Department of Manufacturing and Materials Engineering MANU 7004 Design For Manufacturing

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING
AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING
MANU 7004
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING
DR ADIBAH AMIR
LECTURE 12
RISK, RELIABILITY, AND SAFETY

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill
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12.1 Introduction
WHAT IS THE BASIC TERMINOLOGY FOR THIS
CHAPTER?
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Definitions
u A hazard is a condition that has the potential for
human, property, or environmental damage.
u Another term for a hazard is an unsafe condition.
u A risk is the likelihood, expressed either as a probability
or as a frequency, of a hazard’s potential for harm
being realized.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦( )×𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒( )
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
u Reliability is a measure of the capability of a part or a
system to operate without failure in the service
environment for a given period of time.
u Safety is relative protection from exposure to hazards.
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Classification of Societal
Hazards

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Regulation as a Result of Risk
u The following federal organizations have a major role to play in

regulating technical risk:
u Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
u Environmental Protecting Agency (EPA)
u Federal Aviation Agency (FAA)
u Federal Highway Administration (FHA)
u Federal Railway Administration (FRA)
u Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
u Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

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Sample of Federal Laws
Concerning Product Safety
Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill Companies

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Standards
u The role that standards play in protecting public

safety was first shown in the United States in the
middle of the19th century.
u The explosion of steam boilers was an all-too-
frequent occurrence, until the ASME developed the
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code that prescribed
detailed standards for materials, design, and
construction.
u Other examples of public safety standards are:
u Fire safety and structural codes for buildings
u Codes for the design, construction, maintenance, and
inspection of elevators.

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Mandatory Versus Voluntary
Standards
u Standards may be mandatory or voluntary.

u Mandatory standards are issued by governmental
agencies, and violations are treated like criminal acts
for which fines and/or imprisonment may be imposed.
u Voluntary standards are prepared by a committee of
interested parties usually under the sponsorship of a
technical society or a trade association.
u A voluntary standard indicated the lowest safety level
that an industry intends to provide in the product it
manufactures.
u A mandatory standards indicated the lowest safety
level the government will accept.

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Risk Assessment
u The assessment of risk is an imprecise process
involving judgment and intuition.
u The level of risk, as perceived by an individual
or the public, can be classified as:
u Tolerable risk:
u Indicates that people are prepared to live with the level of risk but want to
continue to review its causes and seek ways of reducing the risk.
u Acceptable:
u Indicates that people accept the level of risk as reasonable and would not
seek to expend much in resources to reduce it further.
u Unacceptable:
u Indicates that people do not accept this level of risk and would not
participate in the activity or permit others to participate.

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Data on Risk
u Data on risk are subject to considerable uncertainty

and variability.
u In general three classes of statistics are available:
u Financial losses (chiefly from the insurance industry)
u Health information
u Accident statistics

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Fatality Rate

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14.2 Probabilistic
Approach to
Design
HOW CAN PROBABILITY BE APPLIED IN DESIGN?
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Basic Probability Using the Normal
Distribution
u Many physical measurements follow the

symmetrical, bell-shaped curve of the normal, or
Gaussian frequency distribution.
u The distribution of yield strength, tensile strength,
and reduction of area from the tension test follow
the normal curve to a suitable degree of
approximation.
u The equation of the normal curve is:
11 𝑥−𝜇 !
𝑓 𝑥 = exp −
𝜎 2𝜋 2 𝜎

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Standardizing Normal
Distribution
u In order to place all normal distributions on a

common basis in in a standardized way, the normal
curve frequently is expressed in terms of the
standard normal variable or the z variable:
𝑥−𝜇
𝑧=
𝜎
u The equation of the standard normal curve
becomes:
𝑧!
1
𝑓 𝑧 = exp(− )
2𝜋 2

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Area Under Standardized Normal
Frequency Curve

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Sources of Statistical Tables
u All statistical texts contain tables for the z distribution,

the confidence limits of the mean, and the t and f
distributions.
u Here we mention two convenient sources of
statistical tables and information:
u Microsoft spreadsheet program Excel provides access
to many special mathematical and statistical functions.
u The NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods
is the modern version of Experimental Statistics
(www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook).

