality is caused by the imbalance of the three (3)
components of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.
- according to him there are three parts of personality:
1. ID – this stands for instinctual drives; it is governed by the “pleasure
principle”; the id impulses are not social and must be repressed or adapted
so that they may become socially acceptable
2. EGO – this is considered to be the sensible and responsible part of an
individual’s personality and is governed by the “reality principle”; it is
developed early in life and compensates for the demands of the id by
helping the individual guide his actions to remain within the boundaries of
accepted social behavior; it is the objective, rational part of the personality
3. SUPEREGO – serves as the moral conscience of an individual; it is
structured by what values were taught by the parents, the school and the
community, as well as belief in God; it is largely responsible for making a
person follow the moral codes of society
- sociological factors refer to things, places and people with whom we come
in contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct.
These causes may bring about the development of criminal behavior.
a. Emile Durkheim
- he stated that crime is a normal part of the society just like birth
and death.
- proposed the concept of “anomie” or the absence of social
norms. It is characterized by disorder due to lack of common
values shared by individuals, lack of respect for authority and
lack of appreciation for what is acceptable and not acceptable in a
society.
b. Gabriel Tarde
- introduced the theory of imitation which proposes the process
by which people become criminals.
- according to this theory, individuals imitate the behavior of
other individuals based on the degree of their association with other
individuals and it is inferior or weak who tend to imitate the superior
and strong.
c.
Adolphe Quetelet and Andre Michael Guerry
- He repudiated the free will doctrine of the classicists
- founder of cartographic school of criminology.
- founder of moral statistics.
- cartographic school of criminology made use of statistical data
such as population, age, gender, occupation, religious affiliations
and social economic status and studies their influences and
relationship to criminality.
- environmental factors such as the kind of rearing or family upbringing, quality
of teaching in school, influences of peers and friends, conditions of the
neighborhood, and economic and other societal factors are believed to be
contributory to crime and criminal behavior.
1. SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
- refers not only to the physical features of the communities but also to the way
society is organized.
 - include such things as level of poverty and unemployment and the amount of
crowded housing which are believed to affect behavior and attitudes of
individuals which in turn contribute to their commission of crimes.
- also called social environment
- includes social disorganization theory, strain theory and cultural deviance theory.
a. Social Disorganization Theory
- popularized by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay.
around him react toward s his behavior.
an act that is rewarded is repeated; an act that is punished will be avoided.
c. Neutralization Theory
- introduced by David Matza and Gresham Sykes.
- sometimes referred to as “drift theory”
- according to this theory, people know when they are doing something
wrong, however, they rationalize and justify their actions. This rationalizing is
what we called “neutralization”.

- according to this theory, crimes in urban areas are more prevalent 3. SOCIAL REACTION THEORY
because residents have impersonal relationships with each other. - more commonly called labeling theory.
- increase in the number of broken families and single parenthood are - it states that people become criminals when significant members of society label
also very common in disorganized communities. them as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity.
- another feature of disorganized community is poverty as evidenced by
poor living conditions such as rundown houses, unsanitary and unsightly 4. SOCIAL CONTROL THEORIES
streets and high unemployment rates. - maintain that everyone has the potential to become criminal but most people are
controlled by their bonds to society.
b. Strain Theory
- social control refers to the agencies of social control such as family, school,
- strain refers the individual’s frustration, anger and resentment.
religion or church, government and laws and other identified authorities in society.
- holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have - there are two (2) sub-theories: containment theory and social bond theory.
and the means they can use to legally obtain them. This also argues that the
ability to obtain these goals is class dependent; members of the lower class a. Containment Theory
are unable to achieve these goals which come easily to those belonging to - proposed by Walter Reckless
the upper class. Consequently, they feel anger, frustration and resentment, - he stated that inner and outer containments help prevent juvenile
referred to as STRAIN. offending.
- containment means the forces within and outside the individual
c. Cultural Deviance Theory that has the power to influence his actions.
- gives emphasis on the concept of culture and sub-culture. - inner containments include positive self-concept, tolerance for
- according to this theory, because people in the lower class feel isolated frustration and an ability to set realistic goals.
due to extreme deprivation or poverty, they tend to create a sub- - outer containments include family.
culture with its own set of rules and values. This is characterized by
deviant behavior which results in criminal behavior among its
b. Social Bond Theory
members.
- propagated by Travis Hirschi
2. SOCIAL PROCESS THEORY - this theory views crime as a result of individuals with weakened bonds
- refers to a group of theories which point to the individual’s socialization process as to social institutions.
the cause for the commission of crimes. These theories cite interaction with people - according to this theory, there are four (4) elements of
and experiences and exposure to different element in the environment as primary social bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement and belief.
factors to criminality.
- under this theory is the social learning theory which in turn has three (3) sub- d. attachment – refers to the degree to which an individual
theories: differential association theory, differential reinforcement theory and care about the opinions of others.
neutralization theory. e. commitment – refers to an individual’s investment of
energy and emotion in conventional pursuits, such as getting
a. Differential Association Theory good grades.
f. involvement – refers to the amount of time an individual
- formulated by Edwin Sutherland spends on a conventional pursuit.
- this theory states that criminal behavior is learned through socialization. g. belief – refers to acceptance of the norms of conventional society.
- criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of
communication.
CRIME STATISTICS
b. Differential Reinforcement Theory - refers to the measure of the level or amount of crimes.
- according to this theory, individual’s behavior depends on how people - The collection or study of numerical data of crimes recorded/reported to the police.
 - it uses the terms index crimes and non-index crimes in classifying crimes.
Index crimes are crimes which are sufficiently significant and which occur with sufficient
regularity to be meaningful, such as murder, homicide, physical injury, robbery, theft and rape.
Non-index crimes are crimes that are not classified as index crimes. Violations of special laws
and other crimes against moral and order. These crimes are generated from the result of
positive police initiated operation.
STATISTICAL FORMULA: number of reported crime incidents handled by the police for a given period of time.
1. Crime Solution Efficiency (CSE) – percentage of solved cases out of the total It is a general measure of law enforcement agency’s investigative capability or
efficiency.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
Formula: CSE = { } 𝑋 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
CSE = { } 𝑋 100 2. Crime Rate – the number of incidents in a given period of time for every 100,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 000 inhabitants of an area/place.

STATISTICAL FORMULA:
1. Crime Solution Efficiency (CSE) – percentage of solved cases out of the total
number of reported crime incidents handled by the police for a given period of time.
It is a general measure of law enforcement agency’s investigative capability or
efficiency.

Formula: Average Monthly Crime Rate (AMCR) – the average number of crime incidents
occurred per month for every 100, 000 inhabitants in a certain area.

Formula:

𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
AMCR = { } 𝑋 100, 000 ÷ 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2. Variance (or % change) – one way of analyzing crime trends. It measures the
percentage change over a given period of time.

Formula:

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 − 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎

={ } 𝑋 100
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎

3. Crime Analysis

a. Percentage Share of Crime Volume of a Certain Area

Formula:

𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

={ } 𝑋 100
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒

b. Percentage Share of the Occurrence of a Type of Crime