Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759

www.elsevier.com/locate/chaos

Nonextensive thermostatistical investigation

of the blackbody radiation
Fevzi B
uy _
ukkõlõcß a,*, Ismail kmen b, Do
So gan Demirhan a
a _
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
b _
Department of Physics, Faculty of Arts and Science, Dokuz Eylul University, Bucakampus, Izmir, Turkey
Accepted 9 February 2001
Communicated by I. Antoniou

Abstract

Thermodynamical quantities of the blackbody radiation such as free energy, entropy, total radiation energy, speci®c heat are
calculated within the Tsallis thermostatistics where factorization method is incorporated. It is shown that basic thermodynamical
relation of the blackbody radiation is form invariant with respect to the nonextensivity entropic index q. Furthermore, the nonex-
tensive thermodynamical quantities related to the blackbody radiation are separately obtained in terms of q and the standard ther-
modynamical quantities of the blackbody radiation. It is indicated that the formulation may give a way to determine q which
determines the degree of the nonextensivity that is one of the aims of the present study. Ó 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

1. Introduction

It has been understood that extensive (additive) Boltzmann±Gibbs (BG) thermostatistics fails to study
the nonextensive physical systems where long-range interactions or long-range microscopic memory is
involved or, the system evolves in a (multi)fractal space-time. Thus, the standard statistical mechanic is not
universal and is valid for extensive systems only. A generalized formalism is proposed by Tsallis which
describes the features that nonextensive physical systems exhibit [1±5].
This generalization relies on a new entropic form of the entropy that is inspired from (multi)fractals
PW q
1 iˆ1 pi
Sq ˆ k B …q 2 R†;
q 1
where kB is a positive constant and W is the total number of microscopic accessible states of the system. (for
q < 0 case, those probabilities which are not positive should be excluded). This expression recovers the well-
known standard Shannon entropy in the limit q ! 1:
X
W
S1 ˆ kB pi ln pi :
iˆ1

The nonextensivity entropic index q, related to and determined by the microscopic dynamics of the
system, characterizes the degree of nonextensivity.

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fevzi@sci.ege.edu.tr (F. B
uy
ukkõlõcß).

0960-0779/01/$ - see front matter Ó 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

PII: S 0 9 6 0 - 0 7 7 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 4 7 - 9
750 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759

Recently, the generalized statistical mechanics has succesfully been applied to investigate physical systems
which exhibit nonextensive features. Amongst them stellar polytrops [5], Levy-like anomalous di€usions
[6±10], two-dimensional turbulance [11], solar neutrino problem [12] velocity distribution of galaxy clusters
[13], cosmic background radiation [14,15] and correlated themes [16], linear response theory [17], thermal-
ization of electron±phonon system [18], and low-dimensional dissipative systems [19] could be enumerated.
It should be remarked that what makes Sq favourable is that it has, with regard to fpi g, de®nite concavity
property for all values of q [20±25].
In order to have sensible results which are exact or approximate,some techniques of calculations have
been formulated in Tsallis generalized statistical mechanics formalism, or Tsallis thermostatistics (TT).
These are …1 q† expansion [14], factorization method for quantal distribution functions [26,27], pertur-
bative expansion [28], variational methods [28,29], semiclassical approximation [30], Feynman's path in-
tegrals method in nonextensive physics [31±33], and Green functions [34].
In a recent paper, two of the present authors Fevzi B uy
ukkõlõcß and Dogan Demirhan, regarding the
particles fermion and bosons as g-ons, have obtained a distribution function which uni®es the nonextensive
distribution function of quantum gases; i.e., bose and fermi gases [35].
In this paper, however, we have revisited the blackbody radiation where it is investigated by using
factorization method within TT [36±39]. Here, our motivation is to rederive the thermodynamical quan-
tities, by incorporating factorization approximation in the context of nonextensive thermostatistics,
moreover, to reassess the obtained results with the standard ones. We believe that our approach will help to
understand the thermodynamical di€erence between extensive and nonextensive blackbody radiations
where nonextensive thermodynamical quantities are separately revealed in terms of entropic index q as well
as extensive standard ones.

