Unit 2 Index Properties and Classifications

Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan
CE 315 : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
• Index Properties
• and
• classification of
Soils
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in
whole or in part.
• k
whole or in part.
Index Properties :
Index Properties : Properties which are indicative of the engineering
properties of soils are called index properties
Main index properties of
coarse grained soils
• m
1. Particle size
2. Relative Density
Main index properties of fine
grained soils
1. Consistency Limits (Atterberg Limits)
The term consistency is used to denote the degree of firmness of soil.
The consistency of natural cohesive soil deposits is expressed

qualitatively by such terms as very soft, soft, stiff, very stiff and hard.
whole or in part.
Atterberg Limits
• Shrinkage limit: the
moisture content, in percent,
at which the transition from
solid to semisolid state takes
place
• Plastic limit: the moisture
content at the point of
transition from semisolid to
plastic state
• Liquid limit: the moisture
content at the point of
transition from plastic to liquid
state
4 whole or in part.
Liquid Limit (LL)

• Percussion Cup Method
• This device consists of a brass cup
and a hard rubber base.
• The brass cup is dropped onto the
base by a cam operated by a crank.
• A soil paste is placed in the cup
for a liquid limit test.
• A groove is then cut at the center
of the soil pat with the standard
grooving tool.
5 whole or in part.
Percussion Cup Method
• The cup is lifted and

dropped from a height of
10 mm using a crank-
operated cam.
• The moisture content, in
percent, required to close a
distance of 12.5 mm along
the bottom of the groove
after 25 blows is defined as
the liquid limit.
6 whole or in part.
Flow Curve and Flow Index

• Flow Curve: the straight line that approximates
the relationship between moisture content and
log N.
• N is the number of blows required to close
the gap.
• The moisture content corresponding to N =
25, determined from the flow curve, gives
the liquid limit of the soil.
• Flow Index: the slope of the flow line.
• The equation of the flow line can be defined
as:
– Where:
• IF = flow index
• C = a constant
7 whole or in part.
Fall Cone Method

• In this test the liquid limit is defined as the moisture content at which a
standard cone of apex angle 30o and weight of 0.78 N will penetrate a
distance d = 20 mm in 5 seconds when allowed to drop from a position of
point contact with the soil surface.
8 whole or in part.
Fall Cone Method
• Flow index for a fall cone test

can be defined as:
• where w1, w2 = moisture contents

at cone penetrations of d1 and d2,
respectively
• A semilogarithmic graph can then be
plotted with moisture content (w)
versus cone penetration d.
9 whole or in part.
Plastic Limit (PL)

• Plastic limit: the moisture content, in percent, at which the soil
crumbles, when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm in diameter.
• The fall cone method can be used to obtain the plastic limit by
using a cone of similar geometry but with a mass of 2.35 N.
– Plasticity index:
PI = LL- PL
10 whole or in part.
Plasticity Index
• The plasticity index is the difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit of a soil. It is important in classifying fine-grained soils.
PI = LL- PL
Correlation Between Plasticity Index and Flow

Index
Shrinkage Limit (SL)

• Soil gradually shrinks as it loses moisture.
• Shrinkage limit: the moisture content, in percent, at which the
volume of the soil mass ceases to change.
Shrinkage limit tests are
performed with a porcelain
dish.
• The inside of the dish is
coated with petroleum
jelly and is then filled
completely with wet soil.
• The mass of the wet soil
is recorded.
• The soil pat in the dish is
then oven-dried.
• The volume of the oven-
dried soil pat is then
determined.
Shrinkage Limit (SL)

