Master's Thesis, Justin Reinhart - Final - Final Format Approved LW 7-30-2021

DESIGN OF A SMALL-TURBOJET COMPRESSOR TEST FACILITY
Thesis
Submitted to
The School of Engineering of the
UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of
Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering
By
Justin T. Reinhart
UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON
Dayton, Ohio
August, 2021
Name: Reinhart, Justin T.
APPROVED BY:
Markus P. Rumpfkeil, Ph.D. Andrew P. Murray, Ph.D.

Advisory Committee Chairman Committee Member
Associate Professor, Professor, Department of
Hans von Ohain Endowed Chair, Mechanical and Aerospace
Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Aerospace Engineering
David H. Myszka, Ph.D.

Committee Member
Professor, Department of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering
Robert J. Wilkens, Ph.D., P.E. Margaret F. Pinnell, Ph.D.

Associate Dean for Research and Innovation Interim Dean, School of Engineering
Professor
School of Engineering
ii
© Copyright by
Justin T. Reinhart
All rights reserved
2021
ABSTRACT
Name: Reinhart, Justin T.

University of Dayton
Advisor: Dr. Markus P. Rumpfkeil
Validation of compressor aerodynamic design can be obtained through in-engine
testing with considerable investment of time and money or in rig testing, wherein a range
of interchangeable designs can be tested without exposure to effects of other engine
components. To more rapidly explore centrifugal and mixed-flow compressor designs for
small, thrust-producing aviation gas-turbine engines, called turbojets, the Air Force
Research Laboratories (AFRL) initiated development of a test apparatus to be integrated
into an existing test facility at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB). Design of the
inlet flow conditioning and measuring system, mechanical systems, exhaust discharge
valve, and exhaust collector is accomplished through sizing calculations, aerodynamic and
mechanical analysis. This thesis project presents the final design of this small-turbojet
compressor test facility, capable of testing virtually the entire operating map of
compressors in the desired size range. Fabrication of the test rig is underway as of the
conclusion of this thesis; component testing, assembly, and initial test article testing is
planned thereafter.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Markus Rumpfkeil, and advisory committee
members, Dr. Andrew Murray and Dr. David Myszka, who not only provided advice and
expertise, but also the flexibility to work primarily under AFRL direction. I felt as though
I had the perfect balance of support and freedom from both sides throughout the project.
I would also like to thank my brother, Jonathon Reinhart. Your meticulous editing
saved me hours of proofreading and provided me with confidence from knowing my
writing had been checked by another experienced engineer. This thesis is better because of
you.
My special thanks to everyone at AFRL and ISSI for the support that was provided
to me every day working on this project; I simply would not have been able to complete it
without you. This includes (in alphabetical order, because I could never begin to qualify
your contributions): Jacob Baranski, Greg Bloch, Matt Boehle, Jesse Coffman, Danny
Gillaugh, Tim Janczewski, Mike List, Chase Nessler, Rolf Sondergaard, Ernest Thompson
and Trevor Tomlin.
DISTRIBUTION A.
Approved for public release: distribution unlimited.
Case number AFRL-2021-2452.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1. Compressors .............................................................................................. 1

1.2. Gas Turbines ............................................................................................. 7
1.3. Compressor Testing................................................................................. 11
1.4. Motivation ............................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 2 FACILITY .................................................................................................. 17
2.1 Capabilities .............................................................................................. 17

2.2 Requirements ........................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 INLET SYSTEM ........................................................................................ 24
3.1 Mechanical Design .................................................................................. 24

3.2 Flow Suppression Effects ........................................................................ 29
3.3 Flow Measurement .................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER 4 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 34

4.2 Bearings ................................................................................................... 38
4.3 Shaft ........................................................................................................ 48
4.4 Rotordynamics Analysis ......................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 5 DISCHARGE VALVE ............................................................................... 62
5.1 Operating Principal ................................................................................. 62

5.2 Sizing....................................................................................................... 65
5.3 Load Analysis .......................................................................................... 68
5.4 Actuation ................................................................................................. 75
v
CHAPTER 6 EXHAUST COLLECTOR ......................................................................... 83

6.2 Aerodynamic Analysis ............................................................................ 87
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ................................................. 96
7.1 Inlet System Design ................................................................................ 97

7.2 Mechanical Systems Design.................................................................... 98
7.3 Discharge Valve Design .......................................................................... 99
7.4 Exhaust Collector Design ...................................................................... 100
7.5 Future Work .......................................................................................... 100
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 102
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Typical application ranges of compressor types [1]. ........................................ 1
Figure 1.2: A three-stage, single acting reciprocating compressor (courtesy of
Ingersoll-Rand) [1].................................................................................................. 2
Figure 1.3: Ideal compression cycle pressure-volume (PV) diagram [2]. .......................... 3
Figure 1.4: A 14-stage axial-flow rotor (courtesy of Elliot Company) [1]. ........................ 4
Figure 1.5: Pressure-volume diagram of compression processes [3]. ................................ 5
Figure 1.6: An open-cycle gas-turbine engine diagram [3]. ............................................... 8
Figure 1.7: (a) P-v and (b) T-s diagrams for the ideal Brayton cycle [3]. .......................... 9
Figure 1.8: Schematic (left) and image (right) of Whittle turbine [4]. ............................. 11
Figure 1.9: Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220 engine [6]. ................................................... 11
Figure 1.10: Typical centrifugal compressor performance map [4]. ................................ 14
Figure 2.1: Air Force Prize drive stand. ............................................................................ 17
Figure 2.2: Air Force Prize dynamometer and gearbox, power and torque capabilities
with speed. ............................................................................................................ 18
Figure 2.3: Test cell control room..................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.4: Data acquisition and controls test-cell interface cabinet. ............................... 20
Figure 2.5: Test cell high-temperature exhaust ducting.................................................... 21
Figure 2.6: Compressor power requirement for a given pressure ratio and mass
flowrate. Dry air at typical Dayton, OH inlet conditions (14.3 psi, 59 °F),
isentropic efficiency of 75%. ................................................................................ 22
vii
Figure 2.7: Achievable mass flow and pressure ratio with power draw of 181 hp. Dry
air at standard-day temperature (59 °F), isentropic compression efficiency of
75%. ...................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 3.1: Inlet system: (A) inlet screen holder, (B) screen (5x), (C) butterfly valve,
(D) valve actuator, (E) flow diverter, (F) flow barrel, (G) honeycomb (2x), (H)
fairing, (I) seal/damper, and (J) bellmouth/nozzle. ............................................... 24
Figure 3.2: Geometric chart for components under external pressure or compressive
loadings (for all materials) [18]. ........................................................................... 26
Figure 3.3: Chart for determining shell thickness of components under external
pressure developed for austenitic stainless steel [18]. .......................................... 27
Figure 3.4: Inlet system mounting structure: (K) pipe clamps (2x), (L) trolley system,
and (M) radial alignment jack screws (4x). .......................................................... 28
Figure 3.5: ASME 19.5-2004 low β nozzle [20]. ............................................................. 33
Figure 4.1: Mechanical systems: (A) impeller nut, (B) hex lug, (C) impeller, (D) shaft
insert, (E) retaining ring (3x), (F) honeycomb seal (3x), (G) front bearing
housing, (H) radial air bearing (2x), (I) radial air bearing supply fitting (2x),
(J) button load cell (8x), (K) thrust air bearing (2x), (L) thrust air bearing
supply fitting (2x), (M) shaft insert bolt, (N) thrust piston supply fitting (4x),
(O) thrust piston, (P) thrust piston nut, (Q) spline coupling, (R) bearing
housing flange, (S) aft bearing housing, (T) thrust piston seal spacer, (U)
radial bearing cavity vent (2x), (V) wave spring (8x), (W) dowel pin (16x), (X)
thrust bearing cavity vent, (Y) main shaft, and (Z) front radial bearing vent
plug. ...................................................................................................................... 36
viii
Figure 4.2: Common aerostatic bearing configurations and pressure profiles [26]. ......... 39
Figure 4.3: Radial bearing loaded area. ............................................................................ 41
Figure 4.4: Mechanical systems gas supply system diagram. .......................................... 42
Figure 4.5: Radial bearing air gap shear. .......................................................................... 44
Figure 4.6: Thrust bearing air gap shear. .......................................................................... 47
Figure 4.7: Shaft insert. ..................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.8: Finite-element analysis of main shaft and shaft insert in the nominal
thermal case. ......................................................................................................... 52
Figure 4.9: Shaft fit with cold clearance and interface temperature. ................................ 53
Figure 4.10: Rotordynamic model of rotor system. .......................................................... 55
Figure 4.11: Mode 1 – Rigid-body pitch mode, 19,745 rpm, 26% strain energy. ............ 56
Figure 4.12: Mode 2 – Rigid-body bounce mode, 42,505 rpm, 20% strain energy. ........ 57
Figure 4.13: Mode 3 – 1st bend mode, 92,257 rpm, 85% strain energy. ........................... 57
Figure 4.14: Critical speed map. ....................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.15: Front bearing load vs. rotational speed. ....................................................... 59
Figure 4.16: Aft bearing load vs. rotational speed. ........................................................... 60
Figure 4.17: Rotor proximity sensor placement. .............................................................. 61
Figure 4.18: Rotor deflections vs. rotational speed. ......................................................... 61
Figure 5.1: Discharge valve flow path. ............................................................................. 62
Figure 5.2: Discharge valve – exploded view: (A) stator ring, (B) gasket, (C) rotating
ring, (D) drive pin, (E) drive link, (F) bearing array, (G) bearing ring, (H)
motor mount, (I) motor shaft seal, (J) stepper motor actuator, and (K) encoder.
............................................................................................................................... 63
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Figure 5.3: Discharge valve – full-open position section views: through flow sector
(section A) and through bearing sector (section B). ............................................. 65
Figure 5.4: Single sector of discharge valve sizing model. .............................................. 66
Figure 5.5: Discharge valve flow-area vs. valve position. ................................................ 67
Figure 5.6: CFD sector model mesh of discharge valve. .................................................. 69
Figure 5.7: Discharge valve CFD results of upstream pressure vs. stator-ring gap
analysis. ................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 5.8: Discharge valve CFD results at full-closed position, 0.025 in. stator-
rotating ring gap: flow trajectories colorized with Mach number (A) and
pressure, normalized to upstream value (B). ........................................................ 71
Figure 5.9: Discharge valve CFD results at full-closed position, 0.005 in. stator-
rotating ring gap: flow trajectories colorized with Mach number (A) and
pressure, normalized to upstream value (B). ........................................................ 71
Figure 5.10: Axial load vs. valve open percentage. .......................................................... 72
Figure 5.11: Discharge valve CFD results of pressure-ratios across components vs.
valve position with third-order polynomial fits. ................................................... 73
Figure 5.12: Discharge valve CFD results at 3% open position: flow trajectories
colorized with Mach number (A) and pressure, normalized to upstream value
(B). ........................................................................................................................ 74
(B). ........................................................................................................................ 75
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Figure 5.14: Discharge valve CFD results at full-open position: flow trajectories
(B). ........................................................................................................................ 75
Figure 5.15: Discharge valve actuation, downstream view: (A) full-closed position,
(B) mid-span position, (C) full-open position....................................................... 76
Figure 5.16: Disk friction. [34] ......................................................................................... 77
Figure 5.17: Discharge valve actuation diagram. ............................................................. 79
Figure 5.18: Valve position vs. motor position................................................................. 79
Figure 5.19: Drive-motor torque required to actuate valve with arm and link design
and capabilities of various stepper motor and driver combinations vs. motor
position.................................................................................................................. 80
Figure 5.20: Torque load to rotate valve arm and capabilities of various stepper motor
and driver combinations vs. valve open percentage. ............................................ 81
Figure 5.21: Valve-control resolution with MLA10641 driver. ....................................... 82
Figure 6.1: Exhaust collector: (A) exit transition, (B) main body, (C) exit flange, and
(D) entrance flange (2x)........................................................................................ 84
Figure 6.2: Collector main body geometry with equal-volume lofted channels............... 85
Figure 6.3: Downstream exhaust system: (A) facility exhaust duct, (B) intermediate
duct mount, (C) flex joint, (D) surge relief valve, and (E) surge relief port. ........ 86
Figure 6.4: TurboFlex coupling [36]. ............................................................................... 86
Figure 6.5: Collector-only CFD mesh. ............................................................................. 87
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Figure 6.6: Collector-only CFD results: (A) side-view and (B) iso-view of flow
trajectories colorized with pressure (normalized to downstream static value),
and (C) and (D) with Mach number. ..................................................................... 89
Figure 6.7: Collector-only CFD results: upstream view of circumferential pressure-
gradient (normalized to downstream static value). ............................................... 89
Figure 6.8: Full exhaust-system CFD mesh. ..................................................................... 90
Figure 6.9: Full-exhaust CFD results: (A) side-view and (B) iso-view of flow
trajectories colorized with pressure (normalized to downstream static value),
and (C) and (D) with Mach number. ..................................................................... 91
Figure 6.10: Full-exhaust CFD results: BDC splitter interaction asymmetry. ................. 92
Figure 6.11: Full-exhaust CFD results: upstream view of circumferential pressure-
gradient (normalized to downstream static value). ............................................... 93
Figure 6.12: Full-exhaust CFD results: discharge valve downstream-face pressure
gradient (normalized to downstream static value), upstream view....................... 94
Figure 6.13: Discharge valve downstream face pressure distribution (normalized to
downstream static value)....................................................................................... 94
gradient at compressor exit-plane (normalized to the average value). ................. 95
Figure 7.1: Complete compressor test facility assembly, sectioned top view. ................. 97
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Rotordynamics analysis results........................................................................... 56
Table 2: Discharge valve CFD results: component pressure ratios. ................................. 73
xiii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Compressors
Mechanical compression of a gas is useful for a wide variety of applications across
virtually all industries. The mechanisms used to accomplish this task, naturally referred to
as compressors, come in an extensive range of sizes and employ numerous types of
compressible gases, chosen for their specific purpose. Pressure ratio – the ratio of discharge
pressure to supply pressure – and flowrate through the device are the standard parameters
for which a compressor is chosen, and ranges of them are shown for various types of
compressors in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Typical application ranges of compressor types [1].
Instances found in everyday life include compression of air in internal combustion
engines, refrigerant in air conditioners, and carbon dioxide (CO2) in carbonated drink
1
production. Compressors function by means of one of two distinct principles: positive
displacement or dynamic compression. Both types are commonly used in multistage
compression, where one stage’s exit is connected to the inlet of the next, increasing the
system’s pressure-rise capability.
Positive displacement compressors increase the pressure of a gas by the forced
reduction of its volume, caused by the movement of some mechanism. A classic example
of this type of machine is the reciprocating compressor, which features a piston and
cylinder arrangement with valves, as shown in Figure 1.2. The example compressor is
considered single-acting because compression takes place one side of the piston, and
multistage because it features multiple cylinders [1].
Figure 1.2: A three-stage, single acting reciprocating