2. The generalized law of Planck

We would like to rederive the generalized law of Planck by introducing the newly derived distribution
function for quantum gases which uni®es Bose±Einstein and Fermi±Dirac distributions. Electromagnetic
radiation which is in thermal equilibrium and which may be regarded as a gas of photons is named as
blackbody radiation. Photons do not interact with one another so that the photon gas is an ideal quantum
gas. The mechanism by which equilibrium can be established consists of the absorption and emission of the
photon gas: the number of photons N in it is a variable, and not a given constant as in ordinary gas, from
the requirement that the free energy of the gas should be a minimum, and the chemical potential of the
photon gas is 0. Two of the authors uni®ed the distribution function of the bose and the fermi gases within
the fractal and fractional approach. According to the formula which is derived, the most probable dis-
tribution of the Nq g-ons over the single state is
1
n…g; q† ˆ 1=…q 1†
; …1†
‰1 …1 q†b…2k l†Š ‡ 2g 1
where g is a statistics number, b ˆ 1=…kB T †, kB is Boltzmann constant, l is the chemical potential. It can be
veri®ed that in the q ! 1 limit for g ˆ 0 Bose±Einstein and for g ˆ 1 Fermi±Dirac distributions are recovered.
Eq. (1) may also lead to a generalized Planck distribution for l ˆ 0 and g ˆ 0 since the angular mo-
mentum of the photons is unity and thus they behave as bosons. Standard Planck distribution law,
however, is recovered for l ˆ 0, g ˆ 0 and q ˆ 1.
The distribution of photons among the various quantum states with energies 2k ˆ hxk is given by the
generalized Planck distribution formula (1) with l ˆ 0; and g ˆ 0, that is,
1
n…0; q† ˆ 1=…q 1†
: …2†
‰1 …1 q†b
hxŠ 1
For a suciently large volume, one can pass from the discrete to the continuous distribution of
eigenfrequencies of radiation. Thus, the density of states of the photons, with frequencies between x and
x ‡ dx in a given volume V [40,41] is
 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759 751

V x2 dx
D…x† ˆ : …3†
p2 c 3
The number of photons in the frequency interval dx is obtained by multiplying n…0; q† with the generalized
distribution of Planck which is given by Eq. (3):
V x2 dx
dNq …x† ˆ …4†
p2 c3 ‰1 …1 q†b
hxŠ
1=…q 1†
1
or
dn…x† 1 x2
ˆ 2 3 ; …5†
dx p c ‰1 …1 hxŠ1=…q
q†b 1†
1
where n ˆ N =V is the spatial density of photons.
Multiplying Eq. (4) by hx leads to the radiation energy for this frequency interval:
V h x3 dx
dUq …x† ˆ : …6†
p2 c3 ‰1 …1 hxŠ1=…q
q†b 1†
1
Quite analogously, one ®nds the spatial energy density u ˆ U =V per frequency interval:
duq …x† dnq h
 x3
ˆ
hx ˆ : …7†
dx dx p2 c3 ‰1 …1 q†b
hxŠ
1=…q 1†
1
The rate R at which photons with the frequency x leave the cavity through the small outlet is
c dnq …x† 1 x3
Rq …x† ˆ ˆ 2 3 : …8†
4 dx 4p c ‰1 …1 q†b
hxŠ
1=…q 1†
1
The energy ¯ux per unit area of the hole per unit time and frequency interval is thus

d3 Eq
ˆ hxRq …x†: …9†
dF dx dt
Since the energy per unit time just yields the radiative power Pq , Eq. (9) is, of course, identical with the
radiative power per hole area and frequency, i.e., with the spectral density

h x2
Qsq …x; T † ˆ 
hxRq …x† ˆ : …9a†
4p2 c2 ‰1 …1 q†b
hxŠ
1=…q 1†
1
Within the dilute gas approximation this is the generalized radiation law of Planck for the spectral radiation
density of a blackbody in thermal equilibrium. Or in terms of the wavelength k ˆ 2pc=x, it becomes [35] the
generalized law of Planck:
( , 1=…1 q† )
16p2 chV 2ph
dUk ˆ dk 1 …1 q† 1 : …9b†
k5 kB T

