Handbook of

CEREAL SCIENCE
and
TECHNOLOGY
 FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

A Series of Monographs, Textbooks, and Reference Books

EDITORIAL BOARD

Owen R. Fennema University of Wisconsin—Madison

Marcus Karel Rutgers University
Gary W. Sanderson Universal Foods Corporation
Pieter Walstra Wageningen Agricultural University
John R. Whitaker University of California—Davis

1. Flavor Research: Principles and Techniques, R. Teranishi, I. Hornstein, P. Is-

senberg, and E. L. Wick
2. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences, John R. Whitaker
3. Low-Temperature Preservation of Foods and Living Matter, Owen R. Fennema,
William D. Powrie, and Elmer H. Marth
4. Principles of Food Science
Part I: Food Chemistry, edited by Owen R. Fennema
Part II: Physical Methods of Food Preservation, Marcus Karel, Owen R. Fennema,
and Daryl B. Lund
5. Food Emulsions, edited by Stig E. Friberg
6. Nutritional and Safety Aspects of Food Processing, edited by Steven R. Tan-
nenbaum
7. Flavor Research: Recent Advances, edited by R. Teranishi, Robert A. Flath, and
Hiroshi Sugisawa
8. Computer-Aided Techniques in Food Technology, edited by Israel Saguy
9. Handbook of Tropical Foods, edited by Harvey T. Chan
10. Antimicrobials in Foods, edited by Alfred Larry Branen and P. Michael Davidson
11. Food Constituents and Food Residues: Their Chromatographic Determination,
edited by James F. Lawrence
12. Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry, edited by Lewis D. Stegink and L. J.
Filer, Jr.
13. Handbook of Vitamins: Nutritional, Biochemical, and Clinical Aspects, edited by
Lawrence J. Mechlin
14. Starch Conversion Technology, edited by G. M. A. van Beynum and J. A. Roels
15. Food Chemistry: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Owen R.
Fennema
16. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Statistical Methods and Procedures, Michael
O'Mahony
17. Alternative Sweeteners, edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
18. Citrus Fruits and Their Products: Analysis and Technology, S. V. Ting and Russell
L. Rouseff
19. Engineering Properties of Foods, edited by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi
20. Umami: A Basic Taste, edited by Yojiro Kawamura and Morley R. Kare
21. Food Biotechnology, edited by Dietrich Knorr
22. Food Texture: Instrumental and Sensory Measurement, edited by Howard R.
Moskowitz
23. Seafoods and Fish Oils in Human Health and Disease, John E. Kinsella
24. Postharvest Physiology of Vegetables, edited by J. Weichmann
25. Handbook of Dietary Fiber: An Applied Approach, Mark L. Dreher
26. Food Toxicology, Parts A and B, Jose M. Concon
27. Modern Carbohydrate Chemistry, Roger W. Binkley
28. Trace Minerals in Foods, edited by Kenneth T. Smith
29. Protein Quality and the Effects of Processing, edited by R. Dixon Phillips and
John W. Finley
30. Adulteration of Fruit Juice Beverages, edited by Steven Nagy, John A. Attaway,
and Martha E. Rhodes
31. Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens, edited by Michael P. Doyle
32. Legumes: Chemistry, Technology, and Human Nutrition, edited by Ruth H.
Matthews
33. Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus
34. International Food Regulation Handbook: Policy • Science • Law, edited by Roger
D. Middlekauff and Philippe Shubik
35. Food Additives, edited by A. Larry Branen, P. Michael Davidson, and Seppo
Salminen
36. Safety of Irradiated Foods, J. F. Diehl
37. Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Health and Disease, edited by Robert S. Lees and
Marcus Karel
38. Food Emulsions: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Kare Larsson
and Stig E. Friberg
39. Seafood: Effects of Technology on Nutrition, George M. Pigott and Barbee W.
Tucker
40. Handbook of Vitamins: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by
Lawrence J. Machlin
41. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Klaus J. Lorenz and Karel Kulp
42. Food Processing Operations and Scale-Up, Kenneth J. Valentas, Leon Levine,
and J. Peter Clark
43. Fish Quality Control by Computer Vision, edited by L. F. Pau and R. Olafsson
44. Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages, edited by Henk Maarse
45. Instrumental Methods for Quality Assurance in Foods, edited by Daniel Y. C. Fung
and Richard F. Matthews
46. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety, Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth
47. Acesulfame-K, edited by D. G. Mayer and F. H. Kemper
48. Alternative Sweeteners: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Lyn
O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
49. Food Extrusion Science and Technology, edited by Jozef L. Kokini, Chi-Tang Ho,
and Mukund V. Karwe
50. Surimi Technology, edited by Tyre C. Lanier and Chong M. Lee
51. Handbook of Food Engineering, edited by Dennis R. Heldman and Daryl B. Lund
52. Food Analysis by HPLC, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet
53. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications, edited by Ching Kuang Chow
54. Clostridium botulinum: Ecology and Control in Foods, edited by Andreas H. W.
Hauschild and Karen L. Dodds
55. Cereals in Breadmaking: A Molecular Colloidal Approach, Ann- Charlotte Eliasson
and '<are Larsson
56. Low-Calorie Foods Handbook, edited by Aaron M. Altschul
57. Antimicrobials in Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by P.
Michael Davidson and Alfred Larry Branen
58. Lactic Acid Bacteria, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright
59. Rice Science and Technology, edited by Wayne E. Marshall and James I.
Wadsworth
60. Food Biosensor Analysis, edited by Gabriele Wagner and George G. Guilbault
61. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences: Second Edition, John R.
Whitaker
62. Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes, edited by Casimir C. Akoh and Barry
G. Swanson
63. Engineering Properties of Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited
by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi
64. Handbook of Brewing, edited by William A. Hardwick
65. Analyzing Food for Nutrition Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants, edited by Ike
J. Jeon and William G. lkins
66. Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, edited by Anilkumar G. Gaonkar
67. Food Polysaccharides and Their Applications, edited by Alistair M. Stephen
68. Safety of Irradiated Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, J. F. Diehl
69. Nutrition Labeling Handbook, edited by Ralph Shapiro
70. Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage,
and Processing, edited by D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam
71. Food Antioxidants: Technological, Toxicological, and Health Perspectives, edited
by D. L. Madhavi, S. S. Deshpande, and D. K. Salunkhe
72. Freezing Effects on Food Quality, edited by Lester E. Jeremiah
73. Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Ex-
panded, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus
74. Carbohydrates in Food, edited by Ann-Charlotte Eliasson
75. Baked Goods Freshness: Technology, Evaluation, and Inhibition of Staling, edited
by Ronald E. Hebeda and Henry F. Zobel
76. Food Chemistry: Third Edition, edited by Owen R. Fennema
77. Handbook of Food Analysis: Volumes 1 and 2, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet
78. Computerized Control Systems in the Food Industry, edited by Gauri S. Mittal
79. Techniques for Analyzing Food Aroma, edited by Ray Marsili
80. Food Proteins and Their Applications, edited by Srinivasan Damodaran and Alain
Paraf
81. Food Emulsions: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Stig E. Friberg
and Kare Larsson
82. Nonthermal Preservation of Foods, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Canovas, Usha R.
Pothakamury, Enrique Palou, and Barry G. Swanson
83. Milk and Dairy Product Technology, Edgar Spreer
84. Applied Dairy Microbiology, edited by Elmer H. Marth and James L. Steele
85. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Microbiology and Functional Aspects, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright
86. Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Composition,
Storage, and Processing, edited by D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam
87. Polysaccharide Association Structures in Food, edited by Reginald H. Walter
88. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology, edited by Casimir C. Akoh
and David B. Min
89. Spice Science and Technology, Kenji Hirasa and Mitsuo Takemasa
90. Dairy Technology: Principles of Milk Properties and Processes, P. Walstra, T. J.
Geurts, A. Noomen, A. Jellema, and M. A. J. S. van Boekel
91. Coloring of Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics, Gisbert Otterstatter
92. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth
93. Complex Carbohydrates in Foods, edited by Susan Sungsoo Cho, Leon Prosky,
and Mark Dreher
94. Handbook of Food Preservation, edited by M. Shafiur Rahman
95. International Food Safety Handbook: Science, International Regulation, and
Control, edited by Kees van der Heijden, Maged Younes, Lawrence Fishbein,
and Sanford Miller
96. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, edited by Ching Kuang Chow
97. Seafood Enzymes: Utilization and Influence on Postharvest Seafood Quality,
edited by Norman F. Haard and Benjamin K. Simpson
98. Safe Handling of Foods, edited by Jeffrey M. Farber and Ewen C. D. Todd
99. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, edited by Karel Kulp and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Surimi and Surimi Seafood, edited by Jae W. Park