compressor (courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand) [1].
A pressure-volume (PV) diagram of an ideal compressor cycle is shown in Figure
1.3 to illustrate the operating principals. Starting at state 1, gas in the cylinder is at the
2
suction pressure (denoted by ps) and the piston is forced upward by the rotation of a shaft;
the volume in the cylinder decreases which results in a pressure and temperature rise. A
valve opens at state 2 when the gas in the cylinder has reached the discharge pressure (pd),
allowing the it to escape into the discharge line. The discharge valve closes at state 3 as the
piston approaches its highest point – called top dead center (TDC) – and the piston begins
to fall, increasing the volume in the cylinder and decreasing the pressure and temperature
of the gas trapped inside. At state 4, the suction valve opens to allow a fresh charge of gas
to fill the cylinder. As the piston approaches its lowest point – called bottom dead center
(BDC) – the suction valve closes, sealing the cylinder and restarting the cycle at point 1
[2]. Other types of positive displacement compressors include screw, lobe, scroll, and
diaphragm, which also reduce the volume of a gas to increase its pressure, but do so via
differing mechanisms.
Figure 1.3: Ideal compression cycle pressure-volume (PV)

diagram [2].
3
Dynamic compressors, also called turbocompressors, are steady-flow machines
which convert the kinetic energy of the gas to static pressure via diffusion. A rotating
impeller draws in gas and accelerates it, causing a rise in kinetic energy. The high-energy
gas is then fed through a static diffuser, where an increase in flow-area decelerates the flow
resulting in a static pressure rise. A housing around both components creates a sealed
volume allowing it to function [2]. The rotor of a large dynamic compressor is shown in
Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: A 14-stage axial-flow rotor (courtesy of Elliot Company) [1].
There are two main dynamic compressor types: centrifugal and axial flow.
Centrifugal compressors convert axial incoming flow to a radial exit whereas axial
machines maintain average flow-direction throughout. Centrifugal compressors are applied
in a broad range of industries in all sizes because of the simplicity, relatively large single-
stage pressure-ratio capability, and low vibration [1]. Axial compressors are most often
found in multi-stage configurations in large-aircraft turbine-engines and ground-based-
4
power turbine-engines. These machines often process significant amounts of flow to satisfy
large power requirements, as shown in Figure 1.1. Dynamic compressors ultimately
achieve the same result as positive displacement – pressure rise of a gas in order to use it
to do work. The difference between the two exists in the thermodynamic process by which
the pressure rise is realized.
Figure 1.5 shows PV diagrams of various compression processes, which covers the
range of thermodynamic possibilities for converting change in volume to pressure rise. The
polytropic index, n, is a constant for a given process used to describe how pressure changes
with volume in the presence of heat transfer, where the relation is:
𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (1)
As denoted in the diagram, isothermal processes have a polytropic index equal to 1, while
isentropic processes have a polytropic index equal to k, the specific heat ratio (often labeled
as γ). Polytropic processes are a hybrid of the two and therefore have a polytropic index
between 1 and k.
Figure 1.5: Pressure-volume diagram of compression processes [3].
5
Though not practical in real applications, an isentropic compression process
requires no heat or gas escapes the system and no friction or other losses occur, and thus it
is adiabatic and reversable. Examples of loss mechanisms in compressors include: heat
transfer through walls, pressure drop across valves due to high velocity, pressure
fluctuations due to upstream and downstream components, flow disruptions due to
geometrical inadequacies, leakage across seals, and leakage through clearances between
rotating and static parts (referred to as tip clearances). Because there are no sources of
energy loss, isentropic compression is the most efficient. Isothermal compression is
accomplished by rejecting heat as the compression process progresses, thus resulting in no
temperature rise. Though energy is lost, isothermal compression minimizes the gas specific
volume throughout the process, which reduces the amount of work required per unit mass
(specific work) [2]. This phenomenon is also observed by integrating the area to the left of
the curve in Figure 1.5 to find the work required. Again, isothermal compression requires
the least amount of work while isentropic requires the most [3].
For most applications, the goal of a compressor is to achieve the desired pressure
rise while using the least amount of power [2]. Though isothermal compression requires
the least amount of specific work, the minimization of specific volume at a constant
volumetric flowrate results in maximized mass flowrate. Because power is the time rate of
work, the power required does not follow the same trend; isothermal compression almost
always requires more power than isentropic, and for that reason, compressor performance
is universally measured by the isentropic efficiency [2] [3]:
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑠

𝜂𝑐 = = (2)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑎
6
An expression for isentropic compressor work, 𝑤𝑠 , can be derived by first
considering the relationship between pressure and volume, shown in Equation 1, where
again, n is equal to k, the specific heat ratio. From this and the equation of state of an ideal
gas (PV=nRT), we are given the relationship between the pressure (PR) and temperature
(TR) ratios experienced in an isentropic process [3],

