EE 418 (212) Lecture Note 08

EE 418: Introduction to Satellite Communications (212) Dr.
Wajih Abu-Al-Saud
Link Equation
Reference: T. Pratt, C. Bostian, and J. Allnutt, Satellite Communications, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
16. Link Equation
We often are interested in knowing how much power a receiving antenna will produced given that amount
of power that the transmitting antenna transmits and the different parameters of the link including distance
between antennas and transmission frequency. This relation is called the Link Equation. To derive the link
equation, consider the following:
1. Consider an isotropic antenna that radiates an amount of power equal to Pt Watts. Since this is an
isotropic antenna, it radiates equal amount of power in all directions.
Pt
2. Consider an ideal receiving antenna that is in the form of a sphere with radius R that encloses the
transmitting isotropic antenna. Since this is a spherical antenna that circles around the transmitting
antenna from all directions, it captures all the transmitted power, and therefore, the received power
becomes Pr  Pt . Note that the radius of the sphere R has no effect on the received power because
all the power will be collected by the sphere regardless of its size. It is true that for large sphere,
each unit area of the sphere will collect less power, but the area of the sphere increases by the same
factor making the total collected power be always the same.
115
EE 418: Introduction to Satellite Communications (212) Dr. Wajih Abu-Al-Saud
Link Equation
3. Now, assume that the receiving antenna is not a perfect antenna but has an efficiency  A that is less
than 1. Because of this, the received power becomes a fraction  A of the transmitted power, or
Pr   A  Pt .
4. If the receiving antenna is not a complete sphere but only part of it with area A, then the receiving
power becomes a fraction of the power received in (3). The fraction of the received power in this
case will be the ratio between the area of the receiving antenna (A) and the area of the sphere that
is the receiving antenna in (3), which is 4 R 2 . This makes the received power become:
A  Pt  A
Pr 
4 R 2
R
Pt A
Pr
5. The next step is to change the transmitting antenna from being an isotropic antenna to being a
directional antenna with gain in the boresight direction of G t (assume the boresight direction of
the transmitting antenna is adjusted such that it is pointing towards the receiving antenna, and that
the receiving antenna is located in the far-field region of the transmitting antenna which certainly
makes the size of the receiving antenna become negligible compared to the beamwidth of the
transmitting antenna no matter how narrow it is). In this case, the received power will increase by
a factor of G t over the case when an isotropic antenna is used for transmission:
A GT  Pt  A
Pr 
4 R 2
R
A
Pr
6. We stated earlier that the gain of an antenna is
A  4  A
G
2
Re-writing this for the receiving antenna as follows:
116
Link Equation
Gr 2
A  A 
4
Substituting for  A  A in the equation obtained in (5) and re-arranging different quantities gives
Pt G t G r
Pr  2
 4 R 
 
  
This is known as the LINK EQUATION. The link equation provides the received power in (Watts)
by a receiving antenna with gain Gr as a result of an amount of power Pt that is transmitted at a
wavelength λ by a transmitting antenna with gain Gt , such that the transmitting and receiving
antennas face each other (boresight to boarsight).
Example 1:
The antenna of an Erath Station (ES1) transmit an amount of power equal to 300 W towards a LEO satellite.
The satellite receives the transmitted signal, amplifies it and retransmits it back to another Earth Station
(ES2). Given the following parameters, determine the amount of power received by antenna of the second
Earth station:
 Diameter of ES1 Transmitting Antenna = 4 m, with aperture efficiency = 70 %

 Diameter of Satellite Receiving Antenna = 3 m, with aperture efficiency = 80 %
 Diameter of Satellite Transmitting Antenna = 5 m, with aperture efficiency = 60 %
 Diameter of ES2 Receiving Antenna = 2 m, with aperture efficiency = 75 %
 Power Amplification of Satellite = 106
 Uplink frequency = 30 GHz
 Downlink frequency = 20 GHz
 Distance between ES1 and Satellite = 850 km
 Distance between Satellite and ES2 = 1060 km
 Atmospheric loss in each link is 2 dB
 All other losses are zero.
Solution 1:
Let us sketch a figure that shows the different quantities given in the problem
117
Link Equation
PR1 Satellite (Sat) PT2