Food Analysis by HPLC: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Leo
M. L. Nollet

Handbook of Water Analysis, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet

Handbook of Nutrition and Diet, B. B. Desai

Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection,

edited by Luis M. Botana
 Handbook of
CEREAL SCIENCE
and
TECHNOLOGY
Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded

edited by
Karel Kulp
American Institute of Baking
Manhattan, Kansas

Joseph G. Ponta, Jr.

Professor Emeritus
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
ISBN: 0-8247-8294-1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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PREFACE

The first edition of this Handbook appeared almost a decade ago (1991). Its favorable acceptance prompted us to prepare
this second edition. In scope and organization, the book is similar to the first edition. Each chapter has been revised, up-
dated, and supplemented with new and pertinent information. Additional chapters were added because of the relevance of
the material to the utilization of cereals.
Cereals are discussed, as in the first edition, from three points of view: agronomic, chemical, and technological utiliza-
tion of each grain. These topics divide the book into three sections. Each grain (wheat, corn, barley, oats, sorghum, millets,
rice, rye, triticale and other minor cereal grains, including wild rice) is covered with respect to breeding, economic, and pro-
duction aspects. A new chapter on soybeans and oilseed grains is included. Although botanically unrelated to cereals, use of
oilseeds is often technologically related to applications of various cereals and thus from an end use point of view we discuss
them in this book.
Chemical composition and functionality of cereal components (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, minor ingredients, etc.) are
the subject of a series of chapters, followed by chapters describing the main utilization of cereals as food, food ingredients (a
new chapter), industrial products, and microbiological processes (a new chapter). Nutritional information has been updated in
a separate chapter demonstrating a growing importance of cereal in human diet. Also related to nutrition is the chapter on food
enrichment and labeling, demonstrating the continued interest in fortification programs, as illustrated by the recent inclusion
of folic acid as an enrichment factor. As in the first edition, an expanded chapter on quality product evaluation is included.
Most of the 27 chapters were authored by the same contributors as in the first edition. Unfortunately Professor K. Lorenz,
who co-edited the first edition, was unable to serve as an editor on this volume. However, I was pleased to be able to draft
as a co-editor Professor J. G. Ponte, Jr., with whom I had previously worked on several other projects.
In preparing multi-authored books it is essential to select contributors who are willing to devote their time and effort to
writing their respective chapters within the objectives of the book and within the given time frame. We were fortunate to
have contributors who were cooperative and understanding, and we both wish to express our deep gratitude to them.
Finally, we conclude with some general thoughts on trends in the cereal field. Although cereals have been used through-
out the ages, new developments in biology, technology, biochemistry, and nutrition offer new horizons in their use. These
advances are only in the initial stages today, but rapid progress can be predicted. This Handbook will provide researchers,
technologists, and users with fundamental information that will assist them in building their knowledge of this broad field.

Karel Kulp
Joseph G. Ponte, Jr

iii
CONTENTS

Preface iii
Contributors vii

1. Wheat 1
Elieser S. Posner
2. Corn: The Major Cereal of the Americas 31
Lawrence A. Johnson
3. Barley 81
Eugene A. Hockett
4. Oats 127
Michael S. McMullen
5. Sorghum 149
Lloyd W. Rooney and Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar
6. The Millets 177
Cassandra M. McDonough, Lloyd W. Rooney, and Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar
7. Rice: Production, Processing, and Utilization 203
Navam S. Hettiarachchy, Zhi Yong Ju, Terry Siebenmorgen, and Roy N. Sharp
8. Rye 223
Klaus Lorenz
9. Triticale: Production and TJtilization 257
N. L. Darvey, H. Naeem, and J. Perry Gustafson
10. Wild Rice: Processing and Utilization 275
Ervin A. OeIke and James J. Boedicker
11. Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 297
Edmund W Lusas
12. Cereal Proteins: Composition of Their Major Fractions and Methods for Identification 363
George Lookhart and Scott Bean
vi Contents

13. Cereal Carbohydrates 385

David R. Shelton and Won Jong Lee
14. Cereal Lipids 417
Okkyung Kim Chung and Jae-Bom Ohm
15. Minor Constituents of Cereals 479
Margaret Ann Bock
16. Quality Evaluation of Cereals and Cereal Products 505
Vladimir E Rasper and Charles E. Walker
17. Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 539
Karel Kulp and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.
18. Soft Wheat Products 575
Hamed Faridi, Charles S. Gaines, and Brian L. Strouts
19. Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 615
Paul J. Whalen, Julia L. DesRochers, and Charles E. Walker
20. Pasta: Raw Materials and Processing 647
Brendan J. Donnelly and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr
21. Cereal-Based Snack Foods 667
Joseph A. Maga
22. Malted Cereals: Their Production and Use 685
Richard E. Pyler and D. A. Thomas
23. Cereal Enrichment and Nutrient Labeling 697
Peter M. Ranum
24. Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods 705
Carol E Klopfenstein
25. Nonfood Uses of Cereals 725
John W. Lawton
26. Fermentation and Microbiological Processes in Cereal Foods 741
Pierre Gelinas and Carole McKinnon
27. Special Food Ingredients from Cereals 755
Joseph G. Ponte, Jr., Ismail Sait Dogan, and Karel Kulp

Index 777
CONTRIBUTORS

Scott Bean Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Margaret Ann Bock Family and Consumer Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico

James J. Boedicker University of Minnesota, Grand Rapids, Minnesota

Okkyung Kim Chung Hard Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agri-
cultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas

N. L. Darvey Plant Breeding Institute, Cobbitty, New South Wales, Australia

Julia L. DesRochers Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Ismail Sait Dogan Department of Food Engineering, College of Agriculture, Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey

Brendan J. Donnelly Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Hamed Faridi McCormick & Company, Inc., Hunt Valley, Maryland

Charles S. Gaines Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Wooster, Ohio

Pierre Gelinas Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, St. Hyacinthe, Quebec,
Canada

J. Perry Gustafson Plant Genetics Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and
Plant Science Unit, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri

Navam S. Hettiarachchy Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Eugene A. Hockett Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Plant Sciences Department,
Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana

vii
viii Contributors

Lawrence A. Johnson Center for Crops Utilization Research and Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

Zhi Yong Ju Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Carol F. Klopfenstein Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Karel Kulp* Department of Research, American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas

John W. Lawton Plant Polymer Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Re-
search Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Illinois

Won Jong Lee Department of Food Science, Kangnung National University, Kangnung, Korea

George Lookhart U.S. Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas

Klaus Lorenz Professor Emeritus, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, Colorado