𝑘
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑘−1 (3)
=( ) = 𝑃𝑅
𝑃1 𝑇1
From the first law of thermodynamics and definition of enthalpy [3],
𝑊 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) (4)
Substituting and rearranging gives the following equation for the work required to
compress an ideal gas isentropically, per unit mass, w [3],
(𝛾−1)
𝑤𝑠 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 (𝑃𝑅 𝛾 − 1) (5)
Positive displacement and dynamic compressors behave differently with respect to
heat transfer due to the time duration of the process. The slower positive displacement
machines rely on heat rejection to minimize the work requirement per unit mass while
dynamic compressors more efficiently convert the energy to raise the pressure by
minimizing heat loss. The application determines the requirement.
1.2. Gas Turbines
Gas turbines are versatile gas power cycle machines used across numerous
industries to power land, air, and sea vehicles, compressors, pumps, and electrical
generators. Boyce’s Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook defines six categories of gas
7
turbines: frame type heavy-duty (power generation, 3-480 MW), aircraft-derivative
(aircraft propulsion, 2.5-50 MW), industrial-type (petrochemical compression drive trains,
2.5-15 MW), small gas turbine (0.5-2.5 MW), microturbine (20-350 kW), and vehicular
(225-1120 kW) [4]. Figure 1.6 illustrates how gas turbines function: (1) air is drawn in by
a compressor where it experiences a pressure and temperature rise, then (2) enters a
combustion chamber where fuel is added and burned, then (3) it is expanded across a
turbine, which drives the compressor via a common shaft, and (4) finally is exhausted [3].
Figure 1.6: An open-cycle gas-turbine engine diagram [3].
Gas turbines operate on the Brayton cycle, as illustrated in Figure 1.7 with (a) P-v
diagrams and (b) temperature-entropy (T-s) of the ideal cycle. When the gas entering the
engine is rejected as exhaust, it is referred to as an open cycle, and a closed cycle when the
flow is recirculated; all aerospace turbine engines are open cycle. From state (1) to (2), the
air is compressed. As discussed in section 1.1, dynamic compressors rapidly compress the
air and heat loss is minimal, thus the ideal process is isentropic. Heat is added via
combustion with fuel from states (2) to (3) at constant pressure. Isentropic expansion across
8
the turbine occurs between states (3) and (4), decreasing the pressure back to that of the
inlet. Heat is then rejected in the hot exhaust gas at constant pressure from state (4) to (1),
completing the cycle [3].
(a) P-v diagram.
(b) T-s diagram.
Figure 1.7: (a) P-v and (b) T-s diagrams for the ideal Brayton cycle [3].
9
A common application of gas turbines in the aircraft-derivative category are called
turbojets, in which flow exiting the turbine is accelerated through a nozzle in order to
generate force, called thrust. In other common engine architectures, work may be extracted
from the main shaft or a secondary shaft/turbine exposed to the combustor exit flow.
Arrangements that utilize shaft power include turbojets (small amounts for auxiliary
components such as generators, pumps, etc.), turboshafts (to rotate vehicle drivetrains,
electric generators, compressors or pumps, etc.), turboprops (to drive a thrust-producing
propellor), and turbofans (to drive a ducted fan to provide core-bypassing flow for thrust
and cooling). Turbofans are classified as either low or high-bypass, based on the ratio of
thrust generated by the fan to that generated by the core. Many aerospace gas turbines also
feature afterburners, or large ducts between turbine and nozzle, where additional fuel is
added to the exhaust flow and burned for supplementary thrust [5].
Gas turbines employ dynamic compressors – both centrifugal and axial – in a wide
range of combinations, sizes, numbers of stages, pressure ratios, and flowrates. Figure 1.8
and Figure 1.9 are two examples of turbojets. The former shows (a) a schematic and (b) an
image of the Whittle turbine – the first modern gas-turbine, built in 1930 by English
inventor Frank Whittle. This engine features a single-stage centrifugal compressor and
radial inflow turbine [4]. The latter shows the F100-PW-220 – a low-bypass afterburning
turbofan built by Pratt & Whitney and used in the Boeing F-15 and Lockheed-Martin F16
fighter jets [6]. A significantly more complicated engine than the Whittle turbine, the F100
features a dual-spool axial compressor with 3 fan and 10 compressor stages and 2 low and
2 high-pressure turbine stages [7].
10
Figure 1.8: Schematic (left) and image (right) of Whittle turbine [4].
Figure 1.9: Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220 engine [6].
1.3. Compressor Testing
Because of the relatively high speeds at which dynamic compressors operate and
high exit pressures and temperatures involved, rigs for testing come with complexity not
necessarily present with positive displacement compressors. Load management – pressure,
centrifugal, and thermal – as well as rotordynamic considerations must be made to ensure
functionality and integrity of the rig. Compressor test rigs typically feature a significant
amount of instrumentation throughout the flow path, to effectively analyze performance.
As size decreases, the effect that the instrumentation has on the compressor itself becomes
greater. Small compressors additionally require smaller machining tolerances on
11
components due to the increased effect of tip clearances, which also adds complexity to the
design.
To provide energy to the compressor, a drive system must be employed, capable of
delivering the power required to pressurize the air at a very high speed. Small compressors
found in automotive turbochargers and small gas-turbine engines can reach speeds in
excess of 200,000 rpm. As discussed in Section 1.1, dynamic compression occurs
isentropically and thus, exit temperatures increase with pressure rise. The test rig design
process must include considerations to prevent damage from thermal stress and damage
due to contact from thermal growth. Pressure loads, though not unique to dynamic
compressors, must also be factored into the test rig design. In order to load the compressor,
an area restriction downstream of the exit must be present to provide what is referred to as
back-pressure. Back-pressuring of a compressor test rig is often achieved by
implementation of a valve located downstream of the compressor exit, referred to as a
discharge valve.
Another critical aspect of dynamic compressor testing is management of adverse
conditions which occur at operating limits, called choking and surge. Choking occurs when
flow at a given condition has reached a maximum, and its velocity is sonic at location of
minimum area. While choking is not necessarily dangerous to the rig, compressor
performance will sharply decrease when this condition is met. Surge is an aerodynamic
instability that arises at low-flow conditions, in which rapid flow and pressure fluctuations
occur as a result of flow separation inside the compressor. Significant vibration and noise
are experienced in surge conditions, which can cause catastrophic damage to the
compressor. Predicting the onset of surge is done only by high-speed data sampling of
12
pressure in the compressor to identify these fluctuations [2]. Measuring vibration of the rig
can be used to determine when surge is occurring and a valve to vent the pressurized
volume to the exhaust – referred to as a surge relief valve – is a typical method of damage
prevention.
With a functioning test rig, compressor performance can be characterized by
adjusting the impeller speed and downstream flow-area, in order to vary mass flow and
pressure ratio. These two measured values are then used to calculate isentropic efficiency
using Equations 2-5, giving the three parameters most often used to characterize
compressors. Typically, the corrected mass flowrate is presented, which is the amount of
mass that is processed by the compressor if the inlet were exposed to a standard pressure
and temperature. Standard-day sea-level ambient conditions are 14.696 psi and 59 °F,
which are used in Equation 6 [4] to calculate corrected mass flow 𝑤√𝜃/𝛿, where 𝑚̇ is the
physical mass flow, 𝜃 is the ratio of the temperature to the standard, and 𝛿 is the ratio of
the pressure to the standard.
𝑇 𝑃
𝑚̇√𝜃/𝛿 = 𝑚̇√ /( ) (6)
518.67 14.696
𝑁/√𝜃 = 𝑁/√𝑇/518.67 (7)
Plotting the efficiency as a function of the corrected mass flowrate and pressure ratio
generates what is referred to as a compressor performance map, which can be used to
compare any compressors because of the independence of inlet conditions. A generalized
compressor map is presented in Figure 1.10. As shown in this example, lines of constant
aerodynamic speed (also called corrected speed) are often plotted as well, giving a
comprehensive picture of the operating limits of the compressor. Aerodynamic speed,
13
similar to corrected flow, is simply the speed at which the machine would rotate at standard
temperature, calculated using Equation 7 [4].
Figure 1.10: Typical centrifugal compressor performance map [4].
1.4. Motivation
Small-turbojet engine performance has been an ongoing field of research at the Air
Force Research Laboratories (AFRL) in the last decade, particularly that of commercial-
off-the-shelf (COTS) hobbyist engines in the hundreds-of-pounds thrust range. Relatively
14
low cost and respectable performance has driven the interest in these engines. Modified
component integration [8] [9], performance comparison [10] [11], simulated altitude
testing [12] [13], recuperation integration [14] [15], and more has been studied in an effort
to determine the utility of these small engines for the needs of the Air Force. Traditionally,
engine development for military application has been contracted to large aerospace defense
companies. Recently however, AFRL undertook the in-house development of an engine in
this thrust class with goals of development of design tools, the ability for rapid modification
and improvement, and to ease development and procurement costs.
Because a single-stage compressor typically provides sufficient pressure rise and
flow for engines of this size, centrifugal or mixed-flow architectures are typically used as
opposed to the multi-stage, axial-flow compressors found in larger gas-turbine engines.
Centrifugal compressors in general offer greater pressure-rise per stage than axial machines
due to the inlet/outlet diameter variance and turning of the flow [4]. Though most small-
turbojets studied at AFRL do feature a radial-exit architecture (i.e., centrifugal or mixed
flow), design of this type of compressor in this class had not been done in-house. For this
reason, design tools were developed relatively from scratch.
Engine testing with in-house compressor designs has been performed to collect data
to validate the design process and to provide insight for future iterations. While engine-test
data is valuable for design-tool validation and system characterization, rotating component
design iterations often require disassembly of the majority of the engine, which is a
significant time and financial commitment. Furthermore, instrumentation integration is
complicated in an engine environment due to additional considerations such as heat,
vibration, and non-compressor-component geometry. Alternatively, component testing in
15
a specialized rig provides a more controlled test environment and enables more rapid
testing of design iterations. While multiple compressor test facilities exist at AFRL’s
primary research facility – Wright-Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB) – none are on the
scale required to test compressors in the range discussed here. Existing infrastructure at
this site however does feature a drive-system, instrumentation provisions, and exhaust
capability to enable development of such a facility.
16
CHAPTER 2
FACILITY
2.1 Capabilities
A drive system featuring a liquid-cooled, regenerative AC dynamometer and
gearbox with 10:1 input/output shaft is in place in the Small Engine Research Lab (SERL)
at WPAFB. The drive stand, shown in Figure 2.1, was originally procured for the Air Force
(AF) Prize – a competition to develop and build a small, lightweight, fuel-efficient turbine
engine [16]. It is capable of absorbing or generating up to 325 horsepower and spinning up
to 100,000 rpm (non-simultaneously). The torque curve for the system at the high-speed
shaft is shown in Figure 2.2. The motor/generator is controlled by a variable frequency
drive (VFD) and programmable logic controller (PLC) that is remotely operated inside the
test cell control room, shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.1: Air Force Prize drive stand.
17
Figure 2.2: Air Force Prize dynamometer and gearbox, power and torque
capabilities with speed.
Figure 2.3: Test cell control room.
The main-spool speed (up to 10,000 rpm) is measured by an encoder on the
opposite-drive end (ODE) of the motor/generator shaft. A torque transducer is located
between the motor/generator and the gearbox coupling, which provides a torque
18
measurement of the low-speed main shaft. Torque (T, measured in ft-lbf) and speed (N,
measured in rpm) are used to calculate the power being drawn or absorbed using Equation
8,
𝑇𝑁
𝑃= (8)
5252
The low and high-speed gearbox input/output shafts also feature torque transducers in order
to measure at that location, which will only vary from the main shaft reading by the amount
lost in the gearbox and coupling. However, the high-speed transducer is only rated up to
45,000 rpm and must be removed for applications requiring higher speed. For this reason,
testing is completed to characterize these losses and allow power to be accurately measured
at the high-speed shaft by a correction of the main shaft measurement.
Data acquisition (DAQ) and controls systems in the facility are designed to allow a
variety of measurements to be taken at various sample rates, to enable testing of many types
of engines and test rigs. Current infrastructure and planned expansion features the
following capabilities: 128 pressure channels at a minimum of 25 kHz sample rate, 96
thermocouple channels at 90 Hz, 48 analog input channels at 1 MHz for various auxiliary
sensors, 16 high-speed analog input channels at 60 MHz (used for accelerometers,
proximity sensors, and any other shaft-speed relevant measurements), 16 analog output
channels at 250 kHz, 4 high-speed analog output channels at 2.86 MHz, 224 digital
input/output channels up to 100 MHz, and 24 frequency counter channels at 100 MHz.
Measurements are viewed and controls operated using a LabView program which designed
and written in house. The system is operated inside the test cell control room, also shown
in Figure 2.3, along with the test-cell monitoring and recording system. This system
features 4 cameras located throughout the test cell to offer visual monitoring of all
19
equipment. An image of the test-cell interface cabinet, where all instrumentation is
connected to the facility, is shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Data acquisition and controls test-cell interface cabinet.
Compressed shop air is supplied to the test cell at up to 125 psi to be used for
pneumatically-actuated valves, pressurization of engine or rig components, cooling, etc.
Nitrogen (N2) tanks with regulators are located just outside the test cell. These are plumbed
into the test cell to be used for any higher-pressure requirements. Pressure and flow control
systems for the air and nitrogen supplies are implemented as required by the specific test
configuration.
Because the test cell was originally designed for testing turbine engines, a high-
temperature exhaust system is in place. Configurable ducting in the test cell rated for 1400
°F flow exits through the ceiling and extends upward to the roof of the facility, where a
high-temperature industrial fan pulls the gases out at over 9,500 cfm, or 3.4 lbm/s at the
20
rated temperature. The system is controlled and monitored via the PLC, operated inside the
test cell control room. The test cell ducting configured to extend the exhaust of a test article
is shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Test cell high-temperature exhaust ducting.
2.2 Requirements
The amount of power required by a compressor is a function of the work it is doing
(a function of the inlet temperature, pressure ratio across it, and the efficiency of the
process, as shown in Equation 5) and the mass flowrate through the device (a function of
the inlet density and volumetric flowrate, which is determined by the size of compressor
and speed at which it is operating). As illustrated in Figure 2.2, the motor and gearbox
available to drive the compressor test rig is limited to 325 horsepower between
approximately 30,000 and 60,000 rpm, with the available power decreasing with speed to
21
181 horsepower at the maximum rated speed of 100,000 rpm. To determine the compressor
operating ranges capable of being tested by this drive system, the power required as a
function of pressure ratio and mass flowrate is plotted in Figure 2.6, assuming an isentropic
compression efficiency of 75% and dry air at typical Dayton, OH inlet conditions (14.3 psi,
59 °F). The power limits at the aforementioned speeds are highlighted to illustrate
operating points that are capable of being tested (to the left of the curve) at the specified
inlet conditions.
Figure 2.6: Compressor power requirement for a given pressure ratio and mass
flowrate. Dry air at typical Dayton, OH inlet conditions (14.3 psi, 59 °F),
isentropic efficiency of 75%.
Because the power required is a function of the physical mass flowrate, which is a
function of the inlet density, inlet suppression (decreasing the inlet pressure by
intentionally restricting the flow entering the rig) offers the ability to reduce the power
22
requirement. Corrected mass flowrate is used to normalize the data. With standard inlet
temperature of 59 °F and assumed efficiency of 75%, the achievable compressor pressure
ratios and mass flowrates are plotted in Figure 2.7, calculated with the max-speed
horsepower limit of 181 hp and reduced inlet pressures.
Figure 2.7: Achievable mass flow and pressure ratio with power draw of
181 hp. Dry air at standard-day temperature (59 °F), isentropic
compression efficiency of 75%.
23
CHAPTER 3
INLET SYSTEM
3.1 Mechanical Design
The inlet system design presented here serves three main purposes: to restrict,
condition, and measure flow entering the compressor. A cross-sectional view of the system
design for small-turbojet compressor testing is presented in Figure 3.1. As discussed in
Section 2.2, candidate test articles require more power than the drive stand is capable of
delivering at sea level inlet conditions. To collect data at the upper portions of compressor
maps (i.e., higher corrected mass flowrates and pressure ratios), the physical flowrate
through the system is restricted and the compressor inlet is decreased to sub-ambient
pressure. Pipe sizing is done according to ASME standard B31.3-2020, section 304.1.3
[17].
Figure 3.1: Inlet system: (A) inlet screen holder, (B) screen (5x), (C) butterfly valve, (D)
valve actuator, (E) flow diverter, (F) flow barrel, (G) honeycomb (2x), (H) fairing, (I)
seal/damper, and (J) bellmouth/nozzle.
24
Implementation of a butterfly valve (C) controlled by an electric positioning
actuator (D) accomplishes the required flow suppression by simply blocking the open area
at the inlet to the inlet system. Upstream of the valve is a plate (A) that holds a coarse
screen (B), which acts as a filter for large particles to prevent damage to the valve and
downstream flow conditioning components. The inlet screen holder features a curved
transition from its forward face to the flow path to reduce separation common with abrupt
forward-facing steps.
Downstream of the suppression valve is a flow diverter (E), made from a capped
pipe with 156 holes drilled along the outer diameter and axial face. The net area through
the holes is approximately equal to that of the incoming pipe. The flow diverter’s purpose
is to radially fill the much larger diameter section, referred to as a flow barrel (F), in a short
axial distance. This design functions as a diffuser, dramatically slowing the flow to reduce
turbulence in preparation for the flow condition section, which is made up of a series of
fine screens and honeycomb flow straighteners (G). Screens are constrained between
flanges of the flow barrel, and honeycomb is held between the screens.
After the flow is conditioned, another flow barrel section leads to a nozzle (J),
which is calibrated to measure the flow passing through it to the compressor inlet. A plastic
fairing (H), or curved shroud, is located in the corner of the flow barrel to reduce
recirculation which would otherwise form in this region and distort the flow measurement.
Between the nozzle and flow-barrel flange to which it mounts is a rubber seal (I), which
prevents flow leaking around the nozzle and dampens vibration transmitted from the rig.
All components other than the fairing and seal are made of stainless steel.
25
To confirm the chosen pipe can withstand the external pressure loading, the A factor
is found using the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) geometric chart for
components under external or compressive loadings [18], shown in Figure 3.2. This is a
non-dimensional value that is a function of the ratio of a pipe’s outer diameter to its
thickness and the ratio of the unstiffened length of pipe to the outer diameter. The 14.5 inch
long, 16.0-inch diameter, schedule 10 pipe has a resulting DO/t value of 85.1 and L/DO of
0.9, resulting in an A factor of 0.0015.
Figure 3.2: Geometric chart for components under external pressure or compressive
loadings (for all materials) [18].
26
Figure 3.3 is used to determine the B factor, which is a function of the geometrical
A factor and the service temperature of the pipe. Because the inlet system does not
experience any heating other than negligible conduction from the rig, room temperature
conditions are expected, resulting in a B factor of approximately 18.9 ksi (130 MPa). Using
Equation 9 [17], the maximum allowable external pressure, Pa is determined to be 295.4
psi. With an expected minimum internal pressure of 6 psi and ambient external pressure
(assumed to be 14.3 psi for Dayton, OH), a safety factor of 35.6 is determined.
4𝐵
𝑃𝑎 = (9)
3(𝐷𝑂 ⁄𝑡)
Figure 3.3: Chart for determining shell thickness of components under external pressure
developed for austenitic stainless steel [18].
27
Because the drive gearbox and compressor rig generate heat and the inlet system
does not, thermal growth must be taken into account and sufficient degrees of freedom
between the two must be allowed. The inlet system is attached to the test stand’s mounting
plate with the structure presented in Figure 3.4. Pipe clamps (K) hold the inlet flow barrel
against tangential struts that are mounted to axial tracks. These tracks rest on top of wheels,
forming a trolley system (L) with over 6 inches of travel, providing the axial degree of
freedom. Axial growth of less than 0.120 inches is expected, based on predicted thermal
conditions. Radial alignment of the trolley system is achieved by four jackscrews (M),
which press against the under-side of the trolley system mounting strut. To allow for radial
growth, large clearance holes in the nozzle mounting flange and the compliance of the
seal/damper permit the nozzle to move slightly within the flow barrel opening. To
determine the expected radial deflection in operation, the distance from the output shaft
axis to the test article mounting plate is measured, the drive system turned on and operated,
then the measurement repeated; deflection of less than 0.001” is determined.
Figure 3.4: Inlet system mounting structure: (K) pipe clamps (2x), (L) trolley system, and
(M) radial alignment jack screws (4x).
28
3.2 Flow Suppression Effects
While flow suppression is beneficial from a power requirement standpoint, doing
so does have a negative effect on compressor operation. As physical flowrate and pressure
decrease with flow suppression with a constant corrected flowrate, so too does the density.
Because physical flowrate decreases proportionally with the change in density, volumetric
flowrate and therefore velocity remain constant. The effect on compressor performance
can be explained by examining the resulting Reynolds number. Equation 10 [19] shows
that the decrease in density, 𝜌, with constant hydraulic diameter (effective diameter if the
inlet was an open circle), 𝑑ℎ , velocity, u, and viscosity, 𝜇, results in a decreased Reynolds
number:
𝜌𝑢𝑑ℎ
𝑅𝑒 = (10)
𝜇
Because the Reynolds number is a measure of the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces in a flow [19], a decrease means that viscous forces play a larger role as the inlet is
suppressed. In regards to compressor operation, this means that larger shear stresses will
occur at the walls (shroud, impeller blades, diffuser vanes, etc.), resulting in stronger wakes
and vortices. Because energy is dissipated in such flow structures, compressor efficiency
is expected to decrease. Additionally, wakes and vortices create effective blockages in the
flow field, which will likely affect flowrates and pressure ratios. Complex 3-dimensional
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is necessary to fully understand these effects within
the compressor, though not conducted for initial testing.
29
3.3 Flow Measurement
To accurately measure flow, conditions upstream of the metering device must be
fully developed, uniform, and free from swirl [20]. These requirements ensure that the
physical situation closely matches the assumptions made in the theory of typical flow
measuring devices; velocity is everywhere parallel to the flow axis and uniform in
magnitude. Though a perfectly uniform, one-dimensional flow field is not practical in
application, measures can be taken to remove swirl and equally distribute the axial velocity
profile; these are called flow conditioning.
Calibration, in addition to flow conditioning, is commonly used to increase the
measurement accuracy. Calibration involves exposing the test measurement device
(including all flow conditioning and straight piping, upstream and downstream) to a known
flowrate to determine the discharge coefficient. This non-dimensional number is the ratio
of the actual measurement to the theoretical, which is then used to calculate in-situ
flowrates [20].
Flow conditioners come in many forms; commonly used methods include tube
bundles, crossed-axial plates, perforated plates, screens, or some combination of them.
Perforated plates and screens are most effective at reducing non-uniformity and distributing
the velocity profile across the diameter of the pipe. Tube bundles and crossed-axial plates
form channels parallel to the axis of the pipe which straighten the flow and reduce swirl
[21]. Flow straighteners, often called honeycomb, can be readily procured with cells of
various shapes, sizes, and materials. Increased solidity and wetted surface area of
conditioning elements results in greater effectiveness, as well as greater viscous forces
30
resulting in dynamic pressure loss. Balance of these two effects must be chosen in design,
dependent on the application [20].
Because suppression of inlet flow and pressure are intentionally generated with a
valve at the entrance of the inlet system, pressure loss is of little concern for the design
presented. The large diameter of the flow barrel also contributes to the reduction of losses,
as velocity is very low and so too is dynamic pressure. Screen and honeycomb sizing and
positioning is chosen based on best-practice in wind tunnel design from NASA and The
Royal Aeronautical Society [21] [22]. The flow conditioning design is as follows: three
screens, increasing in solidity in the downstream direction, constrain two honeycomb flow
straightener sections, followed by the final, most-solid screen. Screens are spaced
approximately 0.2 diameters apart, with the length of the honeycomb filling the two
upstream inter-screen areas.
Expected velocity at the inlet to the flow conditioning section is 26.9 ft/s and
dynamic pressure is 0.006 psi, based on maximum achievable flowrates of candidate test
articles. Using models from NASA [21], presented in Equations 11 and 12, losses across
each mesh screen and honeycomb, respectively are estimated.
2
𝐴𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴
𝐾𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 𝐾𝑅𝑁 𝐾𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ (1 − )+( − 1) (11)
𝐴 𝐴𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐿 𝐴 2 𝐴 2
𝐾𝐻𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝜆 (3 + )( ) +( − 1) (12)
𝐷ℎ 𝐴𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
The value K is the total pressure loss coefficient, where ∆𝑃𝑇 is the total pressure drop across
the conditioning element, and 𝑞 is the dynamic pressure.
31
∆𝑃𝑇
𝐾= (13)
𝑞
Reynolds number sensitivity factor, 𝐾𝑅𝑁 is equal to 1 for Reynolds numbers in the inlet
system presented here. The mesh screen-type loss parameter, 𝐾𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ is equal to 1.3 for
average circular metal wire, 1.0 for new metal wire, and 2.1 for silk thread. Surface
roughness, 𝜆 of the honeycomb channels is assumed to be that of a common sheet metal
finish, 20 μin [23]. Honeycomb geometry is defined by length, L and hydraulic diameter,
𝐷ℎ . Area of the flow barrel is denoted as A and flow area through each element 𝐴𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 .
The resulting losses across each element are calculated for an inlet pressure of 14.3
psi (as is common in Dayton, OH), and confirmation is given that the very small dynamic
pressure has a negligible effect: 0.0030 psi across the first screen, 0.0003 psi across the
first honeycomb, 0.0066 psi across the second screen, 0.0005 across the second
honeycomb, 0.0152 psi across the third screen, and 0.0375 psi across the final screen. The
total pressure loss across the entire flow conditioning section is 0.0630 psi, or 0.44%.
Downstream of the flow conditioning section, mass flow is measured by a
calibrated nozzle, designed according to ASME PTC 19.5-2004 [20]. This design, shown
in Figure 3.5, is chosen for its simplicity and minimal axial length. This shape, which is
often referred to as a bellmouth, aims to minimize unrecoverable pressure loss. The
reduction in area through the bellmouth accelerates the flow and causes a decrease in static
pressure. By measuring the pressure differential from upstream of the nozzle to the throat,
∆𝑃, and fluid density entering the meter, 𝜌 (calculated from upstream pressure and
temperature), mass flowrate can be calculated using the general Equation 14 [20], where 𝑛
is a unit conversion factor and 𝜖 is the expansion factor, which corrects for effects of
compressibility.
32
𝜋 2𝜌(∆𝑃)𝑔𝑐
𝑚̇ = 𝑛 𝑑 2 𝐶𝜖√ (14)
4 1 − 𝛽4
Nozzle geometry is input with throat diameter, d, and the ratio of throat to pipe diameter,
β. The discharge coefficient, C is experimentally determined with calibration.
Figure 3.5: ASME 19.5-2004 low β nozzle [20].
33
CHAPTER 4
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Transfer of power from the dynamometer and gearbox to the impeller is
accomplished with a mechanical system consisting of a shaft and bearings. Bearings allow
the shaft to rotate while maintaining its position to minimize deflection and unbalance (i.e.,
mass offset at a distance, given in units of g-mm or lbm-in), which result in vibration. Many
types of bearings exist, including ball bearings, roller bearings, journal bearings, magnetic
bearings, and fluid bearings. To provide the ability to actively tune bearing stiffness and to
explore a relatively new technology for AFRL, fluid bearings are chosen for this design.
Specifically, air bearings, or bearings lubricated with pressurized air are employed, which
are discussed in Section 4.2.
Two radial bearings prevent the rotor from deviating from its axis. Meanwhile, two
thrust bearings maintain the axial position of the shaft relative to the static housing, and
react the thrust load acting on the rotor. This load is the result of the pressure differential
across the impeller; leakage around the outer radius causes an elevated pressure acting on
the back-face, while the front of the impeller experiences a pressure gradient with slightly
below-ambient pressures in the inlet. The net sum of these pressures results in a forward-
acting thrust on the impeller and therefore on the entire rotor. To fully utilize the
capabilities of the test rig, the bearing system is designed for speeds and loads exceeding
those for which the dynamometer and gearbox are rated (see Section 2.1). Balancing of the
rotor is required to minimize residual unbalance in components and the assembled system,
which are the result of minor imperfections in fabrication. Available at AFRL facilities are
34
balancing machines, which measure the unbalance and inform the operator of the location
to remove material. Balancing is performed according to ISO 21940: 2016 [24], to the
recommended grade for compressors of G 2.5; this number is a measure of the rotating
unbalance, relative to the mass of the rotor – 2.5 g-mm/s/g or mm/s, equal to 0.098 in/s.
The mechanical system design is presented in Figure 4.1. The primary static
component in this system is the bearing housing, which rigidly attaches the compressor rig
to the dynamometer gearbox flange, reacts the torque load, and positions and retains the
bearings. For assembly purposes, the housing is broken into separate components (G and
S). To allow the assembled rotor to be balanced without disassembly, the larger-diameter
mounting flange (R) is also separate, which allows the assembly to pass through the
mounting face of the test article. The two bearing housing components encase the thrust
bearings (K) and the thrust disk of the main shaft (Y). Sixteen dowel pins (component W;
eight equally spaced around the axial face of each bearing) position the thrust bearings and
prevent rotation. Wave springs (V) are installed around the dowel pins to provide preload
to the thrust bearings, which ensures contact with the button load cells (J) in the static
condition. These eight load cells, positioned at locations between dowel pins on the front
thrust bearing axial face, provide a measurement of the thrust load on the rotor that is
transferred to the bearing. Two radial bearings (H) are also contained in the bearing
housings, located near the ends of the main shaft.
35
Figure 4.1: Mechanical systems: (A) impeller nut, (B) hex lug, (C) impeller, (D) shaft insert,
(E) retaining ring (3x), (F) honeycomb seal (3x), (G) front bearing housing, (H) radial air
bearing (2x), (I) radial air bearing supply fitting (2x), (J) button load cell (8x), (K) thrust air
bearing (2x), (L) thrust air bearing supply fitting (2x), (M) shaft insert bolt, (N) thrust piston
supply fitting (4x), (O) thrust piston, (P) thrust piston nut, (Q) spline coupling, (R) bearing
housing flange, (S) aft bearing housing, (T) thrust piston seal spacer, (U) radial bearing cavity
vent (2x), (V) wave spring (8x), (W) dowel pin (16x), (X) thrust bearing cavity vent, (Y) main
shaft, and (Z) front radial bearing vent plug.
To allow for a range of test articles with varying thrust loads and reduce risk for
initial implementation, a thrust piston (O) is attached to the shaft to react the axial load
generated by the pressure differential across the impeller. The opposing force is achieved
by pressurizing the cavity on the forward face of the thrust piston. Seals with honeycomb
shaped elements (F) oriented radially, constrained by retaining rings (E) contact the outer
rim of the thrust piston and shaft insert, which features radial blades to reduce contact area
and friction. These features create a barrier for air leaking from the cavity, as well as a
labyrinth to cause a pressure drop. Sealing and venting is required to ensure the relative
pressure on each side of the air bearings is a minimum, which is a requirement for its
functionality. For the same reason, an additional seal is located in front of the forward
36
radial bearing, to isolate it from the pressure of the impeller back-face cavity. Venting of
the thrust disk cavity is done through the seal elements, radial slot around the seal, radially
drilled hole, and a fitting (U). To vent the cavity between the front bearing and seal, another
slot is located around the seal. An axial hole is drilled and sealed with a plug (Z) to access
another radial hole and vent fitting. The thrust piston is retained on the shaft by a custom
nut (P). A spacer (T) allows axial clearance for radially inserted proximity sensors, which
are focused on the thrust piston nut.
For misalignment capability, the main shaft is not directly coupled to the gearbox
interface, which is a male straight-splined shaft. Instead, a female splined coupling (Q) is
included, which connects the male crowned-spline portion of the main shaft to the gearbox
shaft. On this coupling, a region of smaller diameter acts as an intentional stress
concentration to prevent damage to other, more expensive components (i.e., gearbox shaft,
gears, rig shaft, bearings, etc.) To allow unmodified impellers from various engines to be
tested with this rig, the front portion of the shaft is made to match engine hardware. The
shaft insert (D) is made specific to each test article, and allows the main shaft to be used
for all impellers in the relevant size range. Section 4.3 provides further detail on the design
and analysis of the shaft components.
For performance characterization as well as health monitoring purposes,
instrumentation sampled at a high rate (up to 60 kHz) is mounted to the bearing housing to
actively monitor shaft deflection, vibration, and speed. Sets of two proximity sensors,
positioned 90 degrees apart, provide a measurement of shaft deflection at two axial
locations. Measuring the deflection on perpendicular planes allows for analysis of the shaft
orbit (radial deviation from the axis). Two axial locations are measured to identify the mode
37
shape of the shaft’s orbit, which requires a large enough span to accurately resolve. To
satisfy this requirement without increasing the length of the shaft, the most accessible
locations are chosen – the central thrust disk and the spline coupling. Vibration is measured
using accelerometers, which are rigidly attached to the outside of the bearing housing.
Speed is measured by another proximity sensor, also positioned on the thrust disk, but at a
different axial location. Here, a small groove is machined into the thrust disk to produce an
obvious change in signal as it passes by the proximity sensor, thus providing a once-per-
revolution signal.
4.2 Bearings
Air bearings are a type of hydrodynamically lubricated, non-contact bearing which
use a thin film of pressurized gas as the lubricant. Two types of air bearings exist: those
that rely on pressurization of the air surrounding the journal by viscous forces from
rotation, called aerodynamic bearings – see foil bearings [25], which are commonly used
in turbomachinery for example – and those that use an external pressure source, called
aerostatic bearings. Two general types of aerostatic bearings can be found: orifice-fed,
which feature one or multiple orifices of a certain shape that provide the supply of air to
the space between the journal and the bearing face, and porous media. As the name
suggests, these bearings make use of a porous material at the bearing face supplied from a
housing, which acts as many small orifices and provides a uniform pressure profile, as
shown in Figure 4.2.
38
Figure 4.2: Common aerostatic bearing configurations and pressure profiles [26].
Because the system described here is a ground-based test facility with neither
weight nor spatial restrictions, aerostatic bearings are employed. By doing so, the load
capacity and stiffness of the bearing can be actively varied to tune the system for a range
of load and rotordynamic requirements. An additional benefit of this system is that the need
for a scavenge pump, oil reservoir, heat exchanger, and any other components found in
traditional liquid-lubricated bearing systems is eliminated. Bearing loads are calculated to
properly size the bearings and determine the appropriate supply pressure. Flow is assumed
to be choked at the bearing face, due to the flow area reduction through the porous graphite.
Supply pressure is calculated by simply dividing the load (force) by the loaded area and
multiplying by 1.893, which is the inverse of the choked-flow critical pressure ratio of air,
calculated by Equation 15 [19], where k=1.4.
𝑘⁄
𝑝∗ 2 (𝑘−1)
=( ) (15)
𝑝0 𝑘+1
From initial test article analysis, maximum expected thrust loading of 330 lbf is
expected in transient conditions (i.e., when accelerating to a condition, prior to adjusting
39
the thrust piston supply pressure), which is present only in the front thrust bearing. The
thrust bearing, preloaded with 30 lbf, which has an outer diameter of 2.75 in and inner
diameter of 1.04 in and resulting surface area of 5.09 in2, is calculated to require a gap
pressure of 70.7 psig and supply pressure of 133.9 psig. These are gauge pressures relative
to the static pressure surrounding the bearing, which is vented to atmospheric pressure.
Radial bearing loading is the sum of static load (i.e., the weight of the rotor) and
the dynamic load (i.e., the centrifugal force from the rotor’s unbalance at an angular
velocity). The rotor mass m is estimated from the model to be 4.2 lbm for the initial test
article, which features an aluminum impeller. For conservatism, the rotor mass is increased
to 5.5 lbm to adjust for possible stainless-steel or other higher-density/higher-temperature-
capable material impellers. A speed N of 100 krpm (maximum allowable for gearbox and
dynamometer) is assumed. Using Equation 16 [24], the unbalance is calculated to be
0.00208 oz-in.
𝐺𝑚 30𝐺𝑚
𝑈= = (16)
𝜔 𝜋𝑁
With the known unbalance, radial dynamic load is calculated using Equation 17 [24], which
is the centrifugal force due to the rotating offset-mass. This is calculated to be 37.0 lbf total,
or 18.5 lbf per bearing.
𝜋2 2
𝐹 = 𝑈𝜔 = 𝑈2
𝑁 (17)
900
The sum of the static and dynamic loads on each bearing is calculated to be 21.3 lbf. This
load is acting on the projected surface of the bearing, shown in Figure 4.3, which is the
shaft diameter, 1.00 inch times its span in the bearing, 1.25 inches. The load divided by the
resulting area, 1.25 in2, is found to require a minimum gap pressure of 17.0 psig and
40
minimum supply pressure of 32.2 psig. To stiffen the bearing and provide margin for load
capacity, the actual supply pressure will be greater than this minimum value.
Figure 4.3: Radial bearing loaded area.
A simple gas control system is required to regulate the pressure and flow to the
bearings to ensure functionality. As noted in Section 2.1, facility compressed air is offered
in the test cell at 125 psi, and nitrogen (N2) bottles are available to serve as a backup source
for the bearing. The facility system consists of a filter, compressor, tank, dryer, and
pressure regulator. The nitrogen backup system features a K-size gas cylinder (commonly
referred to as a K-bottle), pressure regulator, and adjustable check valve which allows flow
to start only when the supply line to the rig pressure falls below a minimum to allow safe
shutdown. The higher-pressure nitrogen supply will also be used to supply the front thrust
bearing, if it is determined that facility air is insufficient during initial checkout testing.
Because supply piping may have rust, an additional filter is added just upstream of the rig
control system. Downstream of the filter, a manifold supplies five electrically-controlled
41
pressure regulators to enable individual remote control of each bearing as well as the thrust
piston. A diagram of the system is shown in Figure 4.4:
Figure 4.4: Mechanical systems gas supply system diagram.
An important consideration in all bearing system designs is heat management. High
relative velocities between rotating and static components results in shearing of adjacent
layers of the lubricating fluid – liquid or gas – which irreversibly converts the kinetic
energy into internal energy in the form of heat. This process is called viscous dissipation
and is highly dependent on the velocity of the fluid and its viscosity. The heating that results
can be shown to be the sum of two terms: the rate of viscous dissipation due to the
contribution of the density variation, and the rate of viscous dissipation for an
incompressible fluid. A fluid’s compressibility and coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
42
determine how its density varies with pressure and temperature, and therefore directly
affect the viscous heating [27].
Heat transfer from the fluid to the bearing and rotor results in temperature rise in
the material and subsequent thermal growth. Because fluid bearings rely on a thin film of
working fluid, pressurized in the gap between bearing and rotor, gap thickness is a key
parameter for reliable functionality. Larger thermal growth of rotating components relative
to static ones results in gap closure, which in turn results in a fluid velocity increase and
further viscous dissipation, eventually causing bearing contact and damage [28].
Clearly, the working fluid has a significant effect on the extent of heat generated.
In general, liquids are significantly more viscous than gasses, far less compressible (often
considered incompressible), and have lower coefficients of thermal expansion [27]. These
properties result in liquids experiencing greater viscous dissipation and heating than gasses,
though at high enough speeds, it is still an important consideration for gas-lubricated
bearings. Aerostatic bearings, because they are externally pressurized, allow for maintained
gap thickness by simply increasing the supply pressure. Continuous supply of air to the
bearing and venting allows heat generated by viscous dissipation to be carried away [28].
Further mitigation of gap closure can be accomplished with use of low-expansion
materials.
To estimate the heat generated in the bearing gap and understand the temperatures
therein, analysis is conducted using Equation 18, the first law of thermodynamics. Here,
∆𝑈 is the change in internal energy, W is the work required by the flow to react the load
(equal to pressure times volume, PV), and Q is the heat generated. By definition, viscous
43
heating is the irreversible conversion of kinetic energy to internal energy [27], therefore it
is equal to the change in kinetic energy, ∆𝐾𝐸, due to the shearing of the air in the gap:
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 → 𝑄 = ∆𝐾𝐸𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 + 𝑊𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (18)
To simplify calculation of change in kinetic energy due to shear, assumptions are
made to reduce the mode for a 2-D analysis. For the radial bearing, fluid velocity in the
gap, with thickness t, will be assumed to be only tangential, neglecting the radial-incoming
and axial-exiting components. Fluid velocity at the outer diameter, d of the shaft (y=0),
rotating at angular velocity ω, is assumed to be equal to the linear velocity, v, and zero at
the bearing surface (y=t), which is illustrated in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Radial bearing air gap shear.
Shear stress, 𝜏 in a Newtonian fluid (such as air), with dynamic viscosity 𝜇 is obtained
𝑑𝑣𝑥
from Equation 19 [19], where is the velocity gradient:
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏=𝜇 (19)
𝑑𝑦
44
The resulting velocity gradient and shear stress for the simplified system, substituting
angular velocity for linear velocity become:
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 − 0 𝑣𝑥 𝜔𝑟 𝜔𝑑
= = = = (20)
𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 2𝑡
𝜔𝑑 (21)
𝜏=𝜇
2𝑡
Equations 22, 23, and 24 are used to calculate the force, torque, power (or time rate of
change in kinetic energy in the gap) required to shear the air in the gap, respectively.
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝜋𝑑 2 𝐿
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 = (𝜇 ) (𝜋𝑑𝐿) = 𝜇 (22)
2𝑡 2𝑡
𝐹𝑑 𝜔𝜋𝑑 3 𝐿 (23)
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟 = =𝜇
2 4𝑡
𝜔2 𝜋𝑑 3 𝐿 (24)
𝑃 = 𝜔𝑇 = 𝜇
4𝑡
Knowing the load and flowrate through the bearing (estimated by the supplier to be
23.6 ft3/hr, yielding a mass flowrate of 38.6 lbm/hr at 120 psi and 70 °F inlet), bearing work
can be calculated. With work and change in kinetic energy known, the flow heat transfer
equation [29], Equation 25 can be used to calculate the temperature rise. At the temperature
specified, the specific heat of air, 𝑐𝑝 is 187.2 lbf-ft/lbm-R [3], which is assumed to be
constant.
𝑑𝑇 𝑄̇
𝑄̇ = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 → ∆𝑇 = (25)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝
For three reasons, iterative solving must be done to determine the final temperature
with the assumptions made: 1) as the gap temperature increases, specific volume increases
45
and along with it the volumetric flowrate, changing the amount of bearing work, 2) thermal
growth in the radial bearing leads to gap closure and increased viscous heating and
therefore change in kinetic energy, and 3) viscosity of the air increases with temperature,
increasing the shear loading. The solving process is as follows: a gap temperature guess is
made, temperature rise computed using the equations above, thermal growth and resulting
gap thickness calculated, updated gap temperature input as the guess, then the process is
repeated until the calculated temperature matches the guess. At the max allowable speed
and initial bearing gap thickness of 0.75 mils (1 mil = 0.001 in), shear work of 52.2 ft-lbf/s
(1 hp = 550 ft-lbf/s, 1 ft-lb/s = 4.626 btu/hr) is calculated, bearing work is 37.2 ft-lbf/s, and
gap temperature of 189.1 °F results.
For the thrust bearing, similar simplification is made for a 2-D analysis by
neglecting the radial gradient of tangential velocity. All radial locations on the face of thrust
disk are considered to have velocity magnitude vc, which is equal to that of the radial
location at which equal area is located inside and outside, called the centroid and denoted
by diameter dc in Figure 4.6.
46
Figure 4.6: Thrust bearing air gap shear.
With the change in orientation of shear forces and constant-radial centroid-velocity
assumption, and again assuming a linear gradient from the rotating shaft surface (v(z=0) =
𝑣𝑐 ) to the static bearing surface (v(z=t) = 0), Equations 19, 22, 23, and 24 become:
𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑐 𝜔𝑑𝑐
𝜏=𝜇 = 𝜇 = 𝜇 =𝜇 (26)
𝑑𝑧 𝑡 𝑡 2𝑡
𝜔𝑑𝑐 𝜋𝑑𝑐2 𝜔𝜋𝑑𝑐3

𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 = (𝜇 ) (2 )=𝜇 (27)
2𝑡 4 4𝑡
𝐹𝑑𝑐 𝜔𝜋𝑑𝑐4
𝑇𝑐 = 𝐹𝑟𝑐 = =𝜇 (28)
2 8𝑡
𝜔2 𝜋𝑑𝑐4
𝑃 = 𝜔𝑇𝑐 = 𝜇 (29)
8𝑡
The bearing gap thickness is assumed to be constant for the thrust bearing, as pressure will
be controlled and thermal growth is allowed via the preload springs. Preload will therefore
change slightly with thermal growth, but this is considered negligible for the thermal
47
analysis. Without thrust load mitigation, the front thrust bearing load of 360 lbf results in
shear work and bearing work of 169.0 ft-lbf/s and 319.1 ft-lbf/s respectively. Again, using
Equation 25 to calculate temperature rise and iterating, the thrust bearing gap temperature
is found to be 571.8 °F. This is understood as a worst case, as thrust load mitigation will
be actively managed while increasing speed. With thrust load controlled by the thrust
piston to maintain 100 lbf, shear work and bearing work of 122.4 ft-lbf/s and 61.8 ft-lbf/s
respectively, resulting in a gap temperature of 259.4 °F.
4.3 Shaft
Invar 36 is a low-expansion material is nickel-iron alloy that has a CTE of
approximately one-tenth of that of carbon steel up to 400 °F [30]. This material is chosen
for the shaft to minimize bearing-gap closure due to viscous heating and allow higher-
speed operation. While beneficial at the bearing-shaft interface, low thermal-expansion of
the shaft at the impeller interface must be managed to prevent the impeller from growing
off of the shaft with thermal and centrifugal loads. For ensuring concentricity, the centering
features of the components are ideally assembled with an interference fit, meaning the male
feature has a larger outer diameter than the female feature’s inner diameter. Starting with
sufficient interference ensures contact between the two (and concentricity assuming the
circular components grow uniformly) even as thermal and centrifugal loads pull them
outward. Interference fits require either a press (mechanical force is used to press the two
together) or shrink (bore is heated and/or shaft cooled to create clearance for assembly)
operation, which are much more intensive processes than simply assembling by hand as
with transitional or slip fits. For this reason, the male centering feature is chosen to be on
48
the component with greater CTE, to ensure the fit only becomes tighter with temperature
and thermal growth.
To allow testing of unmodified engine-relevant impellers and still realize the
benefit for bearing system design, a two-part shaft is designed; the bearing section (referred
to as the main shaft; component Y in Figure 4.1) is made of Invar 36 and is common for
all test articles, whereas the impeller section (referred to as the shaft insert; component D
in Figure 4.1) is made from steel and is specific to the test article. The geometry of the
impeller interface portion of the shaft inserts matches that of the specific-engine shaft,
while the main-shaft interface is common for all test articles. As shown in Figure 4.7, the
main-shaft-interface of the shaft insert features a male hex-shaped feature, which
corresponds to a female hex feature on the main shaft and prevents relative rotation.
Radially, the two shafts are aligned (concentricity sustained) by a tight-fitting bore in the
main shaft and corresponding centering feature on the shaft insert. Axially, the two are held
together by a bolt (component M in Figure 4.1).
49
Figure 4.7: Shaft insert.
To determine the acceptable cold clearance for the shaft-insert centering feature,
finite element analysis (FEA) is conducted, using a built-in solver for SolidWorks. The
modeled gradient in the impeller is produced by prescribing temperatures of three surfaces
along the flow path, increasing generally with the known pressure gradient based on results
from a CFD analysis. At the front of the impeller, the air is at ambient conditions and thus
material temperature is a minimum, whereas at the radial exit, static pressures are equal to
that of the compressor discharge and therefore material temperature is a maximum.
Because the impeller could be made of aluminum, which has a high thermal conductivity
(about 3 times that of steel, 200 times that of liquid water, and 5000 times that of air [3]
[30] [31]), the material temperatures are assumed to be close to the gas temperatures found
in the CFD analysis.
50
All regions in contact by design – the impeller bore and shaft insert centering
feature, impeller aft face and shaft insert forward face, and shaft insert aft face and main
shaft forward face – are set in the model to be thermally bonded, meaning the surfaces in
contact are at the same temperature. Though the shaft insert and main shaft are not
necessarily in contact, thermal bonding is also imposed there. This is determined to be an
acceptable simplification through experimentation – initially, iterations varying the thermal
resistance of the air between the components were made until the temperatures and
resistance converged. However, because of the small gap size, this method only causes a
change on the order of 1 °F.
Temperatures found in the analysis of the impeller and bearing gaps are input into
the FEA model to determine the temperature at the main shaft-shaft insert interface. The
nominal case does not include elevated transient-thrust-load temperatures, only the 100 lbf
thrust load temperatures presented in Section 4.2. The main shaft bearing journal
temperature is assumed to be equal to the calculated bearing gap temperature for simplicity
of the model. Because the interface is located between the impeller and the front radial and
thrust bearings, no other thermal loads are considered, because it is assumed these are the
dominant contributors. Results of the nominal temperature case are presented in Figure 4.8.
It is evident from this plot that the front bearing temperature has the greatest effect on shaft-
interface temperature, as 80% of the length of the centering feature is within 20 °F of the
prescribed temperature at the surface of 189 °F. The maximum interface temperature is 228
°F and the minimum is 191 °F. The average temperature at the interface is 200 °F on the
inner diameter of the main shaft and 203 °F at the outer diameter of the shaft insert, or 14
°F greater than the bearing temperature.
51
Figure 4.8: Finite-element analysis of main shaft and shaft insert in the nominal thermal case.
From the thermal model results, it is concluded: 1) small clearance between
components results in the shaft insert outer diameter and main shaft inner diameter reaching
virtually the same temperature, 2) high-speed operation will result in elevated bearing
temperatures due to viscous heating, and therefore provide thermal growth at the shaft
interface, and 3) because the main shaft is made of Invar 36, which has a lower CTE than
the steel shaft insert, the fit between the two will always become tighter with temperature
and therefore with speed. Low-speed operation – when temperature rise is minimal –
52
requires less interference because centrifugal loads are less, though contact is still desired
for mitigation of rotor unbalance. The fit condition between the parts is plotted in Figure
4.9 as a function of cold clearance and temperature at the interface, assuming the parts are
at the same temperature.
Figure 4.9: Shaft fit with cold clearance and interface temperature.
The black line denotes the conditions at which the two components have the same
diameter (referred to as line-to-line). To the left of this line, hot clearance values are
negative, meaning there is interference and contact is ensured. To the right, hot clearance
values are positive, meaning there is clearance and complete circumferential contact is not
present. The maximum interface temperature is plotted and maximum cold clearance at
which contact is present is determined to be 0.28 mils. Until bearing viscous heating and
53
conduction through the impeller begin to heat the interface, cold clearance will remain, so
little margin exists for conditions less than the maximum. For this reason, a nominal cold
line-to-line fit is required to ensure contact at low speeds or transient conditions.
4.4 Rotordynamics Analysis
Rotordynamics is the study of rotating machinery dynamics and is a critical aspect
to design. Operating at speeds where natural dynamics are excited can lead to excessive
displacements, vibration, and critical failures. Proper placement of bearings with
appropriate stiffness is critical to minimizing the effect of rotordynamics. Predetermining
critical speeds and the level at which the rotor will respond is also important, so that
dwelling at those speeds can be avoided [32]. Commonly, in turbomachinery design and
operation, critical speeds within the operating range are intentionally “placed” at a speed
that can be avoided, such as one at the low end of the operating range, through which can
quickly accelerated. Analysis of the mechanical systems design presented in Section 4.1 is
conducted by AFRL’s Dr. Daniel Gillaugh using DyRoBeS (Dynamics of Rotor-Bearing
Systems) rotordynamic software, created by Rodyn Vibration Analysis, Inc. The model
input into the software is shown in Figure 4.10, which also includes the gearbox high-speed
output shaft and the initial candidate impeller. This impeller is made of aluminum and has
a design speed of approximately 60,000 rpm.
54
Figure 4.10: Rotordynamic model of rotor system.
Results of the rotordynamic analysis are presented in Table 1. Three rotordynamic
modes are found within the operating capability of the drive stand. The critical rotating
speeds at which these modes are excited are listed along with the strain energy, which is a
measure of the potential energy stored in the material as it elastically deforms. Strain
energy of the mechanical system is distributed between shafts, bearings, and support
structures. Traditionally, strain energy of a component is presented in terms of a percentage
of the total in the system. Mode shapes are plotted in Figure 4.11, Figure 4.12, and Figure
4.13, classified by the amount of strain energy and where it is focused. A common criterion
to ensure an acceptable design from a rotordynamic perspective is to keep the strain energy
in the shaft of the system below a specified level for any given mode in the operating
range. If the strain energy is above this specified percentage, then it is classified as a
bending mode. If the majority of the strain energy is found at the bearing stations, with
limited strain energy in the shaft, then it is classified as a rigid body mode.
55
Table 1: Rotordynamics analysis results.
Figure 4.11: Mode 1 – Rigid-body pitch mode, 19,745 rpm, 26% strain energy.
56
Figure 4.12: Mode 2 – Rigid-body bounce mode, 42,505 rpm, 20% strain energy.
Figure 4.13: Mode 3 – 1st bend mode, 92,257 rpm, 85% strain energy.
Because of the damping that bearings provide, critical speeds of a rotor vary with
the stiffness, or the amount of force required to radially deflect the bearing. In this way,
modes can be intentionally set for a certain speed to be avoided [33]. Implementation of
57
air bearings provides the ability to vary this value by simply adjusting the pressure being
supplied. Bearing stiffness of the particular air bearings being used at 60 psi supply
pressure is provided by the supplier, which is input to the rotordynamic model. The planned
bearing pressure is twice this value; however, data is not available for the bearing stiffness
for this elevated supply pressure and will require experimentation to validate the model. A
useful tool for testing is the critical speed map, which gives the critical speeds of the three
modes as a function of bearing stiffness and is presented in Figure 4.14. Typically, critical
speeds are desired to be 10-20% outside of the operating range [33]. However, the severity
of the mode is investigated with a forced response analysis to determine actual bearing
loads, rotor deflections, and stability. These parameters are compared to component
capabilities and clearances to determine whether a critical speed is detrimental to the
system or is acceptable.
Figure 4.14: Critical speed map.
58
Bearing loads are plotted vs. rotational speed for the front bearing and aft bearing
in Figure 4.15 and Figure 4.16, respectively. A maximum load of 11.09 lbf is found in the
front bearing and 3.85 lbf in the aft bearing, both excited near the 1st bend mode frequency
at 94,400 rpm and 97,900 rpm, respectively. At the design supply pressure, this gives a
factor of safety of 5.9 for radial load capacity of the bearings. At all speeds within the
operating range of the initial candidate test article, the factor of safety is a minimum of
24.0.
Figure 4.15: Front bearing load vs. rotational speed.
59
Figure 4.16: Aft bearing load vs. rotational speed.
Radial loads can be difficult to measure accurately due to the lack of space to mount
accelerometers directly to the bearing. Radial deflections, however, can be measured with
implementation of proximity sensors focused on the rotor, as discussed in Section 4.1.
Multiple axial locations, measuring at perpendicular planes, provide indication of the orbit
of the rotor, which can be used to validate the rotordynamic model. Locations shown in
Figure 4.17, at the front of the thrust disk and at the thrust piston nut are chosen to provide
an axial span between sensors, which is required to resolve mode shapes, while managing
spatial limitations due to the relatively small size of the rig. These locations are expected
to provide sufficient indication of rotordynamic modes based on the deflections plotted in
Figure 4.18 vs. rotational speed. Peak deflections due to the 1st bend mode at 93,100 and
94,000 rpm of 0.21 mils and 0.13 mils are found at the spline coupling near the aft
proximity sensor, and at the central thrust disk at the front proximity sensor, respectively.
60
Figure 4.17: Rotor proximity sensor placement.
Figure 4.18: Rotor deflections vs. rotational speed.
61
CHAPTER 5
DISCHARGE VALVE
5.1 Operating Principal
A valve is designed to adapt to a range of sizes of candidate test articles to restrict
downstream flow area and provide back-pressure for the compressor. Due to facility layout
and candidate test-article flow architecture, flow exiting the compressor is required to be
directed away from the drive-stand gearbox, and to provide radial clearance for variable
test-article diameters. The compressed air coming from the annular exit of the compressor
enters a test-article-specific transition duct, where it is directed radially outward, then
turned once more toward the inlet of the compressor, where it enters the discharge valve.
A cross-sectional view of this flow path is shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Discharge valve flow path.
62
The annular flow path of the valve is chosen in order to couple it as close to the
compressor exit as possible. This design allows the pressurized volume to be minimized,
reducing the effects on the compressor upstream. Goals of the valve design include: linear
area-variation, high resolution of area variation, and minimization of axial length. The
design used to satisfy each of these goals is presented in Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.2: Discharge valve – exploded view: (A) stator ring, (B) gasket,
(C) rotating ring, (D) drive pin, (E) drive link, (F) bearing array, (G)
bearing ring, (H) motor mount, (I) motor shaft seal, (J) stepper motor
actuator, and (K) encoder.
The valve features three annular rings with radially oriented flow slots, equally spaced
around the faces, which are perpendicular to the direction of flow. Two rings are stationary
and one rotates; flow slots are coincident for all three rings in the full-open position. As
the valve is actuated, the open areas of the static rings are covered by the closed area of the
63
rotating ring, creating a blockage and reducing the total flow area. Because the valve is
exposed to compressor-exit flow conditions, the rings are made from stainless steel, which
maintains the required strength at expected maximum temperatures.
At the inlet to the valve, the stator ring (A) shields the rotating ring (C) from
incoming flow, reducing the area of high-pressure, and therefore the axial force acting on
it. Downstream of the rotating ring, the bearing ring (G) houses the graphite bearings (F),
which provide a low-friction surface to react the axial force, and are capable of operating
temperatures up to 800 °F. A graphite gasket (B) is positioned between the stator and
bearing rings to seal the valve. An arm is welded to the rotating ring, which is used to
actuate the valve. At the end of the arm, a machined slot interfaces with a dowel pin (D),
which is pressed into the drive link (E). The link is driven by a dual-end-shaft stepper motor
(J), which forces the ring to rotate when actuated. The motor is attached to the bearing ring
via a motor mount (H), which can have water-cooling channels added if testing determines
the motor requires it. To seal the motor shaft/mount interface, a shaft seal (I) is included.
To track the position of the valve, an encoder (K) is attached to the opposite-drive-end of
the motor shaft. Figure 5.3 presents cross-sectional views of the valve in its full-open
position; section-A is cut through the flow opening, and section-B is cut through the
bearing:
64
Figure 5.3: Discharge valve – full-open position section views: through
flow sector (section A) and through bearing sector (section B).
5.2 Sizing
Flow area downstream of the compressor is a critical parameter for operation limits
and the capability of the test rig. Sizing of the flow holes is done based on compressor map
data of candidate test designs, which is obtained from a CFD analysis. Maximum flow area
(the full-open area) is set by assuming an arbitrary, very low Mach number through the
valve. This is done to allow the maximum Mach number at the compressor discharge,
resulting in the compressor choke condition. Geometrical minimum flow area is set to zero,
i.e., the open area of the flow slots is completely covered in the full-closed position.
However, leakage flow between the stator and rotating rings is accepted and controlled by
shimming the stator ring away from the rotating ring, which sets the minimum effective
flow area. The minimum flowrate is experienced when the valve is fully closed, which
corresponds to the stall condition of the compressor, and may be accompanied by
undesirable surge.
65
Figure 5.4: Single sector of discharge valve sizing model.
Geometry of a single sector of the valve is shown in Figure 5.4, with critical
parameters labeled. To fully block the open area in the closed position, the angular span of
the strut (i.e., the portion of the sector not occupied by an opening or a bearing) θstrut is set
equal to that of the flow hole, θflow. The remainder of the angular span of the sector is
occupied by the bearing and the wall that holds it, θB+W (B+W denoting bearing + wall).
Radial length LB and width WB of the bearing are chosen based on available material and
acceptable machining tolerance capability, which is used to find the bearing-plus-wall
angular span. Because the inner diameter of the valve must fit outside of the outer diameter
of the test article, the innermost radial position of the flow hole is chosen based on a
relatively large candidate test article, while incorporating appropriate wall thicknesses.
Wall thickness is set between the ring and the open area, which determines the inner radius
of the flow hole 𝑅𝐹𝑖 . With the inner radius, span, and maximum total flow area 𝐴𝐹 known,
66
the outer radius of the flow hole 𝑅𝐹𝑜 is calculated using Equation 30, where NS is the
number of sectors and 𝑐𝑓 is a constant used to correct for flow area lost with fillets (rounded
corners), which is determined experimentally from the CAD model:
2
2𝐴𝐹 𝑐𝑓
𝑅𝐹𝑜 = √( 2
) + 𝑅𝐹𝑖 (30)
𝑁𝑆 𝜃𝐵+𝑊
𝜋− 2
Because the area of the flow opening is proportional to its angular span (neglecting
the effect of the fillets), variation in area has a linear dependency on open position. Flow
area is measured using the CAD model and plotted in black in Figure 5.5 as a function of
valve angle, along with a second-order polynomial fit. A linear variation is plotted in red
to compare. It is observed that the rounded corners of the flow holes cause a slight deviation
from the desired linear relationship, which is a maximum at mid angular-span, but
otherwise the results are favorable.
Figure 5.5: Discharge valve flow-area vs. valve position.
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5.3 Load Analysis
The primary function of the discharge valve is to produce a pressure differential
from the compressor-exit volume to the facility exhaust system. As a result, the valve itself
experiences an axial force, equal to the pressure differential across it multiplied by the
wetted area. The normal force acting on the rotating ring is transferred to the bearings,
resulting in friction that must be overcome by the valve actuator. In order to size the
actuator and bearings, the load, and therefore the pressure differential must be determined.
A CFD analysis of the valve is conducted, using SolidWorks Flow Simulation, to quantify
component pressure drops as a function of valve position. This analysis also informs the
spacing between stator and rotating rings, which sets the leakage rate through the valve and
the compressor stall area. Flow conditions are set to those corresponding to the expected
maximum-pressure operating-point for candidate test articles.
A simplified model of the valve is created by reducing it to an axisymmetric sector
section, which allows finer meshing without substantial computational requirements. A
mesh consisting of approximately 300,000 fluid cells is presented in Figure 5.6, with 2
flow passages encompassed. Upstream of the valve, a short duct is added to simulate the
transition duct components and capture recirculation effects there. Downstream, a long
duct is added to allow the flow exiting the valve to fully develop. Though not representative
of actual test rig conditions, straight inlet and exit ducts allow for analysis of the valve
components separate from the upstream and downstream components. At the location of
the valve, the mesh is refined in order to capture the flow physics occurring within the
channels and between the rings. The mesh is relatively coarse and accuracy is sacrificed to
reduce computational time. This allows analysis of many combinations of valve positions
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and stator ring gaps to fully characterize the valve, as global quantities of pressure ratio
across components are the goal of the simulation.
Figure 5.6: CFD sector model mesh of discharge valve.
Gap thickness between stator and rotating rings tS-R is arbitrarily set and the valve
is positioned fully closed (θValve=0), corresponding to the condition of maximum upstream
pressure. The flow simulation is run and pressures are measured at the upstream face of the
stator ring, PUS, upstream face of the rotating ring, PUS,R, downstream face of the rotating
ring, PDS,R, and downstream face of the bearing ring, PDS. These values are then used to
determine the pressure ratios for each component: across the stator, PRStat, across the
rotating ring, PRRot, across the stator and rotating ring, PRS+R, across the bearing ring,
PRBear, and across the entire valve, PRValve. The stator ring gap is then varied and the
simulation rerun. A nominal design gap thickness of 0.012 in. is chosen based on the results
69
presented in Figure 5.7. A 3rd order polynomial fit line is plotted to find the gap which will
produce approximately 25% greater upstream pressure than the maximum expected with
candidate compressors and the drive stand limitations, PMax,Design. This result provides
confirmation that the valve is capable of providing the pressure differential required, with
margin for error in analysis. Additional margin for error is provided in the ability to shim
the gap in assembly to vary the minimum area and therefore, the maximum upstream
pressure.
Figure 5.7: Discharge valve CFD results of upstream pressure vs. stator-
ring gap analysis.
Flow trajectories colorized with Mach number and pressure, normalized to the
maximum design upstream pressure are presented in Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9 for the 0.025
in. and 0.005 in. gap cases, respectively. It is evident from these plots that the choke point
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shifts from the rotating ring-bearing ring gap to the stator ring-rotating ring gap as it closes,
resulting in the bulk of the pressure drop occurring at that location. As the pressure drop
occurs upstream of the rotating ring, it experiences a larger pressure differential across it
and therefore a greater axial force.
Figure 5.8: Discharge valve CFD results at full-closed position, 0.025 in. stator-rotating
ring gap: flow trajectories colorized with Mach number (A) and pressure, normalized to
upstream value (B).
Figure 5.9: Discharge valve CFD results at full-closed position, 0.005 in. stator-rotating
ring gap: flow trajectories colorized with Mach number (A) and pressure, normalized to
upstream value (B).
71
With the ring gap held constant, valve position is varied from full-closed to full-
open. Results of the study are presented in Table 2 and plotted in Figure 5.11. Third-order
polynomial fits are applied to the pressure ratio results, with a coefficient of determination
(R2) of greater than 0.997 for all components. In general, pressure ratios increase with valve
position to a limit of 1.00 for the rotating and bearing rings, meaning the pressure
downstream of each component and of the valve itself approaches the upstream pressure
as the area increases. The stator, stator-plus-rotating ring, and entire-valve pressure ratios
approach a limit of approximately 0.94, meaning a 6% pressure drop across the valve is
the minimum when it is in the full-open position. With fitted models of the component
pressure ratios, the normal force acting on the rotating ring and associated bearing loads
can be estimated at all valve positions, as shown in Figure 5.10. Bearing load capacity is
calculated based on the minimum compressive strength, 4,500 psi [30] and surface area,
which is determined to have a factor of safety of 13.2 with the maximum computed normal
load of 1,163 lbf, considering drive stand limitations, denoted in red in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10: Axial load vs. valve open percentage.
72
Table 2: Discharge valve CFD results: component pressure ratios.
NCells,F θValve %θValve tS-R PUS PRStat PRRot PRS+R PRBear PRValve
ID
[°] [in] PMax,Design
1 298,688 0.00 0.0% 0.005 2.31 0.67 0.17 0.11 0.81 0.09
2 297,078 0.00 0.0% 0.010 1.41 0.71 0.26 0.19 0.82 0.15
3 289,548 0.00 0.0% 0.012 1.24 0.72 0.30 0.22 0.79 0.17
4 287,938 0.00 0.0% 0.015 1.05 0.74 0.35 0.26 0.79 0.20
5 289,887 0.00 0.0% 0.020 0.81 0.77 0.44 0.34 0.76 0.26
6 295,868 0.00 0.0% 0.025 0.72 0.81 0.48 0.39 0.75 0.29
7 289,485 0.10 3.1% 0.012 1.03 0.72 0.36 0.26 0.79 0.20
8 289,342 0.15 4.6% 0.012 0.94 0.73 0.39 0.28 0.80 0.23
9 289,187 0.20 6.1% 0.012 0.86 0.73 0.42 0.30 0.82 0.25
10 289,976 0.25 7.7% 0.012 0.79 0.73 0.45 0.33 0.82 0.27
11 285,645 0.50 15.3% 0.012 0.54 0.77 0.59 0.45 0.87 0.39
12 284,248 1.00 30.6% 0.012 0.34 0.82 0.80 0.66 0.94 0.62
13 282,545 1.50 45.9% 0.012 0.28 0.88 0.91 0.80 0.96 0.77
14 281,366 2.00 61.2% 0.012 0.25 0.91 0.96 0.88 0.98 0.86
15 279,801 2.50 76.5% 0.012 0.24 0.93 0.99 0.92 0.99 0.91
16 275,917 3.27 100.0% 0.012 0.23 0.94 1.00 0.94 1.00 0.94
Figure 5.11: Discharge valve CFD results of pressure-ratios across