6
GSat = 10
Uplink DR1 = 3m DT2 = 5m Downlink

R2 = 1060 km
R1 = 850 km R1 = 0.8 T2 = 0.6 f2 = 20 GHz
f1 = 30 GHz
DT1 = 4m DT2 = 2m
T1 = 0.7 T2 = 0.75
Earth
Earth
Station
Station
1 PT1 = 300 W
PR2 2
Let us first find gains of the uplink antennas
2 2 2
  D T1    D T1    (4) 
G T1  T1    T1     0.70   9 
 1.1054 106

 1   c f 1   3  108
30  10 
2 2 2
  D R1    D R1    (3) 
G R1  R1    R1     0.80   9 
 7.1061105
 1   3 10 30 10 
8
 c f1 
and the gains of the downlink antennas
2 2 2
  D T2    D T2    (5) 
G T2  T2    T2     0.60   9 
 6.5797 105
 2   3 10 20 10 
8
 c f2 
2 2 2
  D R2    D R2    (2) 
G R2  R2    R2     0.75  9 
 1.3159 105
 2   3 10 20 10 
8
 c f2 
The atmospheric losses are 2 dB in each path  Latm = 2 dB = 10(2/10) = 1.5849
Now, let us find the power of the signal at the output of the satellite receiving antenna:
PT1 G T1 G R1 PT1 G T1 G R1  300   1.1054 106    7.1061105 

PR1  2
 2
 2
 1.3032 10-4 Watts
 4 R1     
   Latm  4 R   4  850 103  
 1   1
  Latm   1.5849 
 c   3 108
 f  
 1   30  109 
118
Link Equation
This power will be amplified by the satellite and then transmitted. Therefore, the transmitted power by the
satellite will be
PT2  G Sat  PR1  106 1.3032 10-4   130.32 Watts
Now, the power received by the second Earth station will be
PT2 G T2 G R2 PT2 G T2 G R2 130.32    6.5797 105   1.3159 105 

PR2  2
 2
 2
 9.0280 10-6 Watts
 4 R 2     
   Latm  4 R   4 1060 103  
 2   2
  L atm   1.5849 
 c   3 108 
 f   20  109 
 2 
Important Notes Related to the Link Equation:
 The quantity Pt G t is called the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) and represents how
much power would an isotropic antenna be required to transmit to have the same received power
at the output of the receiving antenna. Some reflector antennas with extremely high gains may
have an EIRP in the range of 1012 W.
2
 4 R 
 The quantity   is called the Path Loss L p . This represents the amount of drop in received
  
power as the distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas increases.
 The Link Equation can be summarized as
EIRP  Receiving Antenna Gain
Received Power=
Path Loss
 It appears from the Link Equation that decreasing the wavelength (increasing the frequency)
without changing any other parameter results in decreasing the received power. However, this is
not correct because the gains of the transmitting and receiving antennas also depend on the
wavelength. It can easily be shown that decreasing the wavelength (increasing the frequency)
results in increasing the received power.
 Sometimes, it is more convenient to represent the Link Equation in dB form where it becomes
2
4 R 
Pr  dBW   Pt  dBW   Gt  dB  G r  dB   10  log10  
  
 4 R 
 Pt  dBW   G t  dB   G r  dB   20  log10  
      
EIRP  dBW  Receiving Antenna Gain 
Path Loss  dB 
 In addition to the transmitted power in the numerator of the Link Equation there are the gains of
the transmitting and receiving antennas. In the denominator, there is the path loss. For a general
form of the link equation, sometimes additional losses that EM signals experience when
transmitted from an Earth station to a satellite or vice versa are also added in the denominator.
This makes the general form of the Link Equation become:
119
Link Equation
EIRP G r
Pr 
L p  L Atm  L Rain  LTA  L RA  LOther
where L A tm is the loss due to atmospheric absorption, L Rain is the loss due to rain and humidity
in the air, LTA is the loss due to imperfections in the transmitting antenna, LRA is the loss due to
the imperfections in the receiving antenna, and LRA is the combined loss due to all other less
significant causes.
Exercise:
About 30 years ago, we used to receive satellite TV using antennas similar to the black antenna shown in
the left figure below (diameter ~3 m). Nowadays, we receive satellite TV using antennas similar to the gray
antenna shown in the right figure below (diameter ~1 m). What happened? What changed that allowed us
to use smaller antennas to receive satellite TV? Did satellites start to transmit more power that a smaller
antenna was sufficient to collect enough power? What actually changed?
https://www.exportersindia.com/diamondsatellite/ku-band-
satellite-dish-antenna-thailand-1443424.htm
https://www.signalconnect.com/blog/who-remembers-c-band-satellite-dishes/
Concept Exercise (if you can figure it out, you are exceptionally smart):
2
Pt  Gt  Gr D 
The link equation says Pr  and the gain of a circular antenna is given by G  A   .
  