• The shrinkage limit is defined as:
M1 - M2 Vi -V f
SL = ( )(100)-( )(pw )(100)
M2 M2
– where:
• M1 = mass of wet soil at the beginning of the test
• M2 = mass of dry soil pat
• Vi = initial volume of wet soil pat
• Vf = volume of the oven-dried soil pat
• pw = density of water (g/cm3)
Shrinkage Ratio
• An additional parameter that can be determined from a shrinkage
limit test is the shrinkage ratio.
• Shrinkage ratio: the ratio of the volume change of soil as a
percentage of the dry volume to the corresponding change in
moisture content.
Typical Values of Shrinkage Limit
for Clay Minerals
Liquidity Index
• The relative
consistency of a
cohesive soil in the
natural state can be
defined by the
liquidity index:
where w = in situ moisture

content of soil
Consistency Index
• Another index that is
commonly used for
engineering purposes is
the consistency index
(CI), which is defined
as:
– where w = in situ
moisture content
Activity
• The relationship of the
plasticity index to the
percentage of clay-size
fraction may not always
pass through the origin.
• A may be redefined as:
where C’ is a constant for a

given soil
Activity
• The relationship of the plasticity
index to the percentage of clay-
size fractions present in a soil
can be represented by two
straight lines.
• For clay-size fractions greater

than 40%, the straight line
passes through the origin.
Plasticity Chart
• The plasticity chart plots the
liquidity limit against the
plasticity index of various
soils.
• The information provided in

the plasticity chart is useful
for studying the correlation
of these parameters and for
soil identification.
The A-Line
• The A-line is an empirical line given by:
PI = 0.73(LL-20)
• This line separates inorganic clays from inorganic silts.
• Inorganic clays are above the A-line
• Inorganic silts are below the A-line
• Organic silts lie in the same region as the inorganic silts of medium
compressibility.
The U-Line
• The U-line is an empirical line given by:
PI = 0.9( LL − 8)
• This line is approximately the upper limit of the relationship of the
plasticity index to the liquid limit for any currently known soil.
Estimating the Shrinkage Limit from the

Plasticity Index and the Liquid Limit
1. Plot the plasticity index
against the liquid limit of a
given soil such as point A in
the figure on the right.
2. Project the A-line and the U-
line downward to meet at point
B.
3. Join points A and B with a
straight line.
• This will intersect the
liquid limit axis at point C.
• The abscissa of point C is
the estimated shrinkage
limit.
Soil Structures
• Soil structure: the geometric arrangement of soil particles with respect
to one another.
• Factors that affect soil structure:
• shape
• size
• mineralogical composition of soil particles
• nature and composition of soil water
• There are two main classification groups for soils:
1. cohesionless (single-grained and honeycombed)
2. cohesive
❖ GRADATION of sizes of the different particles

❖ BEARING CAPACITY as reflected by soils density
❖ PARTICLE SHAPES interlock according to shapes; this affects strength
❖ An engineer will also consider the effect of water on various types of soil for the project.
Single-Grained Structures
• In single-grained structures, soil particles are in stable
positions, with each particle in contact with the surrounding
ones.
• Void ratios vary with the denseness of packing.
Honeycombed Structures
• Honeycombed structures have large void ratios and
can carry an ordinary static load.
• Under a heavy load or when subjected to shock loading,
the structure breaks down, resulting in a large amount
of settlement.
Structures in Cohesive Soils

• At large inter-particle distances, clay
particles electrostatically repel each
other, however, they attract each other
at small inter-particle distances.
• The particles move randomly in
Brownian motion.
• In a dispersed structure, formed
from the settlement of individual
particles, the particles are oriented
mostly parallel to each other.
• If the clay particles come close to
one another during random motion
in suspension, they tend to
aggregate – a process known as
flocculation.
Aggregation of Clay Particles

• Individual clay particles tend to
aggregate in sub-microscopic
units called domains, which
then aggregate into groups called
clusters.
• Clusters group together to form

peds.
• Groups of peds are

macrostructural features along
with joints and fissures.
Mechanical Analysis of Soil