Edmund W. Lusas Consultant, Ed Lusas, Problem Solvers, Inc., Bryan, Texas

Joseph A. Maga* Professor Emeritus, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

Cassandra M. McDonough Cereal Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas

Carole McKinnon Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, St. Hyacinthe, Quebec,
Canada

Michael S. McMullen Crop and Weed Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota

H. Naeem Plant Breeding Institute, Cobbitty, New South Wales, Australia

Ervin A. Oelke Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota

Jae-Bom Ohm Hard Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agricultural
Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas

Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.* Professor Emeritus, Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhat-
tan, Kansas

Elieser S. Posner Consultant, Savyon, Israel

Richard E. Pyler Brewing Research and Product Design, Coors Brewing Company, Golden, Colorado

Peter M. Ranum American Ingredients Company, Grand Island, New York

Vladimir F. Rasper Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada

Lloyd W. Rooney Cereal Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas

*Retired.
Contributors ix

Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar Food Science and Technology, Institute Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monter-
rey, Monterrey, N.L. Mexico

Roy N. Sharp Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

David R. Shelton Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska

Terry Siebenmorgen Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Brian L. Strouts Department of Research, American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas

D. A. Thomas Brewing Research and Product Design, Coors Brewing Company, Golden, Colorado

Charles E. Walker Department of Baking and Engineering, BRI—Australia Ltd., North Ryde, New South Wales, Aus-
tralia

Paul J. Whalen Whalen Consulting, Inc., Elk River, Minnesota

1

WHEAT

Elieser S. Posner
Consultant, Savyon, Israel

I. ORIGIN 30,000 cells in a wheat kernel, and their content varies sig-
nificantly depending on their location in the kernel [2]. Ex-
Historic documents confirm that wheat is the earliest field
tensive studies have been conducted on the botanical outer
crop used for human food processing [1]. It also became
layers of wheat kernels. Their metabolic significance, size,
the leading grain used for human consumption due to its
and thickness changes from fertilization of the ovary by
nutritive profile and relatively easy harvesting, storing,
the pollen of the same plant were reported [3]. A longitudi-
transportation, and processing, as compared to other
nal and cross section of a wheat kernel along with an iden-
grains. The earliest varieties, grown 12,000-17,000 years
tification of its components is shown in Figure 1. Table 1
ego in the Near East, were Triticum monococcum (einkorn)
shows the typical values of wheat kernel parts and their
and Triticum dicoccum (emmer). Continued breeding re-
proximate analysis. The morphology of the wheat kernel is
sulted in the development of new varieties around the
unique and as such creates technical (milling) challenges
world that often became adapted to areas previously un-
in separating the endosperm and the germ from the outer
suited for the cultivation of wheat. The main wheat vari-
fibrous layers, commonly named the "bran." The presence
eties grown today are Triticum aestivum, subspecies vul-
of the crease (about 25% of the kernel surface), which ex-
gare, which is a hexaploid with six groups of seven
tends almost to the center of the wheat kernel [7], requires
chromosomes in each group. This species includes hard
special consideration in grinding. The wheat germ (about
red winter, hard red spring, soft red winter, and white
2-4% of the kernel weight) is located on the dorsal side.
wheats. Another wheat durum is a tetraploid, containing
The wheat germ parts are the embryo, with rudimentary
four groups of seven chromosomes totaling 28 chromo-
roots and shoots, and the scutulum, which is a transport or-
somes. The botanical name of durum wheat is Triticum du-
gan of nutrition to the embryo during sprouting. At the op-
rum. A limited area is planted with the soft white wheat va-
posite end of the kernel germ, there is a cluster of short fine
riety of Triticum aestivum, subspecies compactum,
hairs about 10-15 tm in diameter and 0.5 mm long [8].
commonly known as club wheat. Currently about 4000 dif-
The wheat kernel outer botanical coats (about 7-8% of the
ferent wheat varieties are grown around the world.
kernel weight) consist of several distinct cellulose-rich
layers. The outermost layer, the pericarp (fruit coat), is
made up of the outer pericarp, which includes the outer
II. MORPHOLOGY OF THE WHEAT KERNEL
epidermis, hypodermis, thin-walled cells, and the inner
Data related to the morphology of the wheat kernel and pericarp, which includes intermediate-size cells, cross lay-
proximate analyses vary in different research reports. This ers, and tube cells (inner epidermis). The inner layers are
variability is likely due to the different types and growing the seed coat (testa) and nucellar epidermis (hyaline layer)
conditions of wheats analyzed. In general, there are about [8]. The thickness of the bran coat of hard red winter wheat

1
2 Posner

- Hairs of
brush

Endosperm

Cell filled with

starch granules
in protein
matrix
Cellulose walls
of cells

Aleurone cell
layer (part of
endosperm but
separated
with bran)
Nucellar tissue

Seed coat
(testa)

Tube cells
Cross cells
Hypodermis
Epidermis

Scutothrill

Sheath of shoot

Rudimentary shoot

Rudimentary
primary root

Root sheath

Root cap

Crease
la)
ENDO-
SPERM

Pigment
strand
BRAN

GERM
(b)

FIGURE 1 View of a wheat kernel in (a) longitudinal section and (b) cross section. (From the Wheat Flour Institute, Washington, DC.)

varieties ranges from 67 to 70 gm [9]. Between the nucel-
lar epidermis and the starchy endosperm we find the aleu-
rone layer, having high soluble protein and mineral con-
tents. The aleurone layer constitutes about 5-8% of the
wheat kernel. This layer is botanically similar to the en-
dosperm, but it is difficult to separate from the bran by
conventional milling techniques. Depending on the kind of
wheat, the thickness of the aleurone layer varies. Bradbury
et al. [10] reported its thickness to be about 46.9 gm; Crew
and Jones [11] found the average thickness of the aleurone
layer to be 30-60 gm. Mechanical damage or hydrolysis
with cellulase of the aleurone thick cell wall allows access
to proteins within the aleurone layer [12]. Although nutri-
tious, incorporation of a fraction with a large percentage of
aleurone layer adversely affects the baking quality of flour
[13]. The endosperm of the kernel was also shown to fol-
low a gradient [14] in ash, protein content, gluten charac-
teristics, and baking quality.
III. BREEDING, GROWING CONDITIONS,
AND THEIR EFFECT ON QUALITY
Among wheats grown all over the world there are three
major distinctions. The first one, which affects their func-
Wheat 3

TABLE 1 Average Values of Wheat Constituents and Their Proximate Analysisa

Kernel Embryo Scutellum Pericarp Aleurone Endosperm
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Wheats
Common 100 1.2 1.54 7.9 6.7-7.0 81-84
Durum 100 1.6 12 86.4
Proximate analysis
Protein 12.6 35.0 26.0 5-7 18 7.4-13.9
Ash 1.9 5.45 5.0-8.0 3-4 14-17 0.28-0.40
Fat 1.6 16.3 32.0 3-5 10 0.8-1.5
Starch 59.2 68
Pentosans 6.7 6.6 34.9 39.0 1.4
Cellulose 2.3 2.0 38.4 3.5 0.3
Calories 314 354 177 247 354
'14% moisture basis.
Source: Adapted from Refs. 4-6.