3. Generalized thermodynamics of a blackbody radiation

Let us calculate the generalized thermodynamic quantities, namely, the free energy, the entropy, the total
radiation energy, the speci®c heat, and the pressure of a blackbody radiation within the factorization
approximation.
The free energy Fq for the chemical potential l ˆ 0 is given by
!
X1 X
1
1=…1 q†
Fq ˆ kB T ln ‰1 …1 q†nb hx i Š …10†
iˆ1 nˆ0
752 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759

or
X
1
1
Fq ˆ kB T ln 1=…1 q†
: …11†
iˆ1 1 ‰1 …1 q†b
hxi Š

By means of the density of the quantum states for the interval dx which is given by Eq. (3), one passes from
the summation to the integration in Eq. (11) thus we obtain
Z  
V
Fq ˆ 2 3 x2 ln 1 ‰1 …1 q†b hxŠ1=1 q dx: …12†
pc

With the new variable of integration x ˆ hx=kB T , integration by parts gives, in the …1 q†x ! 0 limit; i.e.,
within the factorization approximation which is developed in [26,27]

…kB T †4
Fq ˆ V Iq …3†; …13†
h3 c3
3p2 

where
Z 1
x3
Iq …3† ˆ 1=…1 q†
dx for q > 1; q < 1: …14†
0 ‰1 …1 q†xŠ 1

The value of the integral for both q > 1 or q < 1 cases is obtained as
p4 1
Iq …3† ˆ …15†
15 …4 3q†…3 2q†…2 q†

which appears in Eq. (A.24) of Appendix A. Due to the singularities nonextensivity index q cannot have the
values 4/3, 3/2, and 2. The largest value for the nonextensivity index q should be 4/3. It is obtained as 5/4 in
[36±39] where the integration is limited to a cut-o€ frequency such that q < 4=3.
Substitution of Eq. (15) into Eq. (13) gives for the free energy
4V
Fq ˆ rq T 4 ; …16†
3c
where
r
rq ˆ …16a†
…4 3q†…3 2q†…2 q†
is the q-dependent and
p2 k 4
rˆ …16b†
60h3 c2
is the standard Stefan±Boltzmann constant. Thus, rq is independent of the temperature.
Serial representation of Eq. (16a) can be realized by a Taylor expansion with respect to the entropic
index about q ˆ 1. Thus,
2 3
rq ˆ r…1 ‡ 6…q 1† ‡ 25…q 1† ‡ O…q 1† †: …16c†

In the q ! 1 limit, rq becomes the conventional Stefan±Boltzmann constant.

On the other hand, the entropy of the blackbody radiation, naturally, is found to be q-dependent
 
oFq 16V
Sq ˆ ˆ rq T 3 ; …17†
oT V 3c

where rq is given in Eq. (16a).

 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759 753

The total radiation energy is found to be

Uq ˆ Fq ‡ TSq : …18†

It is seen that Eq. (18) is form invariant.

Substitution of Eqs. (16) and (17) into Eq. (18) leads to
4V
Uq ˆ rq T 4 …19†
c
or

Uq ˆ 3Fq : …20†

On the other hand, direct integration of Eq. (6) without an upper limit of the integral and a serial
representation of the distribution function with respect to leads to Eq. (19)
Z 1 Z 1
Vh x3 dx
dUq …x† ˆ 2 3 : …21†
0 p c 0 ‰1 …1 q†b hxŠ1=…q 1† 1
With the new variable of integration x ˆ 
hx=kT , Eq. (21) reads
Z 1 3
Vh x dx
Uq ˆ 3 4
…22†
h† b 0 ‰1 …1 q†xŠ1=…q 1† 1
p …c
2

or
4
V …kT †
Uq ˆ Iq …3†: …23†
h† 3
p2 …c
The value of the integral is given in Eq. A.10a, A.10b, A.10c of the Appendix A. Therefore
I
Iq …3† ˆ ; …24†
…4 3q†…3 2q†…2 q†
where I is given as
p4
Iˆ : …25†
15
Substitution of Eq. A.10a, A.10b, A.10c into Eq. (23) leads to
4
V …kT † p2 1
Uq ˆ 3
…26†
h† 15 …4
…c 3q†…3 2q†…2 q†

or in a more compact form:

4V
Uq ˆ rq T 4 ; …27†
c
where rq is same with the one which is given explicitly by Eqs. (16a) and (16b).
The speci®c heat of radiation is
16V
CVq ˆ rq T 3 : …28†
c
The pressure is
 
oF 4
pq ˆ ˆ rq T 4 …29†
oV T 3c
754 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759

or in view of Eq. (27) one can write the equation of state as

1
pq V ˆ Uq : …30†
3
It is seen that the equation of state of a photon gas which is given by Eq. (30) is also form invariant. The
factor in front of the energy is a direct consequence of the linear relation 2ˆ cp between the energy and
momentum of a photon.

4. The total number of photons of a blackbody radiation

By performing the integration of Eq. (4) the total number of photons in a generalized blackbody ra-
diation is
Z 1 Z 1
V x2 dx
dNq …x† ˆ 2 3 …31†
0 p c 0 ‰1 …1 q†b hxŠ1=q 1 1
with the new variable of integration x ˆ 
hx=kT ,
VT 3
Nq ˆ Iq …2†; …32†
h3
p 2 c3 
where
Z 1
x2
Iq …2† ˆ 1=…q 1†
dx: …33†
0 ‰1 …1 q†xŠ 1
The value of the integral is given in Eq. (B.8) of Appendix B. Thus,
I
Iq …2† ˆ for q < 1; q > 1; …34†
…3 2q†…2 q†
where
Z 1
x2 dx
Iˆ ˆ C…3†f…3†: …35†
0 ex 1
Substitution of Eq. (33) into Eq. (32) while taking into account Eqs. (34) and (35); one ®nds
N
Nq ˆ ; …36†
…3 2q†…2 q†
where
 3
V T
Nˆ C…3†f…3† …37†
p2 hc

is the standard number of photons.
Serial representation of Eq. (36) can be realized by a Taylor expansion with respect to the entropic index
about q ˆ 1. Thus
2
Nq ˆ N …1 ‡ 3…q 1† ‡ 7…q 1† ‡ O3 …q 1††: …38†
In the q ! 1 limit Nq becomes conventional N in Eq. (37).

5. Conclusions

In this study the blackbody radiation problem is revisited and generalized Planck law is rederived. The
thermodynamical quantities of the blackbody radiation, i.e., the free energy, the entropy, the total radiation
 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759 755

energy, the speci®c heat and the pressure are calculated within Tsallis thermostatistics in which factor-
ization method is involved.
It is concluded that, the basic thermodynamical relations related to the blackbody radiation are form
invariant with respect to the nonextensivity entropic index q which determines the degree of nonextensivity.
It should be pointed out that the nonextensive quantities related to the blackbody radiation which are
presented have been separately written in terms of the entropic index q and the corresponding standard
thermodynamical quantities where the largest value for the nonextensivity index q should be such that
q < 4=3. We hope that our approach may well lead to the experimental determination of the nonextensivity
index q, so that the ultimate aim of the study can be achieved.

Appendix A

In this appendix calculation of one of the two integrals which appeared in the text is presented.The
integral Iq …3† which has appeared in Eq. (10) of Helmholtz free energy and Eq. (22) of total energy Uq is
given by
Z 1
x3
Iq …3† ˆ dx 1=…q 1†
; q < 1 case: …A:1†
0 ‰1 …1 q†xŠ 1