components vs. valve position with third-order polynomial fits.
73
Flow trajectories are again plotted, colorized with Mach number and pressure
normalized to the maximum design upstream pressure. Valve positions of 3%, 31%, and
100% (full-open) are presented in Figure 5.12, Figure 5.13, and Figure 5.14, respectively.
As the valve opens and flow area increases, the pressure equalizes across it. At 3% open,
the upstream pressure is approximately equal to the maximum expected capability of the
candidate test articles and drive stand. As the valve is closed past this position, compressor
stall is anticipated and surge is likely.
Figure 5.12: Discharge valve CFD results at 3% open position: flow trajectories colorized
with Mach number (A) and pressure, normalized to upstream value (B).
74
colorized with Mach number (A) and pressure, normalized to upstream value (B).
Figure 5.14: Discharge valve CFD results at full-open position: flow trajectories
colorized with Mach number (A) and pressure, normalized to upstream value (B).
5.4 Actuation
Actuation of the valve is achieved by rotating the angular position of the rotating
ring via the attached arm. The drive link, driven by the stepper motor, is connected to the
arm through a pin located in a slot at the end of the arm. As the link rotates, the pin is
pressed against the wall of the slot, imposing a force on it. A mechanical advantage is
75
achieved by the differences in radii of the link and the arm, resulting in much less torque
required to rotate the link to generate sufficient force to rotate the rotating ring and
overcome the friction-torque load. The link’s rotational origin is positioned so that the
tangential component of the force acting on the arm – and therefore the torque available to
overcome bearing friction – is maximized at the full-closed position, where the load is also
a maximum. As the link rotates, the direction of force acting on the arm deviates from
tangential, eventually becoming almost entirely radial. This concept is evident in Figure
5.15: a downstream view of the actuation mechanism as the valve progresses from open to
close.
Figure 5.15: Discharge valve actuation, downstream view: (A) full-closed position,
(B) mid-span position, (C) full-open position.
To determine the torque T required to overcome bearing friction on the rotating
ring, Equation 31 [34] is used, where 𝜇𝑆 is the coefficient of static friction between the
bearing and rotating ring face, 𝐹𝑁 is the normal force acting on the ring, ro is the outer radial
location of bearing, and ri is the inner radial location of bearing. This equation is derived
76
from the definition of coefficient of friction (𝜇 = 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 /𝐹𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ) applied to a rotating
area enclosed by concentric circles:
2 𝑟𝑜3 − 𝑟𝑖3
𝑇 = 𝜇𝑆 𝐹𝑁 ( 2 ) (31)
3 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖2 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
This derivation is necessary because a constant force acting at varying radii results in a
moment gradient. As shown in Figure 5.16, a constant normal force – and constant resulting
friction force – produces a gradient of torque over the disk area required to overcome the
constant radial gradient of friction force.
Figure 5.16: Disk friction. [34]
With the friction torque load known, the drive-torque requirement can be calculated
by determining the amount of force delivered to the arm by the drive link, 𝐹𝐴𝑟𝑚 , which is
a function of the radius of the link, 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 , radius of the arm, 𝑅0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 , and their position.
Figure 5.17 is a model of the geometry used to determine the effective force and resulting
drive-torque requirement. Link and arm origins, (x0,Link, y0,Link) and (x0,Arm, y0,Arm) are related
by:
77
𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘
𝑥0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 = 𝑥0,𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 + (32)
2
2 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 2 (33)
𝑦0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 = 𝑦0,𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 − √(𝑅0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 − 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 ) − ( )
2
Position of the pin is known by the drive link angle θLink and radius RLink:
𝑥𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 − + 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 sin 𝜃𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 (34)
2
2 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 2 (35)
𝑦𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 + √(𝑅0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 − 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 ) − ( ) + 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 cos 𝜃𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘
2
With the relative position of the pin known, the resulting angle of the arm θArm and effective
arm radius at which the pin force is acting 𝑅𝐴𝑟𝑚,𝐸𝑓𝑓 can be determined:
𝑥𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑥0,𝐴𝑟𝑚
𝜃𝐴𝑟𝑚 = tan−1 ( ) (36)
𝑦𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑦0,𝐴𝑟𝑚
2 2
𝑅𝐴𝑟𝑚,𝐸𝑓𝑓 = √(𝑥𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑥0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 ) + (𝑦𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑦0,𝐴𝑟𝑚 ) (37)
The position of the valve as a function of link position is presented in Figure 5.18. The
moment acting on the arm MArm can then be calculated as a function of link position, with
a known motor drive torque TDrive:
𝑅𝐴𝑟𝑚,𝐸𝑓𝑓
𝑀𝐴𝑟𝑚 = 𝐹𝐴𝑟𝑚 𝑅𝐴𝑟𝑚,𝐸𝑓𝑓 = 𝑇𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 cos(𝜃𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 − 𝜃𝐴𝑟𝑚 ) (38)
78
Figure 5.17: Discharge valve actuation diagram.
Figure 5.18: Valve position vs. motor position.
79
Link and arm radii are chosen based on available space and motor shaft diameter
options. A link radius of 0.582 in. and arm radius (radius to the pin location in the slot at
the full-closed position) of 10.800 in. are used to calculate the required drive torque to
rotate the valve with the calculated friction loads. A coefficient of static friction of 0.10
between the stainless-steel rotating ring and graphite bearing is used [35]. Figure 5.19 plots
the load as a function of motor position, determined from CFD results, along with the
torque output of three perspective motor-driver combinations. Figure 5.20 plots the
moment acting on the arm as a function of valve position, as well as the effective torque
available with the same three motor-driver combinations. The maximum expected load
condition, corresponding to a motor position of 4% open, is denoted by the red-dashed
vertical line.
Figure 5.19: Drive-motor torque required to actuate valve with arm and
link design and capabilities of various stepper motor and driver
combinations vs. motor position.
80
Figure 5.20: Torque load to rotate valve arm and capabilities of various
stepper motor and driver combinations vs. valve open percentage.
The two DC motor-driver combinations – 34Y207 and 34Y214 motors with
MBC12101 driver – are found to provide sufficient torque. However, to provide margin
for the design, the 34Y214 motor with AC-powered MLA10641 driver is chosen. The
ability in testing to decrease compressor inlet pressure, which also decreases the pressure
upstream of the valve, provides additional margin for the selected motor/driver to supply
sufficient torque. Pressure upstream of the valve can also be decreased by reducing the
speed of the compressor in order to reduce the load and actuate the valve if necessary.
The resolution of the positioning capability of the valve is a function of the
actuation mechanism geometry and the resolution of the stepper-motor driver. The
MLA10641 driver is capable of up to 12,800 steps per revolution, or 3,316 steps over the
3.26° span of the designed valve. Figure 5.21 shows the resolution of control of the valve
position over that entire span. The system is found to provide extremely fine control,
81
ranging from 4.15x10-6 °/step at full-closed position to 0.17x10-6 °/step at full-open
position.
Figure 5.21: Valve-control resolution with MLA10641 driver.
82
CHAPTER 6
EXHAUST COLLECTOR
The primary purpose of the exhaust collector is to receive the flow exiting the
throttle, and direct it away from the rig to connect with the facility exhaust system. The
geometry of the collector is designed to accomplish these tasks; an annular channel at the
entrance plane (exit plane of the discharge valve) transitions to a tangential direction, then
to a circular duct, exiting radially. The design is presented in Figure 6.1, which denotes the
two primary components – (A) the exit transition and (B) main body – and the flanges (D)
and (C), which are used to attach upstream and downstream components, respectively. The
primary goals of the design are: mitigation of effect on upstream components, i.e.,
discharge valve and compressor, and simplicity of manufacturing. Because the exhaust
collector is located downstream of the discharge valve, its aerodynamic performance is of
little concern, other than circumferential uniformity, which could have an upstream effect.
Net pressure loss across the device affects only the required position that the valve must be
set to in order to achieve a certain compressor pressure ratio, and the minimum upstream
pressure capability when the valve is fully opened, which have been shown to include
significant margin in the valve analysis.
83
Figure 6.1: Exhaust collector: (A) exit transition, (B) main body, (C) exit flange, and (D)
entrance flange (2x).
The main body is made from a billet of stainless steel, which is machined to produce
the transitioning duct which turns the flow from annular to tangential. The internal
geometry (the fluid volume which is machined out of the billet) is generated with lofted
channels of equal volume, which transition from the annular entrance plane – containing
the cross-sectional area of the entire annulus exiting the discharge valve – to a single
location at the exit plane. By holding the volume of each lofted channel equal, flow is
allowed to uniformly exit without causing a circumferential pressure-gradient due to a
change in cross-sectional area. The equal-volume lofted channels are shown in Figure 6.2
for one-half of the collector main body, which is then mirrored to create the whole
geometry. Upstream of the transitioning section of the main body, a straight length of the
84
full annular cross-section is added to allow the flow exiting the discharge valve to develop
before turning.
Figure 6.2: Collector main body geometry with equal-volume lofted channels.
At the exit of the main body, the exit transition receives the tangential flows from
the two half annuli and combines them in a single, radial, circular duct. The exit-transition
component features complex geometry, including a splitter vane to reduce turbulence as
the two halves rejoin. Because of the complexity, additive manufacturing – specifically 3D
printing of stainless steel via direct metal printing (DMP) – is used to manufacture this
component. The two sections are welded together, along with the mounting flanges, which
are also made of stainless steel.
The exhaust system downstream of the collector is presented in Figure 6.3. As
shown, an intermediate duct transfers the exhaust to the facility exhaust system (A)
85
described in Section 2.1. The intermediate duct features a flexible joint (C), shown in
Figure 6.4, to allow axial and radial thermal growth of the rig, which is required because it
is rigidly attached to the test-article mounting plate with a mount (B), constructed with
channel strut. The intermediate duct has a port to accept flows bypassing the discharge
valve via the surge relief port (E) and surge relief valve (D), as well as air vented from the
mechanical systems, presented in Section 4.1.
Figure 6.3: Downstream exhaust system: (A) facility exhaust duct, (B) intermediate duct
mount, (C) flex joint, (D) surge relief valve, and (E) surge relief port.
Figure 6.4: TurboFlex coupling [36].
86
6.2 Aerodynamic Analysis
A CFD analysis is conducted to ensure the collector design does not generate a
significant circumferential pressure-gradient, which could cause unwanted upstream
effects, such as nonuniform loading of the discharge valve ring. The baseline model, with
a mesh consisting of 448,879 cells, is shown in Figure 6.5, consisting of one half of the
collector and a straight duct extended from the exit plane:
Figure 6.5: Collector-only CFD mesh.
Circumferential locations are labeled for discussion: the location furthest from the exit port
is referred to as bottom dead center (BDC), and the location closest to the exit duct is
referred to as top dead center (TDC). Regions of varying geometry (i.e., throughout the
collector and exit transition) are refined to the smallest cell size in the model in order to
capture the flow physics as the flow is turned therein, denoted by red cells. This model
assumes purely axial, uniform flow entering the collector. Mass flow is set at the inlet plane
of the collector according to a particular candidate test-article compressor map and the
87
available drive stand power. Static pressure is set at the end of the exit duct to slightly
above-ambient pressure, which is done to simulate the pressure drop across the facility
exhaust system.
Flow trajectories colorized with pressure, normalized to downstream static value,
and Mach number determined from the collector-only analysis are shown in Figure 6.6.
Everywhere, the flow is observed to be uniformly traversing the collector geometry without
separation or recirculation. Flow entering the collector is observed to be at a very low Mach
number, which is the result of the lack of upstream area restriction in the model and the
prescribed uniform inlet plane. Figure 6.7 presents the circumferential pressure-gradient,
which is found to linearly vary from 1.16 times the exit pressure at BDC to equal to the
exit pressure at TDC. This trend is expected – flow entering at BDC must travel farther,
resulting in greater viscous losses as it turns against the wall of the collector. BDC-
originating flow also experiences greater effective blockage from flow entering at other
circumferential locations, whereas TDC-originating flow has a relatively direct,
unimpeded path to the collector exit.
88
Figure 6.6: Collector-only CFD results: (A) side-view and (B) iso-view of flow
trajectories colorized with pressure (normalized to downstream static value), and (C) and
(D) with Mach number.
Figure 6.7: Collector-only CFD results: upstream view of circumferential pressure-