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Statistical Functions Available in
Excel

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Variability in Material Properties
u The mechanical properties of engineering materials

exhibit variability.
u Fracture and fatigue properties show greater
variability than the static tensile properties of yield
strength and tensile strength.
u When statistical data are not available we can
estimate the standard deviation by assuming that
the upper 𝑥! and lower 𝑥" values of a sample are ±
three standard deviations from the mean.
𝑥! − 𝑥" = 6𝜎
𝑥! − 𝑥"
𝑠≈𝜎=
6

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Variability in Material Properties (2)
u When the range of property values is not given, it is

still possible to approximate the standard deviation
by using the coefficient of variation, 𝛿, which is a
measure of the uncertainty of the value of the
mean.
𝑠
𝛿=
𝑥̅
u The coefficient of variation is different for each
mechanical property, but it tends to be relatively
constant over a range of mean values.
u It is a way of estimating the standard deviation.

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Typical Values of Coefficient of
Variation

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Safety Factor
u An important concept in risk and reliability analysis is

that hazards are controlled, mitigated, or removed by
barriers.
u The property of a material that is used to build a
component can be considered a barrier.
u This situations is considered in a class of problems called
Stress-Strength model.
u This model assumes that the barrier fails if the stress
exceeds the resistance of the material to the stress,
measured in terms of some material property like yield
strength.
u The use of a safety factor is the oldest and simplest
stress-strength model.

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Safety Factor (2)
u We will define the safety factor, SF, as the ratio of

the strength, S, divided by the stress 𝜎.
u Another way to view the safety factor is that it is the
ratio of the capacity of the system to its load:
𝑆 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝐹 = = =
𝜎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
u The concept of safety factor is sometimes expressed
by the margin of safety, MS:
𝑀𝑆 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑆𝐹 − 1
u The margin of safety indicates the amount by which
the design capacity exceeds the load.

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Components of SF
u Each of the factors is evaluated separately, and

then multiplied to arrive at the overall SF:
𝑆𝐹 = 𝑆𝐹!"#$%&"' ×𝑆𝐹 (#%$(( ×𝑆𝐹)*+,-./0,1 ×𝑆𝐹2"&'3%$ #4$5%6 ×𝑆𝐹%$'&"7&'#&6
u Each component SF should be estimated from the
following listing:
u Estimating the Contribution from the Material
u Estimating the Contribution from the Load or Stress
u Estimating the Contribution from Tolerances
u Estimating the Contribution from Failure Analysis
u Estimating the Contribution from Reliability

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Estimating the Contribution from the Material
u 𝐹𝑆#$%&'($) = 1.0
u The properties of the material are well known, or they
have been obtained from tests on the same material
used for the design of the part.
u 𝐹𝑆#$%&'($) = 1.1
u The material properties are known from a handbook or
from manufacturer’s values.
u 𝐹𝑆#$%&'($) = 1.2 − 1.4
u The material properties are not well known.

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Estimating the Contribution from
the Load or Stress
u 𝐹𝑆*%'&** = 1.0
u The load is well defined as static or fluctuating. There
are no expected overloads or shock loads. An
accurate method of analyzing stress has been used.
u 𝐹𝑆*%'&** = 1.2 − 1.3
u Average overloads of 20-50%. The stress analysis
method may result in errors less then 50%.
u 𝐹𝑆*%'&** = 1.4 − 1.7
u The load is not well known or the stress analysis method
is of doubtful accuracy.

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Tolerances (Geometry)
u 𝐹𝑆%+)&'$,-&* = 1.0
u The manufacturing tolerances are tight and well held.
u 𝐹𝑆%+)&'$,-&* = 1.0
u The manufacturing tolerances are average.
u 𝐹𝑆%+)&'$,-&* = 1.1 − 1.2

u The dimensions are not closely held.

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Failure Analysis
u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' "("$)*#* = 1.0 − 1.1

u The failure analysis used is based on static uniaxial or
multiaxial state of stress, or fully reversed uniaxial fatigue
stresses.
u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' "("$)*#* = 1.2

u Same as above, but now includes multiaxail fully reversed
fatigue stresses or uniaxial nonzero mean fatigue stresses.
u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' +,'-&) = 1.3 − 1.5

u Failure analysis not well developed, as with cumulative
fatigue damage.

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Reliability
u 𝐹𝑆'&)($.(%)(/ = 1.0
u The reliability of the part does not need to be high; less
than 90%.
u 𝐹𝑆'&)($.(%)(/ = 1.2 − 1.3

u The reliability is on average 92-98%.
u 𝐹𝑆'&)($.(%)(/ = 1.4 − 1.6

u The reliability must be 99% or higher.