tional and concomitantly end-use characteristics, is wheth-
er the wheat is a winter or spring type. Winter wheats are
fall-planted and require a period of low temperature (ver-
nalization). Winter wheats are harvested during June or
July. Spring wheats do not require vernalization, are
spring-planted, and are harvested during August or Sep-
tember in the Northern Hemisphere. Spring wheats can be
fall-planted in regions with mild winter temperatures [15].
The second distinction is the kernel color. The majority of
wheats are red or white as a result of the presence or ab-
sence of red-brown pigments in the seed coat. Some
wheats of uncommon colors can be found in some parts of
the world. The third distinction between wheats is due to
differences in varieties. Endosperm hardness differs, af-
fecting the wheat milling characteristics. Soft, hard, or du-
rum wheats differ in endosperm structure, hardness, and
protein characteristics. Consequently, they are milled dif-
ferently and the resulting flours are suitable for different
end uses. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the rela-
tionship between protein percentage, wheat type, hardness,
and end-product utilization. Soft wheat endosperm in-
cludes air spaces in the protein matrix, and, as indicated by
light scattering in these spaces, the endosperm is chalky. In
the endosperm protein matrix of hard vitreous wheats, air
spaces are absent and its appearance is dense and glossy.
The soft wheat varieties with low protein are also evaluat-
ed in terms of suitability for soft wheat milling and in the
production of cakes and cookies. Hard wheat qualities are
defined in terms of their milling characteristics and the
quality of the breads produced.
Quality within the same kind of wheat is influenced by
local climate, soil conditions, and variety. Rain and sun at
appropriate periods are important to the yield of wheat per
acre and its quality. Usually there are up to five kernels on
the same spikelet of the plant. In the center are the largest
and heaviest kernels. In general, the length of the wheat
kernel is attributed to the variety and the width to the
growing conditions. The differences in test weight, ash,
protein, sugar, and starch in wheats of the same variety
grown in different environments are much larger than
those in wheats of different varieties grown under compa-
rable conditions [16]. Shrunken wheat kernels are a direct
result of growing conditions and affect flour extraction and
quality. Sprouted wheat kernels are a result of excessive
moisture during harvest time.
Breeding programs of new wheat varieties consider
production yield per acre, hardness, flour extraction, pro-
tein level, as well as other parameters related to process-
ing. One of the main objectives of breeding programs to
select varieties resistant to diseases that attack the plant
during the growing period. Resistance to rust, smut, and
other sicknesses is genetically selected during develop-
ment of new varieties. Wheat grown in adverse weather
conditions might also be affected by fungi and disease dur-
ing the development period of the kernel. Fungi affecting
wheat during early development stages might introduce
vomitoxin (DON) into the kernels, which will result in
shrunken kernels of lower quality [17]. Some of the prob-
lems with diseases in wheat in the last few years can be at-
tributed to the change in tillage practices. Tillage of wheat
fields is necessary for the development of a good seedbed,
for the control of weeds, and for the destruction of insects
and diseases harbored in the debris left after harvest.
Breeders require meaningful information for predicting
the intrinsic value of genotypes in order to screen the po-
tential lines in early generations. Selection of attributes
4 Posner
U)
-o Noodles
cr_
0
All purpose: flour
L Doughnuts
Crackers
10 11
Protein (%)
Hard winter
Hardness Scale
FIGURE 2 Schematic diagram of relationship between percentages of protein, wheat type, hardness, and end-product utilization.
during the breeding program concentrates also on proper-
ties that contribute to the processing quality of the wheat.
Usually the final decisions about commercialization of
new varieties are based on comparison to known varieties
as standards. While microtests are performed on early gen-
erations, comprehensive tests evaluate larger quantities
from later generations by large-scale milling and bread
baking or other end uses. Analytical as well as milling and
baking methods were designed to evaluate the small quan-
tities of wheat from early generations of breading pro-
grams [18-21]. Analyses of research data generate regres-
sion lines to indicate potential performance of new
varieties in baking. The regression lines for different wheat
varieties (Fig. 3) form a fan-shaped family of lines indicat-
ing loaf volume increases with increased protein content
within a variety [22]. However, other results shows that in
some kinds of wheat, above a certain extraction level there
is a decrease in loaf volume [23].
Parameters that could be determined by image analyses
and test weight values were used in selecting seeds for
breeding [24]. Sixty-six percent of the variation in flour
yield was identified by those physical parameters. Statisti-
cal analysis systems were used as an aid in the handling of
data for quality evaluation of breeder's selections of hard
Whole wheat bread
Hearth bread
Past
White bioad
12 13 14 15
4— Durum —►
4 ► Hard spring ►
► Hard
red spring and durum wheat [25]. Personal computer—
based software systems were used for the management of
wheat quality data of experimental breeding lines and
commercial check sample cultivars [26]. Part of the soft-
ware is a grading system, which facilitates a rapid and un-
biased evaluation of numerous discrete wheat and flour an-
alytical values. New breeding lines are compared to known
qualities and historically derived limits of statistical differ-
ences of the check samples.
New tools for improving wheat processing and end-use
qualities are being developed using biotechnology. This
approach broadens the available germplasm beyond the
current collections of native germplasm and enables one to
modify components such as oils, starches, and proteins.
The introduction of high molecular weight glutenin genes
into a wheat variety results in more of the gluten protein
subunit glutenin [27], which provides the extensibility
needed for good bread.
IV. WHEAT TRADE AND CONSUMPTION
The stability of wheat in storage under appropriate condi-
tions made it the first-ranked trading food commodity for
human consumption. The production and price of wheat
Wheat 5

fluctuate from year to year as a result of supply and de-
mand in different parts of the world. Climatic conditions
and diseases affect wheat availability. Figure 4 shows the
global economic data, growing areas, production, leading
exporters, and consumption of wheat [28]. Wheat con-
sumption around the world for food, feed, seed, and other
uses is estimated to be 73.8, 16.1, 5.6, and 4.5%, respec-
tively [28]. During the 1995/96 crop year, the estimated
wheat usage in the United States for food, feed, and seed
was 77.4, 13.5, and 9.0%, respectively. The annual world-
wide increase of wheat consumption is between 0.5 and
1.5%. China is the largest wheat-producing and wheat-
consuming country in the world, with a total consumption
during the 1995/96 crop year of 119 million metric tons
[28]. China's consumer demand for food wheat is growing,
while its production capacity is leveling off. Increases in
Chinese import demand usually affect the world markets.
V. CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING
OF WHEAT
Many wheat kinds and classes, available around the world,
vary in quality as a result of climate, irrigation, specific va-
riety characteristics, growing conditions, harvesting, and
handling. Figure 2 summarizes the utilization require-
ments of different wheat kinds, hardness, and protein con-
tent for major wheat-based products. Presently, wheats are
graded differently in exporting and importing countries
[29]. In some countries the government is involved in set-
ting limits for contaminants in imported wheats. In others,
mainly exporting countries like United States, government
officers inspect, according to official standards, all export-
ed wheat; domestically traded wheat is inspected upon re-
quest only.
Table 2 shows the U.S. grading system for wheat [30].
In the United States the grading standards for hard red win-
ter wheat, soft red winter wheat, common white wheat, and
club wheat went into effect on July 1, 1916. Standards for
all other wheats became effective on August 1, 1917 [31].
The current grading system covers eight classes of wheat:
durum, hard red spring, hard red winter, soft red winter,
hard white, soft white, unclassed, and mixed wheat. Du-
rum, hard red spring, and white wheat are further divided
into subclasses. According to the U.S. standards for wheat,
the definitions for the classes and subclasses are as fol-
lows:

1. Durum wheat: all varieties of white (amber) durum

(—) H.R.W. wheat. This class is divided into three subclasses: (1)
1400 (- ) H. R.S.
m1NTuRKi
NE BRED
hard amber durum wheat—this subclass designates
THATCHER
PAWNEE durum wheat with 75% or more of hard and vitreous
/ KHARKOF
/ COMANCHE kernels of amber color; (2) amber durum wheat—this
TENMARO
WICHITA subclass is durum wheat with 60% or more but less
BLACKHULL
YOGO than 75% hard and vitreous kernels of amber color;
1200 INSPECTION
(3) durum wheat—durum wheat with less than 60%
CHEYENNE

EARLY 8.11. hard vitreous kernels with amber color.