gradient (normalized to downstream static value).
89
Flow through a model of the entire rig exhaust system – transition duct, discharge
valve, and collector with extended exit-duct – is simulated to explore the effect of upstream
components on the collector-inlet circumferential pressure-gradient. The full-annular
model is used to capture tangential-flow effects of the discharge valve and transition duct,
though not of the compressor itself. The mesh, consisting of 1,829,040 cells, is presented
in Figure 6.8. Again, red cells are the most refined at the location of the discharge valve in
order to capture the flow physics occurring in between rings and to generate the turbulent
conditions entering the collector. Green cells represent the next level of refinement (coarser
than red), which is applied everywhere in the collector. Turquoise cells are more coarse
than green, denoting refinement in the transition duct entering the discharge valve, and blue
are the coarsest cells, downstream of the collector exit plane. BDC and TDC
circumferential locations again refer to the positions farthest from and closest to the exit
plane, respectively.
Figure 6.8: Full exhaust-system CFD mesh.
90
Results of the full-system CFD analysis are presented in Figure 6.9. Key differences
from the collector-only model are observed in the flow trajectories: 1) significantly higher
Mach numbers are found at the inlet plane of the collector, 2) recirculation zones are found
at the BDC splitter vane, and 3) asymmetry is observed in the two halves of the collector,
with most of the recirculation occurring in the right half. The drastic decrease in flow area
from inclusion of the discharge valve increases the velocity of the incoming flow. As it
interacts with the axial-to-tangential transition occurring in the geometry at BDC, vorticity,
or angular velocity, is generated in the flow, resulting in recirculation.
Figure 6.9: Full-exhaust CFD results: (A) side-view and (B) iso-view of flow trajectories
colorized with pressure (normalized to downstream static value), and (C) and (D) with
Mach number.
91
Because of the relative position of the open-area slots of the discharge valve, which
are shifted toward the right in Figure 6.9, flow exiting the valve on that side of the BDC
splitter vane is forced toward the lower pressure void near the vane. As a result, stronger
vorticity ensues at this location, as shown in greater detail in Figure 6.10. To the left of the
splitter, flow exits the valve nearly tangential to the splitter, which is advantageous for
following the profile of the collector. The pronounced recirculation bubble on the right side
of the splitter acts as a blockage for the incoming flow, increasing the pressure at that
location. The asymmetric pressure-gradient at the inlet plane of the collector can be
observed in Figure 6.11. The average total-pressure at the inlet plane of the collector is
determined to be 1.069 times that at the exit plane, meaning there is a 6.9% total-pressure
loss across it.
Figure 6.10: Full-exhaust CFD results: BDC splitter interaction asymmetry.
92
gradient (normalized to downstream static value).
Minimization of an asymmetric effect of the collector on the discharge valve and
on the compressor is one of the primary goals of the design. To examine the gradient on
the downstream face of the rotating ring of the discharge valve, pressure is plotted in Figure
6.12, normalized to the downstream static value. Results show approximately constant
radial pressure-distribution, so the pressure is measured at the centroid and plotted in
Figure 6.13 to observe the circumferential distribution. Sector averages are plotted, along
with sector averages normalized by the overall average pressure along the centroid. A
maximum normalized sector average of 1.055 is observed at sector 24, and a minimum of
0.949 at sector 2. Figure 6.14 shows the pressure gradient:
93
Figure 6.12: Full-exhaust CFD results: discharge valve downstream-face pressure
gradient (normalized to downstream static value), upstream view.
Figure 6.13: Discharge valve downstream face pressure distribution (normalized to