The de®nition of the gamma function is

Z 1
C…a† ˆ ta 1 e t dt; a > 0: …A:2†
0

By substituting t ˆ ‰1 …1 q†xŠt in Eq. (12) one ®nds

    Z 1
1=…q 1† 1
‰1 …1 q†xŠ ˆ 1 C t‰1=…q 1†Š 1 e t et…1 q†x
dt; …A:3†
1 q 0

where a ˆ 1=…1 q† is obtained and the condition for a > 0 is ful®lled since q < 1.
On the other hand, from the de®nition of the gamma function it can be written
    Z 1
1
1ˆ 1 C t‰1=…1 q†Š 1 e t dt: …A:4†
1 q 0

If one substracts Eq. (A.3) from Eq. (A.4) one achieves

    Z 1
1=…q 1† 1
‰1 …1 q†xŠ 1ˆ 1 C t‰1=…1 q†Š 1
e t …et…1 q†x
1† dt: …A:5†
1 q 0

Substituting Eq. (A.5) into Eq. (A.1), after some rearrangements, leads to
   Z 1 Z 1
1 x3
Iq …3† ˆ 1 C dt t‰1=…1 q†Š 1 e t dx t…1 q†x : …A:6†
1 q 0 0 e 1
Or in terms of y ˆ t…1 q†x Eq. (A.6) takes the form
   Z 1 Z 1
1 4 ‰1=…1 q†Š‡3 t y3
Iq …3† ˆ C …1 q† dt t e dy y …A:7†
1 q 0 0 e 1
or
    
p4 1 4 1
Iq ˆ C …1 q† C ‡4 ; …A:8†
15 1 q 1 q
756 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759

where
Z 1 4
y3 …2p† p4
dy ˆ B2 ˆ ; …A:9a†
0 ey 1 4:2 15
Z 1  
1
dt t‰1=…1 q†Š‡3
e tˆC ‡4 …A:9b†
0 1 q

are used and in Eq. (A.9a) B2 ˆ 1=30 is a Bernoulli number [42].

On the other hand, in view of the property of the gamma function one can write
C…z ‡ 1† ˆ zC…z†: …A:10a†

Thus,
        
1 1 1 1 1 1
C ‡4 ˆ ‡3 ‡2 ‡1 C : …A:10b†
1 q 1 q 1 q 1 q 1 q 1 q

When Eq. (A.10b) is substituted in Eq. (A.8) one obtains

p4 1
Iq …3† ˆ for q < 1: …A:10c†
15 …4 3q†…3 2q†…2 q†

On the other hand, the calculation of the integral

Z 1
x3
Iq …3† ˆ dx 1=…q 1†
…A:11†
0 ‰1 …1 q†xŠ 1
for the case q > 1 is given below. From the de®nitions [43]
I
i
C…a† dt … t† q=…q 1† e t ˆ 1; …A:12†
2p C
where a > 0. Substituting
t ˆ t‰1 …1 q†xŠ …A:13†
one has
 I
1=…q 1† i q q=…q 1†
‰1 …1 q†xŠ ˆ C dt … t† e te t…q 1†x
; …A:14†
2p q 1 C

where a ˆ q=…q 1† > 0 since q > 1 . On the other hand

 I
i q
1ˆ C dt … t† q=…q 1† e t : …A:15†
2p q 1 C

If Eq. (A.14) is substracted from Eq. (A.15) side by side, then one obtains
 I
1=…q 1† i q q=…q 1†
‰1 …1 q†xŠ 1ˆ C dt … v† e t …e t…q 1†x 1†: …A:16†
2p q 1 C

Thus, substitution of Eq. (A.16) into Eq. (A.11) leads to

    I Z 1
q i q=…q 1† x3
Iq …3† ˆ 1 C dt … t† e t dx …A:17†
q 1 2p C 0 e t…q 1†x 1
or after changing the variable of integration by writing
y ˆ t…1 q†x: …A:18†
 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759 757

Eq. (17) becomes

    I Z 1
q 4 i ‰q=…q 1† 4Š t y3
Iq …3† ˆ 1 C …q 1† dt … t† e dy …A:19†
q 1 2p C 0 ey 1

or
     
q q 4 p4
Iq …3† ˆ C 4 C …q 1† …A:20†
q 1 q 1 15

where from the de®nition given by Eq. (A.12)

  I   
i ‰q=…q 1† 4Š t q
1 dt … t† e ˆC 4 …A:21†
2p C q 1

and Eq. (A.9a) are used.