RED CHIEF 2. Hard red spring wheat: all varieties of hard red spring
PROGRESS
wheat. This class is divided into the following three
3 1000
GHIEFKAN
subclasses: (1) dark northern spring wheat—hard red
O spring wheat with 75% or more dark, hard, and vitre-
ous kernels; (2) northern spring wheat—hard red
u. spring wheat with 25% or more but less than 75% dark,
O hard, and vitreous kernels; (3) red spring wheat—hard
800 red spring wheat with less than 25% dark, hard, and
vitreous kernels.
3. Hard red winter wheat: all varieties of hard red winter
wheat. There are no subclasses in this wheat class.
600 4. Soft red winter wheat: all varieties of soft red winter
wheat. There are no subclasses in this wheat class.
5. Hard white wheat: all hard endosperm white wheat
10 13 16 19 varieties. There are no subclasses in this class.
6. Soft white wheat: all soft endosperm white wheat va-
FLOUR PROTEIN - %
rieties. This class is divided into the following three
FIGURE 3 Loaf volume-protein content regression lines for subclasses: (1) soft white wheat—soft endosperm
eight hard spring and two hard winter wheat varieties. (From Ref. white wheat varieties that contain not more than 10%
22.) of white club wheat; (2) white club wheat—soft en-
6 Posner

F.S.U.* 19.8 F.S.U.* 11.1

Europe 22.9
N&C. America 16.9
N&C. America 16.3
Europe 11.9

S. America 3.2 S. America 2.3 Oceana 3.

Oceans 4.4
Africa 2.9
Africa 3.9

Asia 39.8 Asia 41.6

Total Growing Area 216,453,000 hectares Total Production 541,670,000 mt

Asia 37.2 F.S.U.* 12.9

N&C. America 3.5 Europe 19.8

N&C. America 18.

Africa 0.9
Europe 4.9
Asia 6.4

Africa 11.6
S. America 13.8
S. America 47.5
F.S.U.* 13.5
Total Exports 89,000,000 mt Total Consumption 558,400,000 mt

FIGURE 4 Wheat economics, 1995/96, depicted by percentage of world totals. Former Soviet Union. (From Ref. 28.)

dosperm white club wheat containing not more than
10% of other soft white wheats; (3) western white
wheat—soft white wheat containing more than 10%
white club wheat and more than 10% other soft white
wheats.
7. Unclassed wheat: any variety of wheat that is not clas-
sified under other criteria provided in the wheat stan-
dards. There are no subclasses in this class. This class
includes any wheat that is other than red or white in
color.
8. Mixed wheat: any mixture of wheat that consists of
less than 90% of one class and more than 10% of one
other class or a combination of classes that meet the
definition of wheat.
Each class and subclass is divided into five numerical
grades and a U.S. Sample Grade. The grade designation af-
fects the trading value of the wheat.
In Canada the Board of Grain Commissioners enforces
the standards for wheat exports. The Board establishes
"export standard samples" for a number of grades. The ex-
port standard for each grade, established each year, is a
mixture of three parts of wheat equal to the average quali-
ty of the grade for the respective crop year and one part of
wheat equal to the minimum quality permitted by the basic
grade. There are seven classes of wheat divided into spring
and winter classes. The five spring wheats are Canadian
western, hard red spring, Canadian western amber durum,
Canadian western utility, Canadian prairie spring, and
Canadian western soft white spring. The two winter
wheats are Canadian western red winter and Canadian
eastern white winter. Only the registered varieties are
equal to standard varieties, which are eligible for classifi-
cation under the seven classes. There are also wheat of oth-
er classes for nonregistered varieties.
The Australian Wheat Board annually issues receiving
standards and dockage schedules that list grade specifica-
tions and tolerances for Australian standard white, Aus-
tralian general purpose, and Australian feed wheats. The
Australian wheat is classified into classes that fall into two
categories—milling and nonmilling wheats. The milling
wheat group includes Australian prime hard, Australian
Wheat 7

hard, Australian standard white, Australian soft, and Aus-
tralian durum wheats. They are further classified into
grades based on the state of origin, protein content, grain
hardness, milling quality, and dough properties. There are
two additional classes, Australian general purpose and
Australian feed, which do not conform to the standards of
milling wheats in terms of test weight, weather damage,
and levels of unmillable material or foreign matter.
The International Association of Cereal Chemistry
(ICC) evaluates wheat on the basis of its Besatz (extrane-
ous matter) content [32]. According to ICC methods,
which have been accepted as the European Economic
Community [33] official methods, Total Besatz (Gesamt-
besatz) is made up of two parts: Kornbesatz and Schwartz-
besatz. Kornbesatz consists of material with some milling
value such as shrunken and broken kernels. Schwartzbe-
satz is foreign material that has no milling value.
Wheat milling technology is becoming technically simi-
lar in different parts of the world as a result of a reduction in
the number of equipment suppliers and easy access to infor-
mation. On the other hand, wheat is still graded differently
in countries around the world using different methods and

TABLE 2 U.S. Wheat Grades and Grade Requirements

Grades U.S. nos.

Grading factors 1 2 3 4 5

Minimum pound limits of:

Test weight
Hard Red Spring wheat or White
Club wheat lbs/bu 58.0 57.0 55.0 53.0 50.0
All other classes and subclasses lbs/bu 60.0 58.0 56.0 54.0 51.0
Maximum percent limits of:
Defects
Damaged kernels
Heat (part of total) 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.0
Total 2.0 4.0 7.0 10.0 15.0
Foreign material 0.4 0.7 1.3 3.0 5.0
Shrunken & broken kernels 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Total' 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Wheat of other classes2
Contrasting classes 1.0 2.0 3.0 10.0 10.0
Total3 3.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Stones 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Maximum count limits of:
Other material
Animal filth 1 1 1 1 1
Castor beans 1 1 1 1 1
Crotalaria seeds 2 2 2 2 2
Glass 0 0 0 0 0
Stones 3 3 3 3 3
Unknown foreign substance 3 3 3 3 3
Total4 4 4 4 4 4
Insect-damaged kernels in 100 grams 31 31 31 31 31