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Reliability-Based Safety Factor
u The probability of failure is given by:

𝑃" = 𝑃(𝜎 > 𝑆# )
u The reliability R is defined as:
𝑅 = 1 − 𝑃"
u If we subtract the stress distribution from the strength distribution, we
get the distribution:
𝑄 = 𝑆# − 𝜎

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Mean and Standard Deviation of 31
Independent Random Variables x
and y

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Value of z to Give Different Levels
of Probability of Failure

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14.3 Reliability
WHAT DOES RELIABILITY MEAN?
Theory
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Reliability
u Reliability is the probability that a system, component, or device will

perform without failure for a specified period of time under specified
operating conditions.
u If R(t) is the reliability with respect to time, then F(t) is the unreliability
(probability of failure) in the same time.
𝑅 𝑡 + 𝐹 𝑡 = 100% = 1
u If 𝑁0 components are put on test, the number surviving to or at time t
is 𝑁* 𝑡 , and the number that failed between t=0 and t=t is 𝑁1 (𝑡).
𝑁$ 𝑡 + 𝑁" 𝑡 = 𝑁%
u Definition of reliability:
𝑁$ 𝑡 𝑁" 𝑡
𝑅 𝑡 = =1−
𝑁% 𝑁%

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Failure Rate
u A measure of failure rate is the hazard rate or the

instantaneous failure rate, h(t):
𝑑𝑁1 1 𝑓 𝑡 𝑓 𝑡
ℎ 𝑡 = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑁* 𝑡 1−𝐹 𝑡 𝑅 𝑡
1 𝑑𝑅
ℎ 𝑡 =−
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑅
ℎ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑅

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Forms of Failure Curves
v The general failure

curve is the
summation of three
competing processes:
(1)An early failure
process
(2)A random failure
process
(3)A wearout process
Three-stage curve typical of Failure curve more typical of

electronic equipment mechanical equipment

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Definitions
u Cumulative time to failure (T):

u When 𝑁% components are run for a time t without replacing
or repairing failed components:
𝑇 = [𝑡& + 𝑡! + ⋯ + 𝑡' + 𝑁% − 𝑘 𝑡]
u Mean life:
u The average life of the 𝑁% components put on test or in
service, measured over the entire life curve out to wearout.
u Mean time to failure (MTTF):
u The sum of the survival time for all of the components
divided by the number of failures.
u Mean time between failures (MTBF):
u The mean time between two successive component
failures.

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Average Failure Rates For A 38
Variety of Components and
Systems

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Constant Failure Rate
u For the special case of a constant failure rate , ℎ 𝑡 = 𝜆,:

(
𝑅 𝑡 = exp(− 2 𝜆 𝑑𝑡) = 𝑒 )*(
%
u The probability distribution of reliability is a

negative exponential distribution.
𝜆
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠
=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
u The reciprocal of 𝜆 is the mean time between
failures (MTBF):
1
𝑇F =
𝜆
(
)+
𝑅 𝑡 =𝑒 ,

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Weibull Frequency Distribution
u The Weibull distribution describes the life of a

component for which all values are positive and for
which there are occasional long-lived results.
u The two-parameter Weibull distribution function is
described by:
𝑚 𝑥 #23 𝑥 #
𝑓 𝑥 = exp − 𝑥>0
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
Where f(x)= frequency distribution of the random variable x
m=shape parameter
𝜃=scale parameter

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u Weibull of
Probability Frequency Distribution
x being less than a value q:
, 4
,
-
𝑃 𝑥 ≤ 𝑞 = & 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1−𝑒 .
+
u The mean of Weibull distribution:
1
𝑥̅ = 𝜃 − Г(1 + )
m
u The variance of a Weibull distribution:
/
2 1
𝜎 / = 𝜃 /{Г 1 + − Г 1+ }
m 𝑚
u The cumulative frequency distribution of a Weibull
distribution:
𝑥 0
𝐹 𝑥 = 1 − exp[− ]
𝜃
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Weibull Distribution for 𝜃 = 1
and different values of m