In view of Eq. (A.10a) and Eq. (A.10b)
        
q q q q q 1
C ˆ 1 2 3 4 C 4 …A:22†
q 1 q 1 q 1 q 1 q 1 1 q

is written. Thus, when Eq. (A.22) is substituted into Eq. (A.20) one has

p4 1
Iq …3† ˆ for q > 1: …A:23†
15 …4 3q†…3 2q†…2 q†

Finally, one could unify the results which are given by Eqs. (A.10c) and (A.23)

p4 1
Iq …3† ˆ ; q < 1; q > 1: …A:24†
15 …4 3q†…3 2q†…2 q†

Appendix B

In order to calculate the second integral which we faced in Eq. (33) namely
Z 1
x2
Iq …2† ˆ 1=…q 1†
; …B:1†
0 ‰1 …1 q†xŠ 1

where q < 1 we refer to Eq. (A.5). Substitution of Eq. (A.5) into Eq. (B.1) reads
   Z 1 Z 1
1 x2
Iq …2† ˆ C dt t‰1=…q 1†Š 1 e t dx t…1 q†x …B:2†
1 q 0 0 e 1
or changing the variable of integration by writing
y ˆ t…1 q†x …B:3†
one obtains
   Z 1 Z 1
1 3 ‰1=…q 1†Š‡2 t y2
Iq …2† ˆ C …q 1† dt t e dy …B:4†
1 q 0 0 ey 1
or
    
1 3 1
Iq …2† ˆ C …q 1 †C ‡3 C…3†f…3†; …B:5†
1 q 1 q
758 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759

where
Z 1
y2
dy ˆ C…3†f…3† …B:6†
0 ey 1
and f…3† being a zeta function
Z 1  
1
dt t‰1=…1 q†Š‡2 e t ˆ C ‡3 …B:7†
0 1 q
are used.
Thus in view of Eq. (A.10a) and Eq. (A.10b) which are related to the properties of gamma function Eq.
(B.5) reads,
1
Iq …2† ˆ C…3†f…3†; …B:8†
…3 2q†…2 q†
where C (3) ˆ 2!, f…3† ˆ 1:202.
In order to calculate the integral which is given by Eq. (B.1) for q > 1 one may refer to Eq. (A.16). Thus,
Eq. (B.1) reads
    Z 1 Z 1
q i q=…q 1† t x2
Iq …2† ˆ 1 C dt … t† e dx t…q 1†x ; …B:9†
q 1 2p 0 0 e 1
where a ˆ q=…q 1† > 0 since q > 1 . If one changes the variable of the integration as in Eq. (A.18) one
obtains
    Z 1 Z 1
q 3 i f‰q=…q 1†Š 3g
t y2
Iq …2† ˆ 1 C …q 1† dt … t† e dy y …B:10†
q 1 2p 0 0 e 1
or
     
q q 3
Iq …2† ˆ C 3 C …q 1† C…3†f…3†; …B:11†
q 1 q 1
where the de®nition which is given by Eq. (A.12) and
  Z 1   
i f‰q=…q 1†Š 3g q
1 dt … t† e t ˆC 3 …B:12†
2p 0 q 1
and
Z 1
y2
dy ˆ C…3†f…3† …B:13†
0 ey 1
are used.
In view of the properties of the gamma function which are indicated by Eqs. (A.10a) and (A.10b), one
could express the term which appears on the right-hand side of Eq. (B.12) as
       
q q q q q
C ˆ 1 2 3 C 3 ; …B:14†
q 1 q 1 q 1 q 1 q 1
where C…3† ˆ 2! and f…3† ˆ 1:202.
Finally by unifying the conclusions of Eqs. (B.5) and (B.13) one obtains
1
Iq …2† ˆ C…3†f…3†; q > 1; q < 1: …B:15†
…3q 2†…2q 1†

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 F. Buyukkõlõcß et al. / Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 13 (2002) 749±759 759

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