U.S. Sample grade

Wheat that:
(a) Does not meet the requirements for U.S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; or
(b) Has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut or garlic odor) or
(c) Is heating or of distinctly low quality.
!Includes damaged kernels (total), foreign material, and shrunken and broken kernels.
2 Unclassed wheat of any grade may contain not more than 10.0 percent of wheat of other classes.
'Includes contrasting classes.
'Includes any combination of animal filth, castor beans, crotalaria seeds, glass, stones, or unknown foreign
substance.
8 Posner
factors. Current classifications and methods used in differ-
ent parts of the world were developed when processing
methods were different and international trade was not at its
present volume. There is a need to develop a comprehen-
sive worldwide universal wheat-grading system that will
identify qualities and values important to farmers, traders,
millers, and bakers for domestic and export markets.
VI. EVALUATION OF WHEAT
The value of wheat depends upon its milling and flour end
use quality. This can be accurately determined through ac-
tual milling and baking tests. The miller has to assess
wheat quality and evaluate its suitability to produce, indi-
vidually or in a blend, final flour specifications. In addi-
tion, the miller has to determine the expected wheat-pro-
cessing performance in the mill, the resulting flour
extraction, and other qualities such as color, particle size,
and starch damage. Flour extraction is the proportion of
the wheat recovered as flour during milling. The following
are tests of importance to the miller for evaluating wheats
and flours: experimental milling, physical, chemical, phys-
ical-chemical, dough rheology, and the baking test. Wheat
and flour testing can follow different official methods such
as those of the American Association of Cereal Chem-
ists (AACC), the International Association of Cereal
Chemists (ICC), or the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists (AOAC).
A. Physical Wheat Tests
The following tests are used:
1. Test weight: quality test which is basically a rough
measure of density of grain in terms of weight per vol-
ume, i.e., the weight (lb.) per volume bushel (Win-
chester bushel in U.S.; Imperial in Canada). The hec-
toliter weight (hL), indicating the weight in kg/hL
(100 L), is used in the metric system countries. No
uniform conversion factors between test weight and
hL weight values are possible due to differences in
kernel shape, size, and procedures for determination
of these values.
2. Thousand kernel weight (TKW): a quality test to de-
termine the potential milling value of wheat. Weight
of 1000 kernels gives an indication of kernel density
and its consequent flour yield. The advantage of TKW
is that the weight can be expressed on a desired-mois-
ture basis.
3. Kernel size distribution: the size distribution of ker-
nels in a wheat sample can be determined using a
stack of sieves. The "theoretical flour yield" can be
determined by the total value of multiplying the per-
centage above each sieve by a factor [34]. The factors
can be calculated using multiple regression analysis
for a mill, based on a database in which percentages of
wheat sizes are the independent variables and the ac-
tual flour yields are the dependent variables [35].
4. Kernel hardness: a relative term, which is related to
the disintegration of the endosperm during its separa-
tion from bran and germ. Currently, hardness values
are determined by near-infrared refraction (NIR) or
mechanical crushing instruments such as the single
kernel characterization system (SKCS). They are used
to identify variation of wheat characteristics in the
trading system as well as indicate processing charac-
teristics [36].
5. Assessment of the milling quality of wheat is per-
formed using an experimental unit using a sample of
about 1000-1500 g. Experimental milling can give a
preliminary indication whether a wheat alone or in a
mix of wheats complies with a required quality. An
experimental mill should be differentiated from a lab-
oratory mill that is a milling unit with a fixed setting,
where all wheat samples are treated in the same man-
ner during milling. Flour samples produced with labo-
ratory mills in a relatively short time can be used for
further testing but do not provide information on the
wheat-milling properties. Official methods explain the
procedures for using experimental mills and should be
followed rigidly, preferably by the same operator [37].
Improved experimental mills are fitted with technical
parameters of the commercial mill where the wheat is
expected to be processed. Accurate sampling, temper-
ing, and controlled environment in the facility and
uniform practices ensure reproducibility and confi-
dence in the results. Flours from experimental milling
procedures could be used for further rheological and
baking tests.
6. Other physical and chemical evaluation tests per-
formed in the mill laboratory include those for mois-
ture, protein, ash, fatty acids, amylase activity, Falling
Number, and gluten quantity and quality.
B. Rheological Tests; Baking Tests
The more sophisticated and automated the bakery plant of
the mill's customers, the more effort should be devoted to
achieving a uniformity of the end product.
The data from physical or rheological dough testing and
baking tests simulate critical parameters required by the
process in the bakery [38]. Details of these test procedures
are discussed in Chapter 16 of this handbook.
Wheat
VII. WHEAT PROCESSING
A. Storage
It is important to preserve the quality and economic value
of wheat as it moves from the field into storage at the pro-
cessing mill. If not properly stored, insects, moisture dam-
age, or other conditions may cause losses. Moisture and
temperature are two main factors that influence the devel-
opment of grain molds and insects in stored wheat.
In some areas of the world, where wheat is harvested at
a high moisture content, wheat should be carefully dried to
a moisture below 12.5%, a level regarded as safe for stor-
age. Wheat exposed to different equilibria of temperature
and relative humidity will show increases or decreases in
its moisture content [39,40]. The hygroscopic moisture
does not increase at a uniform rate when in equilibrium
with an increasing atmospheric humidity. A much greater
change in hygroscopic moisture is recorded with change in
relative humidity from 75 to 90% or from 90 to 100% than
from 45 to 60% or 60 to 75% relative humidity. The hy-
groscopic moisture of all classes of wheat is similar.
The rates of insect development and spoilage are related
to the moisture content and temperature of the stored
wheat. Measures should be taken to control the moisture
and temperature of the wheat by aerating the bins with
about 0.1-0.2 m3/min/1000 kg (0.1-0.2 ft3/min/bu) of air
of the appropriate temperature and relative humidity char-
acteristics. Another measure involves using hermetic con-
ditions in the storage bins. It has been established [41] that
insects are killed by depletion of oxygen but not by the
build-up of carbon dioxide.
Established procedures of plant inspection, good house-
keeping, fumigation, and other measures such as heat
treatment of the facility can control infestation in the flour
mill. Well-designed and well-manufactured equipment that
will not harbor material in "dead corners" where insects
could propagate is an important factor.
After December 31, 2000, usage of methyl bromide will
be outlawed in the USA. This phasing-out of chemical fu-
migation will require using alternative insect-control
methods. One of them would be the use of heat in a pre-
arranged facility for a long enough period to kill all in-
sects. A temperature range of 48.9-51.7°C (120-125°F) in
all parts of the mill for a duration of 10-12 hours is suffi-
cient to destroy all insect life [42]. Others recommend
48.8-57.2°C (120-135°F) for 16 hours [43]. Insect control
in the mill is related not only to spoilage of the raw materi-
als but also to the production of flour within insect frag-
ment count specifications.
Wheat arriving at the mill is usually precleaned before
storage in the mill elevator (silo) bins (Fig. 5). Magnets,
9
large-capacity sieve cleaners, and strong aspiration remove
large chaff and dust from the wheat. Precleaning removes
contaminants from wheat to allow its longer storage, more
efficient usage of storage space, and subsequently better
and uninterrupted flow from the bins. Frequently the con-
veying equipment to transport wheat from the unloading
point to precleaning and then to the storage bins is also
used for turning and blending wheat in the elevator. When
moved, wheat dust is produced by abrasion of the kernels.
Consequently, all handling equipment and empty spaces in
the elevator should be under low negative pressure. The
exhaust system consists of ducts, suction fans, and air fil-
ters or dust collectors. An efficient exhaust system to han-
dle dust from all points in the facility prevents loss of ma-
terial and dust explosions. Depending on the mill's
location, its elevator should have a storage capacity of up
to 2-3 months of production.
In some cases wheat arrives at the mill elevator with an
8-9% moisture content and water is added to the pre-
cleaned wheat to raise its moisture to a maximum of
12.5%. By adding moisture to the wheat before storage,
the miller can subsequently reduce the tempering time of