downstream static value).
94
gradient at compressor exit-plane (normalized to the average value).
95
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
This thesis presented the initial design of a small-turbojet compressor test facility:
the inlet system was designed to provide conditioned and measured flow, as well as
optional flow suppression; this feature provides the ability to test elevated corrected-mass-
flowrate and pressure ratio conditions within the power capability of the drive stand. The
mechanical system of the rig was designed to easily adapt to a multitude of test articles; air
bearings were chosen to provide adaptive load and damping capabilities, and the shaft and
mounting interfaces were designed with features to adapt to test articles of varying sizes
with minimal requirement for test-article-specific components. To throttle and back
pressure the compressor, a close-coupled discharge valve was designed. Downstream of
the discharge valve, a collector accepts the flow and directs it to the facility exhaust system,
which was designed to minimize upstream pressure-distortion. Figure 7.1 presents the
complete compressor test facility assembly.
Sizing calculations, CAD model generation, and analyses – mechanical and
aerodynamic – were conducted in order to properly design and integrate the rig within
existing facility capabilities. A dynamometer, procured for testing small turboshaft
engines, will be used to drive the test article. The drive stand features an encoder for speed
measurement, and a torque transducer, which are used in concert to measure power
input/output. Ancillary facility provisions include a video monitoring system and data
acquisition and control system.
96
Figure 7.1: Complete compressor test facility assembly, sectioned top view.
7.1 Inlet System Design
Flow through the compressor test rig is regulated by a valve at the entrance of the
inlet system, resulting in sub-ambient pressures within. Flow barrel wall thickness was
determined to be over 35 times more than required for the resulting external pressure
loading. Upstream of the compressor, flow is measured through the calibrated nozzle,
designed according to the well-understood and tested ASME standard. To ensure
repeatability and accuracy of the measurement, multiple stages of flow conditioning were
implemented. Because flow suppression is employed and pressure drop intentionally
produced, losses across the flow conditioning section were considered inconsequential,
though the estimated value of less than 1% is relatively low, regardless. Sufficient degrees
of freedom were supplied by the mounting system, which is unconstrained in the axial
direction and features a seal that is compliant in the radial direction for the minimal
expected growth.
97
7.2 Mechanical Systems Design
To provide adaptive damping and load capability, air bearings were employed,
which eliminated the need for a traditional liquid-lubrication system. A common shaft
interface was designed to reduce the number of test-article-specific components. The shaft,
made of low-expansion material Invar 36, and test-article-specific shaft insert were
designed to maintain contact at their interface in spite of thermal growth. Radial-bearing
load capacity at the planned supply pressure offers nearly 6 times the maximum expected
load, by rotordynamic forced-response analysis. Thrust loading resulting from the pressure
differential across the impeller is not expected to exceed the capability of the thrust bearing
with the available supply pressure. To further mitigate risk, thrust load was minimized by
implementation of a thrust piston. A pneumatic system was designed to supply and regulate
the bearing and thrust piston pressure, utilizing existing facility capabilities.
The designed rotor system transiently passes through two rigid body modes (one
pitch and one bounce mode), as depicted by their mode shapes in Section 4.4. The 1st bend
mode of the system occurs at 48% above the targeted max speed of the initial candidate
test article and 20% above expected future candidate-designs, satisfying the design criteria.
Predicted bearing loads were determined to be far less than the bearing capability, shaft
deflections were predicted to be free of any damaging rotor, shaft, or bearing rubs, and the
system was predicted to exhibit stable operation throughout the speed range. Therefore, the
system satisfies all rotordynamic criteria for a stable operating system.
98
7.3 Discharge Valve Design
The throttling discharge valve was designed with a rotating ring to provide
sufficient open area for testing the compressor-choke condition, and closed area for testing
the compressor-stall condition. Bearing blocks, which allow the rotating ring to rotate
relative to the stator, were sized to provide sufficient surface area to withstand the axial
load. The size of the bearings was determined to be more than sufficient, based on the load-
capacity factor of safety of greater than 13. The temperature capability of the graphite
bearings is also determined to be sufficient for maximum expected thermal loading. The
rotating ring geometry was sized to minimize load while providing sufficient flow area.
The valve’s open area as a function of its position was determined to be nearly linear, which
is desired for setting the area during testing.
The minimum flow area through the valve, set by the rotating ring-stator ring gap
was determined via CFD analyses. Sufficient margin was provided in clearances of the
components to allow adjustment of the gap via shims, in order to vary the minimum
flowrate capability of the valve, if it is determined to be necessary during component
testing. The CFD analysis was also conducted to quantify pressure ratios across the valve
components, which was used to determine the axial load acting on the bearings from the
rotating ring. The determined load was then used to calculate the necessary torque required
to rotate the valve. An actuation mechanism was designed to provide a mechanical
advantage and require less torque to drive the valve when fully loaded. A stepper motor
was chosen to actuate the valve via a drive link and arm attached to the rotating ring. The
motor’s torque capability was determined to be sufficient for the maximum expected
loading, as calculated by the pressure differential across the rotating ring. The profile of
99
the position of the valve relative to the position of the motor and the resolution of the
controls were determined to inform the developer of control logic for operation of the valve
during testing.
7.4 Exhaust Collector Design
Though aerodynamic optimization was not conducted, the presented collector
design showed acceptable performance in allowing the flow to exit the rig, without having
a significant upstream effect. The circumferential pressure-gradient resulting from the
collector geometry and its interaction with the discharge valve was determined to be
sufficiently small to avoid adverse loading to the discharge valve, with variation along the
circumference from -5.1% to +5.5% of the average. Total pressure loss of 6.9% across the
collector was deemed acceptable because it is located downstream of the throttle. Based on
the results, optimization of valve clocking and splitter angle would offer the ability to
reduce the circumferential pressure-gradient and provide more uniform loading of the
discharge valve. More intensive aerodynamic analysis can also be done to inform design
iterations to more efficiently exhaust the air, though the effect of doing so on performance
of the compressor is likely negligible.
7.5 Future Work
Component fabrication will be finalized and assembly of subsystems will be
completed, including implementation of instrumentation. Mechanical systems assembly
will include component and subassembly balancing. Prior to installation, calibration and
checkout testing of the inlet system will be done in a separate facility at WPAFB with
100
greater flow capacity. Component testing of the mechanical subsystem attached to the drive
stand will be conducted to experiment with air bearing supply controls and settings.
Discharge valve checkout testing will be conducted to confirm functionality of the
actuation system and to experiment with stepper motor controls. No component testing is
planned for the exhaust collector. Any modifications determined from component testing
will be made, and assembly of the rig and initial test article will ensue. Upon completion
of rig assembly and integration to the facility, preliminary testing to confirm controls,
instrumentation, data acquisition, and emergency shutdown procedures will begin.
Following component and system confirmations, compressor mapping will commence.
101
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105