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Weibull Plot For Life Of Ball
Bearings
C. Lipman and N. J. Sheth, Statistical Design and Analysis of Engineering Experiments, p. 41,
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1974.
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Reliability With A Variable
Failure Rate
u Mechanical failures, and some failures of electronic

components, do not exhibit a period of constant
failure rate.
u Since the failure rate is a function of time, the simple

exponential relation for reliability no longer applied.
u Instead, reliability is expressed by the Weibull

distribution:
% !
2
𝑅 𝑡 =1−𝐹 𝑡 =𝑒 5

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System Reliability
u The overall reliability of the system depends on how

the individual components with their individual
failure rates are arranged.
u If the components are arranged so that the failure
of any component causes the system to fail, it is said
to be arranged in series:
𝑅*/*%&# = 𝑅6 ×𝑅7 × ⋯×𝑅,
u A much better arrangement of components is one
in which it is necessary for all components in the
system to fail in order for the system to fail. This is
called parallel reliability:
𝑅*/*%&# = 1 − 1 − 𝑅6 1 − 𝑅7 … (1 − 𝑅, )

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System Reliability (2)
u If we are dealing with a constant-failure-rate system:

u Series:
u 𝑅$#$(-. = 𝑅/ ×𝑅0 = 𝑒 *!( ×𝑒 *"( = 𝑒 )(*!2*")(
u Parallel:
u 𝑅$#$(-. = 1 − (1 − 𝑅/ ) 1 − 𝑅0 = 𝑒 )*!( + 𝑒 )*!( − 𝑒 )(*!2*")(
u The reliability of an n-out-of-m system is given by a

binomial distribution:
.
𝑚 4 .)4
𝑅𝑛𝑚 =O 𝑅 1−𝑅
𝑖
456

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Maintenance and Repair
u An important category of reliability problems deals

with maintenance and repair of systems.
u If a failed component can be repaired while a
redundant component has replaced it in service,
then the overall reliability of the system is improved.
u If components subject to wear can be replaced
before they have failed, then the system reliability
will be improved.
u Preventive maintenance is aimed at minimizing
system failure.

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Maintainability
u A redundant system continues to operate when a

component has failed, but it may become vulnerable
to shutdown unless the component is repaired and
placed back in service.
𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 = 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝐹 + 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅
Where MTBF= mean time between failures
MTTF=mean time to fail
MTTF=mean time to repair
u Maintainabiltiy is the probability that a component or
system that has failed will be restored to service within
a given time.
(
𝑀 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 )7( = 1 − 𝑒 )8,,9

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Availability
u Availability is the concept that combines both

reliability and maintainability; it is the proportion of
time the system is working “on line” to the total time,
when that is determined over a long working period.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑛:46- 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑛:46- + 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
1
=
1 + 𝜆𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅
&
If 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝐹 = *
𝑀𝑇𝑇𝐹
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑀𝑇𝑇𝐹 + 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅

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14.4 Design for
Reliability
WHAT ARE METHODS FOR ACHIEVING RELIABILITY IN
A DESIGN?
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Design for Reliability
u The design strategy used to ensure reliability can fall

between two broad extremes.
u The fail-safe approach is to identify the weak spot in
the system or component and provide some way to
monitor that weakness.
u Frequently an absolute worst-case approach is
used, in it the worst combination of parameters is
identified and the design is based on the premise
that all can go wrong at the same time.
u This is a very conservative approach, and is often leads
to overdesign!

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Design for Reliability (2)
u Two major areas of engineering activity determine

the reliability of an engineering system:
1. Provision for reliability must be established during the

design concept stage, carried through the detailed
design development, and maintained during the
many steps in manufacture.
2. Once the system becomes operational, it is imperative

that provision be made for its continued maintenance
during its service.

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Reliability Activities Throughout
Design

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Causes of Unreliability
u Design mistakes:
u Among the common design errors are failure to include all important
operator factors, incomplete information on loads and environmental
conditions, erroneous calculations, and poor selection of materials.
u Manufacturing defects:
u Poor surface finish, decarburization crack in heat-treated steel.
u Maintenance
u Exceeding design limits:
u Exceeding limits of temperature, speed, etc.
u Environmental factors:
u Subjecting equipment to environmental conditions for which it was not
designed.