dry wheat in the mill. Wheat will absorb water more readi-
ly after it has been tempered.
B. Blending
Usually a mill is designed for milling wheat of a certain
class and physical characteristics. However, a mill de-
signed for one class of wheat (e.g., hard or soft) does not
ensure uniformity of end-product quality.
Wheat arriving at the mill usually varies in quality and
requires blending to deliver a "wheat mix" of uniform
qualities. Wheat blending is the initial step in providing
bakers with a uniform flour. Accordingly, mills prepare
"wheat mixes" of certain protein levels or other quality
characteristics.
There are different methods of blending. Some millers
blend wheats directly in storage bins, others before grind-
ing [44]. Wheat blending just before the milling process is
mainly applied when the components of the "wheat mix"
differ in endosperm hardness and require adjustments of
moisture levels and tempering times prior to milling.
C. Cleaning
Intensive cleaning of the wheat before milling ensures that
bacteria, mold, undesired seeds, infested kernels, shrunken
and broken kernels, and other foreign materials do not con-
taminate the mill products or damage the equipment (Fig.
6). Separation in the mill cleaninghouse is based on the
following differences between whole sound wheat kernels
10
Incoming
Wheat
Receiving
Hopper
Magnet
Intake
Scale
Receiving
Separator
FIGURE 5 Schematic diagram of a mill elevator.
and unmillable materials: size and dimension, shape, spe-
cific gravity, different behavior in air currents, different
surface friction, elasticity and texture, magnetic properties,
friability under impact, differences in color, and electro-
static properties. Shrunken kernels in which the ratio of
bran to endosperm is higher than in sound kernels cause a
reduction in flour extraction [45]. Exposed endosperm of
broken kernels would affect significantly the tempering
water distribution in the wheat and cause a deterioration of
milling quality [46,47].
Magnets or metal-removing equipment separate foreign
materials that could damage equipment or generate a spark
in today's fast-turning and precisely designed equipment.
Sparks in a confined space, within a machine or in a facili-
ty in which dust of optimal granulation and concentration
is generated, could cause a dust explosion.
Initially, the foreign material is removed by a series of
screens of selected apertures that remove matter either
smaller or larger in size than the wheat kernels. Sieves in
the milling separator, similar to those used in the receiving
section but with about one third to one half of the load, are
finer and more carefully adjusted to the size of the wheat
kernels.
Posner
Storage Bins
2-3 month of production
To Wheat
Cleaning
Gravity separators separate out impurities similar to
wheat in size but different in specific gravity. Adjusted air
currents are drawn through a layer of wheat moving on a
tilted screen. Stones or other materials heavier than wheat
are segregated and remain closer to the screen. The lighter
wheat floats down the screen, while the heavier stones
"climb" the vibrating screen to the outlet.
Following the gravity separators, machines such as the
disc separator remove impurities that are similar in diame-
ter but different in shape from the whole wheat kernels.
The disc separator utilizes a series of rotating discs with in-
dentations or pockets on both sides to effect separation.
The discs rotate within the machine and raise those kernels
that fit into the pockets. The picked-up particles are
dropped into channels between the discs. Pocket configu-
rations depend on the size and shape of the seeds and grain
to be separated. The bulk of the wheat in the machine is
forwarded to the outlet with angled pallets at the center
part of each disc. The level of wheat is controlled with a
gate at the outlet end of the machine. The efficiency of sep-
aration is also controlled by the option to divert picked-up
particles into a screw conveyor that can return them to the
head end of the machine.
Wheat
Another machine using the principle of shape differ-
ences is the indentation cylinder. This device has a lower
capacity and is less efficient than the disc separator. Parti-
cles are picked up by indentations in a rotating metal cylin-
der and dropped into a collecting trough. The cylinder is
rotated at a speed just below that at which centrifugal force
would prevent the lifted particles from dropping out. The
disc separator or the indentation cylinder pockets sizes can
be selected from manufacturer catalogs to separate shorter
particles from the bulk of wheat or the wheat kernels from
longer kernels, such as those of barley and oats.
Dry scouring of the wheat removes any dirt adhering to
the kernel. In the scorer a rotor bounces the wheat against
the wall of the machine, which may be of a perforated
sheet metal, a steel wire woven screen, or an emery sur-
face. Machines are available with vertical or horizontal de-
sign and different rotor configurations.
Throughout the wheat-cleaning process all machines
and handling equipment are under negative pressure to re-
move fine dust and light materials. The negative air pres-
sure systems use controlled velocities and pressures to se-
cure separation of particles with different resistance to air
Wheat Mix
Tempering
Magnet Conveyor
Scale
Temper
Bins
Milling
Separator
Gravity
Separator
Disc
Separators
Disc
Separators
r4
Scourer
FIGURE 6 Schematic diagram of a wheat-cleaning flow.
11
flow due to size, density, shape, or other physical charac-
teristics. New wheat-cleaning machine designs include air-
circulating units as an attachment. Only about 10% of out-
side air is used during circulation. The concept of
circulating air in machines saves energy, air tunnels to air
filters, space, and environmental problems. New designs
include machines that combine different principles in one
unit. This advantage is claimed, for example, for machines
that combine sieve separator, gravity table, destoner, and
light material and dust removal by air. Another design in-
cludes a coarse sieve, disc separator, and indent cylinder
combined in a single machine.
D. Conditioning
Conditioning, a process that adjusts the moisture level of
wheat before milling, achieves a mellow endosperm and
tough bran. Bran that absorbs proper amounts of moisture
becomes elastic and will not splinter during grinding to
contaminate the flour with fine particles. Mellow en-
dosperm breaks off the bran during grinding, and less pow-
er is required to reduce large pure particles to flour. On the
. 71 71
Up to 24 hours
mill capacity
I/ \ ./ \ ./
Magnet
Scourer
Scale
Wheat to
1st Break
12
other hand, an excessive moisture level softens the wheat
endosperm to a degree where it does not have the resis-
tance to break down to sharp particles that is important for
efficient sieving and separation from the bran. Another ob-
jective of wheat conditioning is to equalize the hardness of
the different kernels in the wheat mix before processing. If
the moisture content and hardness of wheat lots in a mix
are significantly different, they might be treated separately
during the conditioning process. Different methods could
be used to condition the wheat before milling. Heating the
wheat, application of warm water, application of live
steam, or just intensive mixing of wheat and water are
some of the methods used to increase the amount and rate
of water penetration into the kernel. Moisture pick-up by
wheat capillary action increases slightly and linearly with
increasing water temperature [48]. The increase from the
initial temperature of 26.7°C is approximately 2% at 30°C
and 4% at 90°C for each variety of wheat. Excessive heat
(above 65°C) results in gelatinization of starch and protein
denaturation.
The current method most frequently used is termed
"tempering." According to this procedure, a calculated
amount of water is added to the wheat, which is then inten-
sively mixed in a continuous mixer in order to maximize a
uniform dispersion of the water on all wheat kernels. Dif-
ferent mixing rotor configurations or vibration during ap-
plication of the tempering water are used. The tempered
wheat is given a certain rest period in bins to allow the wa-
ter to distribute optimally within the different parts of the
kernel and to equalize or reduce the hydration differences
among kernels. Initially the water penetrates at a rapid rate
through the germ, while the surface water is prevented
from moving through the seedcoat layers. The penetration
rate of the water entering through the germ side is affected
by the protein content and vitreousness of the endosperm.
Optimally conditioned wheat will ensure breakage of
the kernel to the required distribution of intermediate mate-
rials throughout the process, their quality, and the appropri-
ate load to each of the machines. Water penetration and op-
timal distribution in the wheat kernel is also a function of
wheat size and shape. It was shown that water penetrates at
different rates into small, medium, and large kernels of hard
red winter wheat [49]. Moisture permeability, surface ten-
sion, and differences in cell structure are also parameters to
be studied regarding wheat conditioning for milling [50].
Three factors affect the rate and level of water penetra-
tion into the kernel: temperature, amount of water, and
time. The ideal water and wheat temperature for general