2
 4 R 
 
  
According to these two equations, if we increase the size (i.e., diameter or area) of the transmitting and
receiving antennas, we will increase Gt and Gr. So, if we keep increasing the transmitting and receiving
2
 4 R 
antennas diameters, there will be specific threshold in which Gt  Gr will be equal to   . If we
  
continue to increase Gt , Gr , or both, we will get a situations in which Pr > Pt . Clearly this does not make
any sense and it contradicts the law of conservation of power. Explain what is going on in this situation,
and why it appears that the link equation breaks (is not valid) for situations like this.
120
Link Equation
17. Linear vs. Logarithmic Forms of the Link Equation

A question may often come, “Which form of the link equation is better to use?” The answer is simply,
both are exactly the same, they take the same quantities as inputs and provide the same quantity as output.
However, sometimes using one of them may be “slightly” more convenient in specific cases while using
the other may be “slightly” more convenient in other cases. For example, if you are designing a system
and need to figure-out the effect of changing one of the parameters on the received power, it may be
easier to use the logarithmic form of the link equation since the effect of that parameter will be added to
or subtracted from the effect of other parameters rather than multiplied by or divided over by other
parameters. e an and provide the same.
It is important to learn the relation between effects on the link equation in the linear form and the
corresponding effects in the logarithmic form of the link equation. The following table illustrates this:
Assume a parameter X in the linear form has a corresponding value Y = 10 log10(X)
Linear Form of Link Equation Logarithmic Form of Link Equation

X = 10(Y/10) Y = 10 log10(X) [dB]
2*X Y + 3.01 [dB]
X/2 Y – 3.01 [dB]
10*X Y + 10 [dB]
X/10 Y – 10 [dB]
100*X Y + 20 [dB]
X/100 Y – 20 [dB]
1000*X Y + 30 [dB]
X/1000 Y – 30 [dB]
Also, note that when you convert a unitless quantity such as gain (X unitless) from linear to logarithmic,
the resulting quantity will also be uniless in dB, that is the unit of Y = 10 log10(X) will be dB, but dB is
not really a unit, it just states that the quantity Y is obtained by taking 10 log10( ) of another quantity.
However, when you convert a unitfull quantity such as Power (X Watts) from linear to logarithmic, the
resulting quantity will also be a unitfull quantity in dB, that is the unit of Y = 10 log10(X Watts) will be
dBW, which is basically stating that the quantity Y is obtained by taking 10 log10( ) of another quantity
that is already in Watts.
One more point, often in communication systems, the unit W is very high, so you may be dealing with
mW, uW, or even lower quantities of nW and pW. You can convert these quantities to logarithmic scale
by first converting them to W and then converting them to logarithmic scale, or you can directly convert
them to logarithmic scale but then the unit will be dBmW, dBuW, dBnW, or dBpW, respectively. An
observations is the following:
Let Y = 10 log10(X)
Power in W, mW, and uW Power in dBW Power in dBmW Power in dBuW