Master's Thesis, Justin Reinhart - Final - Final Format Approved LW 7-30-2021

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DESIGN OF A SMALL-TURBOJET COMPRESSOR TEST FACILITY

The School of Engineering of the

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Name: Reinhart, Justin T.

Markus P. Rumpfkeil, Ph.D. Andrew P. Murray, Ph.D.

David H. Myszka, Ph.D.

Robert J. Wilkens, Ph.D., P.E. Margaret F. Pinnell, Ph.D.

All rights reserved

DESIGN OF A SMALL-TURBOJET COMPRESSOR TEST FACILITY

Name: Reinhart, Justin T.

Advisor: Dr. Markus P. Rumpfkeil

Validation of compressor aerodynamic design can be obtained through in-engine

of interchangeable designs can be tested without exposure to effects of other engine

Research Laboratories (AFRL) initiated development of a test apparatus to be integrated

saved me hours of proofreading and provided me with confidence from knowing my

and Trevor Tomlin.

Approved for public release: distribution unlimited.

Case number AFRL-2021-2452.

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.1. Compressors .............................................................................................. 1

2.1 Capabilities .............................................................................................. 17

3.1 Mechanical Design .................................................................................. 24

4.1 Mechanical Design .................................................................................. 34

5.1 Operating Principal ................................................................................. 62

6.1 Mechanical Design .................................................................................. 83

7.1 Inlet System Design ................................................................................ 97

Figure 1.1: Typical application ranges of compressor types [1]. ........................................ 1

Figure 1.2: A three-stage, single acting reciprocating compressor (courtesy of

Figure 1.5: Pressure-volume diagram of compression processes [3]. ................................ 5

Figure 1.6: An open-cycle gas-turbine engine diagram [3]. ............................................... 8

Figure 1.9: Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220 engine [6]. ................................................... 11

Figure 1.10: Typical centrifugal compressor performance map [4]. ................................ 14

Figure 2.1: Air Force Prize drive stand. ............................................................................ 17

with speed. ............................................................................................................ 18

Figure 2.3: Test cell control room..................................................................................... 18

Figure 2.5: Test cell high-temperature exhaust ducting.................................................... 21

isentropic efficiency of 75%. ................................................................................ 22

air at standard-day temperature (59 °F), isentropic compression efficiency of

fairing, (I) seal/damper, and (J) bellmouth/nozzle. ............................................... 24

loadings (for all materials) [18]. ........................................................................... 26

pressure developed for austenitic stainless steel [18]. .......................................... 27

and (M) radial alignment jack screws (4x). .......................................................... 28

Figure 3.5: ASME 19.5-2004 low β nozzle [20]. ............................................................. 33

Figure 4.3: Radial bearing loaded area. ............................................................................ 41

Figure 4.4: Mechanical systems gas supply system diagram. .......................................... 42

Figure 4.5: Radial bearing air gap shear. .......................................................................... 44

Figure 4.6: Thrust bearing air gap shear. .......................................................................... 47

Figure 4.7: Shaft insert. ..................................................................................................... 50

thermal case. ......................................................................................................... 52

Figure 4.10: Rotordynamic model of rotor system. .......................................................... 55

Figure 4.14: Critical speed map. ....................................................................................... 58

Figure 4.15: Front bearing load vs. rotational speed. ....................................................... 59

Figure 4.16: Aft bearing load vs. rotational speed. ........................................................... 60

Figure 4.17: Rotor proximity sensor placement. .............................................................. 61

Figure 4.18: Rotor deflections vs. rotational speed. ......................................................... 61

Figure 5.1: Discharge valve flow path. ............................................................................. 62

(section A) and through bearing sector (section B). ............................................. 65

Figure 5.4: Single sector of discharge valve sizing model. .............................................. 66

Figure 5.5: Discharge valve flow-area vs. valve position. ................................................ 67

Figure 5.6: CFD sector model mesh of discharge valve. .................................................. 69