• Mechanical Analysis is the determination of the size range
of particles present in a soil, expressed as a percentage of
the total dry weight.
• The two most common methods used to find the particle-
size distribution of soil are:
• Sieve analysis – for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm
in diameter
• Hydrometer analysis – for particle sizes smaller than
0.075 mm in diameter
Sieve Analysis
• Sieve Analysis consists of shaking the soil
sample through a set of sieves that have
progressively smaller openings.
• To perform the analysis:
• The percent soil passing through a
certain size sieve is measured and
plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph to
produce the particle-size distribution
curve.
Hydrometer Analysis
• Hydrometer Analysis is based on the principle of
sedimentation of soil grains in water.
• When a soil is dispersed in water, the particles settle at
different velocities, depending on their shape, size, weight,
and the viscosity of the water expressed by Stoke’s law:
where  = velocity
s = density of soil particles

w = density of water
 = viscosity of water
D = diameter of soil particles
Hydrometer Analysis
Hydrometer & Sieve Analysis

Results
Particle-Size Distribution Curve

A particle-size distribution
curve is used to determine:
Effective size (𝐷10 )
Uniformity coefficient
𝐷60
(𝐶𝑢 ): 𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
Coefficient of gradation
2
𝐷30
(𝐶𝑐 ): 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60 𝑥 𝐷10
Well-graded
Particle-Size Distribution
Curve Uniformly graded
Poorly graded soil is soil where
most of the soil grains are the Gap, step, or skip graded
same size.
Well graded soil is soil where

the particle sizes are
distributed over a wide range.
Gap graded soil is soil which

has a combination of two or
more uniformly graded
fractions.
whole or in part.
whole or in part.
whole or in part.
whole or in part.
whole or in part.
• g
Exercise Students
One kg of a soil was sieved through a set of 8 sieves with the size 4.75
mm, 2.0 mm, 600µ, 425µ, 300µ, 212µ, 150µ and 75µ. The weight of
soil retained on these sieves was found to be 50, 78, 90, 150, 160, 132,
148 and 179 gm respectively. Draw a particle size distribution curve and
determine the uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature.
whole or in part.
Classification Systems Purpose
Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms of

simple indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a general
guidance about engineering properties of the soils through the
accumulated experience.
Used to determine the suitability of
Communicate
• v between
different soils
Used to develop correlations with
engineers
useful soil properties
Simple indices Classification Estimate Achieve

system engineering engineering
GSD, LL, PI (Language) properties purposes
Use the
accumulated
experience
• A soil classification system is a universal language, which all geotechnical
engineers understand, where soils of similar characteristics are grouped together
whole or in part.
Classification of Soils
whole or in part.
Textural Classification
• Texture of soil refers to its surface appearance
➢ It is influenced by the size of individual particles
present in it.
• Soils are mixtures of particles from several size groups,
and they are named after their principal components
• The USDA textural classification system categorizes
soils based on the percentage of:
• Sand
• Clay
• Silt
Sample Textural Classification Table
Classification by Engineering Behavior

• The two most widely used soil classification systems are:
• The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system
• Largely used by state and county highway departments
• Highway engineering purposes
• Classifies soils, to it’s suitability as a subgrade
• The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
• Largely preferred by geotechnical engineers
• General engineering purposes
• Both systems take into account the particle-size distribution and
Atterberg limits.
• Soil engineers interpret soil characteristics by the amount of
plasticity present.
• Plasticity results from the presence of clay minerals
AASHTO Classification System
• Soils are classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7
• Groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular materials of which 35% or less of
the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve
• Groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 are granular materials of which 35% or
more of the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve

• The classification system is based on:
• Grain size
• Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm sieve and retained on
the No. 10 (2-mm) sieve
• Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) sieve and retained
on the No. 200 (0.075-mm) sieve
• Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 sieve
• Plasticity
• Silty: fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity index of 10 or
less
• Clayey: fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or more
• If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are
encountered, they are excluded from the portion of the soil
sample from which the classification is made

In order to evaluate the quality of a
soil as a highway subgrade material,
one must incorporate the group
index (GI)
The figure on the right shows a plot
of the range of the liquid limit and
plasticity index for soils in groups A-
2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7

• The group index is given by the equation:
GI = (F200 -35)[0.2+0.005(LL- 40)]+0.01(F200 -15)(PI -10)
– where:
– F200 = percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve
– LL = liquid limit
– PI = plasticity index
• In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is

inversely proportional to the group index
• Soils in groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 always have a group
index of 0
• Soils in groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index for PI
Unified Soil Classification System