X (W) = 1000 X (mW) = 1,000,000 X (uW) Y Y + 30 Y + 60
X/1000 (W) = X (mW) = 1000 X (uW) Y – 30 Y Y + 30
121
Link Equation
X/1,000,000 (W) = X/1000 (mW) = X (uW) Y – 60 Y – 30 Y
18. Size of Antennas for Proper Satellite Reception
You may have seen the satellite reflector antennas that were used in the past for receiving TV broadcasting,
and may have noticed that they were very large in size (2 meters in diameter or more). However, nowadays,
a much smaller reflector antenna (around 60 cm in diameter) can be used to receive TV broadcasting from
satellites. The reason for the shift from the old large satellite reflector antennas to the new small satellite
reflector antenna is not due to the fact that satellites are transmitting more power, but because many
satellites in the past were transmitting TV broadcasting in the C-band (around 4 GHz) while most of today’s
satellites are transmitting TV broadcasting in the Ku-band (around 12 GHz) or higher. This increase in
transmitting frequency results in increasing the gains of satellite reflector antennas and reducing the 3dB
beamwidth, so smaller antennas can be used for transmission and reception and more satellites can be placed
in the GEO with smaller angles separating them without the fear of them causing interference to the
transmissions of each other.
Example 2:
A GEO satellite provides TV coverage to an elliptical region around its sub-satellite point that extends 300
km on either sides around the sub-satellite point in the E-W direction and 150 km in either sides around the
sub-satellite point in the N-S direction. The satellite antenna has an aperture efficiency of 0.8. Earth stations
use antennas that have diameter 1 m and aperture efficiency of 70%. The satellite transmission power is 50
W and the transmission frequency is 28 GHz. The atmospheric loss in the link is 2.3 dB and you are asked
to accommodate rain loss up to 5 dB. Determine the worst-case scenario for the received power by earth
stations.
Solution 2:
Let us a view a figure that illustrates the scenario discussed in the problem
122
Link Equation
Earth’s Center
150 km
300 km
Equator 300 km Sub-S
atellit
e Poin
150 km t
Satellite in
GEO Orbit
We know that the GEO orbit radius is RGEO = 42163 km. Therefore, the GEO orbit altitude is AltGEO
= 35785 km. Therefore, if we look at the above figure from the top (above North Pole), we will see a
figure that looks like the following
Note that because the dimensions of the coverage area of the satellite is much smaller than the
circumference of Earth, the coverage area can be safely assumed to be flat and not curved. Therefore, in
the E-W direction, the required E-W beam-width of the satellite antenna is
123
Link Equation
 300 
3dB-EW  2EW  2 tan 1    0.9606
 35785 
Repeating the same process in the N-S direction, we find N-S beam-width of the satellite antenna to be
 150 
3dB-NS  2NS  2 tan 1    0.4803
 35785 
So, the gain of the satellite antenna will be
55, 000  A 55, 000  A 55, 000   0.8 

GT     9.5367  10 4
3dB  X  3dB Y 3dB-EW  3dB-NS   0.9606  0.4803
For the receiving Earth stations antennas, the gain will be
2 2 2
  DR    DR    (1) 
GR   R    R     0.70   9 
 6.0183 104
 R   3 10 28 10 
8
c f 
Now, the losses are equal to
Latm = 2.3 dB = 10(2.3/10) = 1.6982 and LRain = 5 dB = 10(5/10) = 3.1623
There is one more important loss that we must take in consideration that was not mentioned in the problem,
but the physics of the problem force us to take it in consideration. This loss is called “Edge of Beam Loss”.
This loss results because earth stations that are located near the edge of the coverage area will not be located
at exactly the boresight of the antenna but at the edge of the beam at which the gain of the antenna will be
3 dB lower than its maximum at the boresight, and therefore experience a drop in received power equal to
3 dB compared to those located at the boresight. Note that these regions at the edge of the beam are also
usually further away from the transmitter compared to those near the center of the coverage area, and
therefore will experience a longer transmission path and hence larger path loss, but in our situation this is
negligible because the additional distance of the edge of the coverage region to the satellite compared to
the center of the coverage region is very small since the coverage region is relatively small. Therefore, we
will get
LEdge of Beam = 3 dB = 10(3/10) = 1.9953
So, the worst-case received power by any earth station means the minimum power that any Earth station
will receive, which will happen to Earth stations that is located at the edge of the coverage region that are
experiencing the full rain loss of 5 dB. This gives:
PT G T G R  50    9.5367 104    6.0183 104 