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Minimizing Failure
u A variety of methods are used in engineering design

practice to improve reliability:
u Margin of safety
u Derating
u Redundancy
u Durability
u Damage tolerance
u Ease of Inspection
u Specificity

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Distribution of Defect in
Engineering Components

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14.5 Failure Mode
Analysis (FMEA)
and Effects
WHAT IS FMEA?
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FMEA
u Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) is a team-

based methodology for identifying potential
problems with new or existing designs.
u FMEA was first used to identify and correct safety

hazards.
u FMEA identifies the mode of failure of every

component in a system and determines the effect
on the system of each potential failure.

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Factors in Developing FMEA
u Three factors are considered in developing a FMEA:

u The severity of a failure
u The probability of occurrence of the failure.
u The likelihood of detecting the failure in either design or
manufacturing, before the product is used by the
customer.
u Risk Priority Number (RPN):
𝑅𝑃𝑁
= 𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
u Value of RPN can vary from a maximum of 1000, the
greatest risk, to a minimum of 1.

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Rating for Severity of Failure

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Rating of Occurrence of
Failure

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Rating of Detection of Failure

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Results Of A FMEA Analysis

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Creating a FMEA Chart
1. The design is reviewed to determine the interrelations

of assemblies and the interrelations of the
components of each subassembly.
2. Now look more broadly, and ask what are the
consequences to the system of each failure identified
in step1.
3. For each of the functions, list the potential failure
modes.
4. For each of the failure modes identifies, describe the
consequences or effect of the failure.
5. Using the severity of failure table, enter the numerical
value.

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Creating a FMEA Chart (2)
6. Identify the possible causes of the failure mode.

7. Using the occurrence of failure table, enter a value
for the occurrence of the cause of each failure.
8. Determine how the potential failure will be detected.
9. Using Table 14.14, enter a rating that reflects the
ability to detect the cause of the failure identified in
step 8.
10. Calculate the risk priority number (RPN).
11. For each potential failure, determine the corrective
action to remove a potential design, manufacturing,
or operational failure.

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14.6 Fault Tree
WHAT IS FAULT TREE ANALYSIS?
Analysis
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Fault Tree Analysis
u Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a systematic method to

identify undesired events (faults) in a system.
u A fault is when a system does something it is not
supposed to do or does not do something it is
supposed to do.
u Often these faults are reliability or safety issues.
u Fault tree analysis starts with the top undesired
event and develops in a tree-like fashion all
potential causes for that event.
u FTA is the ability to identify combinations of events
that can affect the top undesired event.

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68
Fault Tree For The Failure Of A
Lawn Mower Engine to Start

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69
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14.7 Defects and
Failure Modes
WHAT ARE TYPICAL DEFECTS AND FAILURE MODES IN
ENGINEERING DESIGN?
70
Defects and Failure Modes
u Failures of engineering designs and systems are a result

of deficiencies in four broad categories:
u Hardware failure:
u Failure of a component to function as designed
u Software failure:
u Failure of the computer software to function as designed
u Human failure:
u Failure of human operators to follow instructions or respond
adequately to emergency situations.
u Organizational failure:
u Failure of the organization to properly support the system.

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71
Causes of Hardware Failure
1. Design deficiencies
2. Deficiency in selection of material
3. Imperfection in material due to manufacturing
4. Improper testing or inspection
5. Overload and other abuses in service
6. Inadequate maintenance and repair
7. Environmental factors

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72
Failure Modes
u The specific modes of failure of engineering

components can usually be grouped into four
general classes:
u Excessive elastic deformation
u Excessive plastic deformation
u Fracture
u Loss of required part geometry through corrosion or
wear

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73
Failure Modes for Mechanical
Components

74
Examples of Failure Modes in
Components

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75
Importance of Failure
u It is a human tendency to be reluctant to talk about

failure or to publish much information about failures.
u Spectacular system failures, like the Tacoma Narrows
bridge or the O-ring seal on the space shuttle
Challenger solid rock booster, have caught the public’s
attention.
u While the literature on engineering failures is not
extensive, there are several useful books on the subject.
v For information on conduction failure analysis see

Techniques for Failure Analysis at www.mhhe.com/dieter.

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76
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14.8 Design for
Safety
WHAT ARE METHODS FOR APPLYING DESIGN FOR
SAFETY?
77
Design For Safety
u Safety may well be the paramount issue in product

design.
u Normally we take safety for granted, but the recall of
an unsafe product can be very costly in terms of
product liability suits, replaced product, or tarnished
reputation.
u The product must be safe to:
u Manufacture
u Use
u Dispose of after use.
u A safe product is one that does not cause injury or
property loss.