• This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
• 1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in
nature with less than 50% passing through the No. 200
sieve
• The prefix G is used for gravel/gravelly soil and S for sand/sandy
soil
• 2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing

through the No. 200 sieve
• The prefix of M is used for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, O
for organic silts and clays, and Pt for peat, muck, and other
highly organic soils
Unified Soil Classification System

• Soils are further classified by the following prefixes:
• W for well-graded
• P for poorly-graded
• L for low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
• H for high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)
• For proper classification according to this system, some
or all of the following information must be known:
• Percent of gravel
• Percent of sand
• Percent of silt and clay
• Uniformity Coefficient
• Gradation Coefficient
• Liquid limit and Plasticity index
Plasticity Chart for Unified Soil Classification

System
55 © 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in
whole or in part.
whole or in part.
whole or in part.
whole or in part.
Comparison between the AASHTO and Unified

Systems
• Both the AASHTO and Unified Classification systems are
based on the texture and plasticity of soil
• Both systems divide the soils into two major categories,
coarse grained and fine grained, as separated by
the No. 200 sieve
• The AASHTO system considers soil fine grained
when more than 35% passes through the No. 200
sieve, and coarse grained otherwise
• The Unified system considers soil fine grained when
more than 50% passes through the No. 200 sieve,
and coarse grained otherwise
Comparison between the AASHTO and Unified
Systems
• The Unified system clearly separates gravelly and sandy soils, unlike the
AASHTO system
• Only the Unified system classifies organic soils such as OL, OH, and PT
• The Unified system provides more descriptive and specified soil categories
when compared to the AASHTO system
Particle Shape
The three major categories of particle shape are:
• Bulky particles which are formed mostly by

mechanical weathering of rock and minerals.
Bulky particles are described by the terms
angular, subangular, subrounded, and
rounded.
• Flaky particles which have very low

sphericity and are predominantly clay
minerals.
• Needle shaped particles which are much less

common than the other two particle types.
Coral deposits and attapulgite clay are
examples of soils containing needle-shaped
particles.
HOMEWORK
• Classify the following soils by both the AASHTO and Unified
• Systems, and give the group index for the AASHTO system.
Sieve
Analysis --
% finer than
Soil Sample #10 #40 #200 Liquid Lmt Plastic Lmt
A 95 79 53 36 21
B 100 95 78 65 26
C 100 80 62 35 20
D 90 55 45 28 20
E 90 71 60 40 26
whole or in part.

Unit 2 Index Properties and Classifications

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Unit 2 Index Properties and Classifications

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

CE 315 : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

The consistency of natural cohesive soil deposits is expressed

Liquid Limit (LL)

Percussion Cup Method

• The cup is lifted and

Flow Curve and Flow Index

Fall Cone Method

Fall Cone Method

• Flow index for a fall cone test

• where w1, w2 = moisture contents

Plastic Limit (PL)

Correlation Between Plasticity Index and Flow

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

where w = in situ moisture

where C’ is a constant for a

• For clay-size fractions greater

• The information provided in

Estimating the Shrinkage Limit from the

❖ GRADATION of sizes of the different particles

Structures in Cohesive Soils

Aggregation of Clay Particles

• Clusters group together to form

• Groups of peds are

Mechanical Analysis of Soil

s = density of soil particles

Hydrometer & Sieve Analysis

Particle-Size Distribution Curve

Well graded soil is soil where

Gap graded soil is soil which

Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms of

Simple indices Classification Estimate Achieve

Classification by Engineering Behavior

AASHTO Classification System

AASHTO Classification System

AASHTO Classification System

AASHTO Classification System

• In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is

Unified Soil Classification System

• 2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing

Unified Soil Classification System

Plasticity Chart for Unified Soil Classification

Comparison between the AASHTO and Unified

• Bulky particles which are formed mostly by

• Flaky particles which have very low

• Needle shaped particles which are much less

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