PR (Worst Case)  2
 2
 4 R 2   
   Latm  L Rain  L Edge of Beam  4  35785 103  
 2    1.6982  3.16231.9953
 3 108 
 28 109 
 1.5204 10-11 Watts
124
Link Equation
Example 3:
Determine the beamwidth of an antenna on a A GEO satellite that will allow it to provide coverage to the
whole region of Earth that can see the satellite (i.e., the region of Earth that sees the satellite with an
Elevation angle greater than or equal to zero).
Solution 3:
Let us a view a figure that illustrates the situation we have
Earth’s Center
Satellite in
GEO Orbit
If we look at the above figure from the top (above North Pole), we will see a figure that looks like the
following
125
Link Equation
Equator
6378 km
Earth’s Center
2
6378 km 35785 km
6378 km
Note that because the coverage region in this case is quite large, WE CANNOT ASSUME IT IS FLAT. We
will have to consider the right-angle triangles that appear in the above figure and find the beamwidth using
these triangles. Also, because the satellite covers the whole region that see it on Earth, and Earth is “almost”
spherical, the cover region will appear from the point of view of the satellite as a circle (i.e., beamwidth in
the horizontal direction and in the vertical direction will be the same):
 6378 
3dB  2  2sin 1    17.40
 35785  6378 
So, Earth appears as a relatively large object from the point of view of GEO satellites, which forces them
to use antennas with relatively large beamwidths, and therefore low gains, to cover the whole Earth
surface. As a result of this, the gain of the Earth stations receiving or transmitting to such satellites must
be relatively large to compensate for this low gain of the satellite antenna.
Example 4:
Determine the beamwidth of an antenna on a A GEO satellite that will allow it to provide coverage to the
region of Earth that sees that satellite at an elevation angle of 25 or higher (i.e., regions of Earth that see
the satellite low in the horizon at an elevation of less than 25 are not covered by the satellite).
Solution 4:
Let us a view a figure that illustrates the situation we have
126
Link Equation
Earth’s Center
Satellite in
GEO Orbit
If we look at the above figure from the top (above North Pole), we will see a figure that looks like the
following
Equator
25°
6378 km
Earth’s Center 2
6378 km 35785 km
6378 km
25°
Note that because the coverage region in this case is also quite large, WE CANNOT ASSUME IT TO BE
FLAT. We will have to consider one of the above triangles and use the sin-law to calculate the angle  as:
sin   sin  90  25


6378 6378  35785
127
Link Equation
So,
 6378  sin  90  25 

3dB  2  2sin 1    15.76
 35785  6378 
The above relation gives a good way for finding the beamwidth of an antenna on any satellite (GEO or not)
if we know the region it covers in terms of the minimum elevation needed for seeing the satellite. This is
given as
 6378  sin  90  ELmin  

3dB  2sin 1  
 rSat 
128

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EE 418: Introduction to Satellite Communications (212) Dr.

16. Link Equation

6. We stated earlier that the gain of an antenna is

 Diameter of ES1 Transmitting Antenna = 4 m, with aperture efficiency = 70 %

PR1 Satellite (Sat) PT2

Uplink DR1 = 3m DT2 = 5m Downlink

Let us first find gains of the uplink antennas

and the gains of the downlink antennas

The atmospheric losses are 2 dB in each path  Latm = 2 dB = 10(2/10) = 1.5849

PT1 G T1 G R1 PT1 G T1 G R1  300   1.1054 106    7.1061105 

PT2  G Sat  PR1  106 1.3032 10-4   130.32 Watts

Now, the power received by the second Earth station will be

PT2 G T2 G R2 PT2 G T2 G R2 130.32    6.5797 105   1.3159 105 

Important Notes Related to the Link Equation:

17. Linear vs. Logarithmic Forms of the Link Equation

Assume a parameter X in the linear form has a corresponding value Y = 10 log10(X)

Linear Form of Link Equation Logarithmic Form of Link Equation

Power in W, mW, and uW Power in dBW Power in dBmW Power in dBuW

X/1,000,000 (W) = X/1000 (mW) = X (uW) Y – 60 Y – 30 Y

18. Size of Antennas for Proper Satellite Reception

So, the gain of the satellite antenna will be

55, 000  A 55, 000  A 55, 000   0.8 

Now, the losses are equal to

Latm = 2.3 dB = 10(2.3/10) = 1.6982 and LRain = 5 dB = 10(5/10) = 3.1623

LEdge of Beam = 3 dB = 10(3/10) = 1.9953

PT G T G R  50    9.5367 104    6.0183 104 

Let us a view a figure that illustrates the situation we have

Let us a view a figure that illustrates the situation we have

sin   sin  90  25

 6378  sin  90  25 

 6378  sin  90  ELmin  

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