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78
Aspects To Design for Safety
1. Make the product safe, design all hazards out of

the product.
2. If it is not possible to make the product inherently
safe, then design in protective devices like guards,
automatic cutoff switches, and pressure-relief
valves, to mitigate the hazard.
3. If step 2 cannot remove all hazards, then warn the
user of the product with appropriate warnings like
labels, flashing lights, and loud sounds.
4. Provide training and protective clothing or devices
to the user or operator of the equipment.

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79
Fail-Safe Design
u A fail-safe design seeks to ensure that a failure will

either not affect the product or change it to a state in
which no injury or damage will occur.
u There are three variants of fail-safe design:
u Fail-passive design:
u When a failure occurs, the system is reduced to its lowest-energy
state, and the product will not operate until corrective action is
taken.
u Fail-active design:
u When failure occurs, the system remains energized and in a safe
operating mode.
u Fail-operational design:
u The design is such that the device continues to provide its critical
function even though a part has failed.

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80
Potential Dangers
u We list here some of the general categories of safety hazards that
need to be considered in design:
q Acceleration/deceler
ation
q Chemical q Leaks or spills
contamination q Life cycle factors
q Electrical q Materials
q Environment q Mechanical
q Ergonomic q Physiological
q Explosions q Pressure/Vacuum
q Fire q Radiation
q Human factors q Structural
q Temperature
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81
Guidelines for Design for Safety
1. Recognize and identify the actual or potential

hazards, and then design the product so they will not
affect its functioning.
2. Thoroughly test prototypes of the product to reveal
any hazards overlooked in the initial design.
3. Design the product so it is easier to use safely than to
use unsafely.
4. If field experience turns up a safety problem,
determine the root cause and redesign to eliminate
the hazard.
5. Realize that humans will do foolish things, and allow
for it in your design

Companies
82
Guidelines for Design for Safety
(2)
6. There is a close correspondence between good

ergonomic design and a safe design.
7. Minimize the use of flammable materials, including
packaging materials.
8. Paint and other surface finishing materials should be
chosen to comply with EPA and OSHA regulations for
toxicity to the user and for safety when they are
burned, recycled, or discarded.
9. Think about the need for repair, service, or
maintenance.
10. Electrical products should be properly grounded to
prevent shock.

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83
Warning Labels
u With rapidly escalating costs of product liability,

manufacturers have responded by plastering their
products with warning labels.
u Warnings should supplement the safety related design
features by indicating how to avoid injury or damage
from the hazards that could not be feasibly designed
out of the product without seriously compromising its
performance.
u Attention is achieved by printing:
u Danger
u Warning
u Caution

Companies
THANK YOU

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DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING

AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

RISK, RELIABILITY, AND SAFETY

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Regulation as a Result of Risk

u The following federal organizations have a major role to play in

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill Companies

u The role that standards play in protecting public

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u Standards may be mandatory or voluntary.

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u Data on risk are subject to considerable uncertainty

u Financial losses (chiefly from the insurance industry)

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u Many physical measurements follow the

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u In order to place all normal distributions on a

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u All statistical texts contain tables for the z distribution,

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u The mechanical properties of engineering materials

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u When the range of property values is not given, it is

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u An important concept in risk and reliability analysis is

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u We will define the safety factor, SF, as the ratio of

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u Each of the factors is evaluated separately, and

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u 𝐹𝑆%+)&'$,-&* = 1.1 − 1.2

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' "("$)*#* = 1.0 − 1.1

u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' "("$)*#* = 1.2

u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' +,'-&) = 1.3 − 1.5

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u 𝐹𝑆'&)($.(%)(/ = 1.2 − 1.3

u 𝐹𝑆'&)($.(%)(/ = 1.4 − 1.6

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u The probability of failure is given by:

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u Reliability is the probability that a system, component, or device will

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

u A measure of failure rate is the hazard rate or the

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

v The general failure

Three-stage curve typical of Failure curve more typical of

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill Companies

u Cumulative time to failure (T):

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill

Dieter/Schmidt, Engineering Design 5e. ©2013. The McGraw-Hill Companies

u For the special case of a constant failure rate , ℎ 𝑡 = 𝜆,:

u The probability distribution of reliability is a

u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' "("$)# = 1.0 − 1.1

u 𝐹𝑆!"#$%&' "("$)# = 1.2