tempering conditions is about 25°C (77°F). Higher tem-
peratures will increase the rate of water penetration into
the kernel. Temperatures above 50°C will change the en-
dosperm starch and protein characteristics. The wheat de-
Posner
livered to the grinding stages should have the right mois-
ture content and preferably a temperature of about 25°C.
The bran of cold wheat below 15°C will fracture exces-
sively in the breaks and result in higher ash in the flour
[51]. At optimum moisture and temperature, a significant
increase in flour extraction and quality can be achieved.
Maximum wheat and grinding equipment temperature
should not be above 38°C because of difficulties that could
develop in separating the bran from the endosperm [51].
During the milling process 2-2.5% of the total moisture
in the mill materials evaporates. Accordingly, the amount
of water added to the wheat should be adjusted based on
the raw wheat moisture, environmental conditions in the
mill, evaporation of moisture while products are treated by
air, heat generated during grinding, and the desired mois-
ture content in the final flour. Typical moisture contents of
tempered wheats are: for hard spring wheat, 16.0-17.0%;
hard red winter wheat, 15.5-16.5%; soft wheat, 14.5-
15.5%; and durum wheat, —16.0-17.5%. Tempering time
varies—the average times are 36, 24, 10, and 6 hours for
hard spring, hard winter, soft, and durum wheats, respec-
tively. Especially hard vitreous kernels would have limited
water absorption. Without using special means, hard wheat
could absorb only about 3-3.5% of water at one time. Re-
cently, mechanical means such as high-frequency vibration
and various modes of rotors in mixers have been applied.
According to different engineering companies, with proper
equipment up to 7-8% moisture could be added in a single
tempering step. The final decision as to the optimum mois-
ture content for milling and tempering time is a subjective
decision the miller makes using a trial-and-error approach.
To toughen the bran, 20-30 minutes before the milling
process the miller adds 0.5-1.0% water to the wheat; to
achieve good results, hard wheats should be tempered
twice as described above. Very hard wheats could be tem-
pered three times before milling or follow the method of
initial tempering in the elevator (see Section VII.A). In the
past different additives such as 0.1% sodium dioctyl sulfo-
succinate [52] and others [53] were added to the water to
increase the rate of penetration and optimal distribution
within the kernels.
Scouring and intensive aspiration also take place after
the wheat-tempering stage. During the tempering process
some of the outer pericarp is loosened (beeswing), and
with the scouring action it is removed. The intensive
scouring of wheats before and after tempering reduces sig-
nificantly bacteria, mold, and yeast counts per gram of the
finished flours [54]. Some authors [55] claim a reduction
of mold, yeast, and bacteria of infected wheat by 90-95%.
This level of reduction was achieved by the application of
high electromagnetic frequency waves of 2325 MHz for
1.5-2 minutes to a 20 mm wheat layer on a endless belt.
Wheat
E. The Wheat-Milling Process
Wheat flour milling is a process that consists of controlled
breaking, reduction, and separation. The objective during
milling is to separate the branny cover and germ of the
wheat kernel from the endosperm. Breaking of the wheat
kernel is affected by corrugated cast steel rolls that gradu-
ally separate the endosperm, bran, and germ. Reduction of
relatively pure endosperm to particles smaller than 180 p.m
is achieved by using smooth rolls. Segregation between the
kernel parts occurs in sifters and purifiers. In sifters, sieves
separate particles of different size. In purifiers with sieves
and air, differences in size, specific gravity, and shape of
particles are used to separate particles of pure endosperm
and those which include different ratios of bran and en-
dosperm. None of the kernel fractions coming out of the
mill are completely pure, and each contains some parts of
the others. The level of purity of each product at the end of
the mill is one of the measures of mill efficiency.
Flour extraction in the mill is measured as percentage of
flour produced based on a quantity of wheat that is either
dirty, dry, clean, or cleaned and tempered. The basis used
for calculation of the extraction rate should be stated with
the results. Another measure is the gain/loss or the differ-
ence between the wheat arriving in the mill and the total
weight of products shipped out. There should be a gain of
total product weight after the milling process as a result of
the difference between the moisture content of the wheat
arriving at the mill and the cumulative moisture content of
all final products.
The flour-milling process consists of numerous stages
that can be divided into the following subprocesses: break-
ing, grading, purification, sizings, reduction, millfeed han-
dling, germ recovery, and flour dressing. The milling
stages of the process are shown on the mill flowsheet,
which is a "map" of the process. The intermediate materi-
als of the process flowing to each of the grinding stages are
named accordingly by the miller, such as sizing or mid-
dling materials. Figure 7 shows an example of a relatively
simplified mill flowsheet. This flowsheet demonstrates the
links between the different stages in a milling process as
well as the specific parameters of the machines.
Materials at different stages of the milling process dif-
fer in quality or in the ratio of bran to endosperm and par-
ticle size. The efficiency of gradual separation between the
endosperm, bran, and germ is directly related to the length
and the number of stages in the process. Segregation of the
intermediate materials to different grinding stages is based
on their size and the amount of undesirable bran and germ
particles. In an optimal system each of the materials would
be treated individually. However, grinding rolls, sifters,
and purifiers are manufactured to standard sizes, and this
13
causes mill designers to compromise on the number of
separations in respect to quality and quantity of the inter-
mediate materials. Accordingly, the extent to which inter-
mediate materials are subdivided in the mill is a function
of the mill capacity. If the mill capacity is too small, differ-
ent stages would be underloaded with standard size equip-
ment, and in this case products that are only slightly differ-
ent should be combined.
Grinding of the wheat occurs between two cast rolls
that are positioned in a machine structure and rotate
against each other. The machine, called a "rollstand," in-
cludes usually two pairs of cast rolls, parts that function as
the engaging and disengaging mechanism, a system of ma-
terial feeding to the nip of the rolls, and various automa-
tion systems. Modern rollstands include pairs of rolls with
diameters of 250 mm and lengths of 600-1250 mm. The
rolls are held by prelubricated roller bearings and posi-
tioned horizontally to each other. Some new rollstand de-
signs come with four pairs of rolls, where two subsequent
grinding steps are performed on each side before the mate-
rial is conveyed to a sifting machine. The rolls rotate at dif-
ferent speeds. The ratio of the speeds is called the differen-
tial. Fast rolls of the initial grinding stages (breaks) rotate
at about 650 rpm, while those at later stages rotate at about
500 rpm. Differentials range from 2.5:1 to 1.5:1 in the
break and reduction rolls, respectively. With higher differ-
ential, there is a larger shear effect between the rolls, while
with lower differential, compression is more significant.
The initial grinding stages in the milling process are
named "breaks." The breaks are used in the grinding steps
of the milling process to separate the bran, germ, and en-
dosperm from each other. The success or failure is mea-
sured in the level of achieving, as efficiently as possible,
complete separation between the kernel parts. Between
corrugated rolls there always exists a small gap, which is
absent in smooth reduction rolls. In the conventional
milling of hard and durum wheats, the objective is to pro-
duce minimal amounts of flour in the breaks but a maxi-
mum of clean endosperm chunks. However, with soft
wheat, because of the softer, less dense endosperm, the
percentage of flour extracted from the breaks in conven-
tional milling is higher than that from hard and durum
wheats. One study [34] reports that hard, soft, and durum
wheats produced on the first three breaks are 49.8, 44.7,
and 77.4 and 5.7, 10.5, and 2.0% of sizings and flour, re-
spectively.
The corrugations on the roll surface are grooves with
front and back angles (Fig. 8). The steeper front angle is
25-35° and the back angle could be between 60 and 75°. In
general, steeper angles would create more granular frac-
tions, while flatter corrugations would generate finer frac-
tions. The corrugations are cut in a spiral with relation to
14 Posner

PRE. BK.
10.24 C $12. F. 512.
TEMP C:) 2.5/1 10,24 10116
*14E4T 1093 1.2.3 OK. RED. 1.5/1 1.5/I
P-I

rein 26 104
1079 1- 24LW S-5499 96 3-22 13
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10. 7 14 32_
SCALE A591&
PUDE
16K.
10. 24 91.
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1-7699 59.
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9.I5 9.15 9.12, 1.5/I
10 G. CO 20 G.
2.5/1 2.5/1 9 8K 1 T. -5499 12.0
24 0. PUR. a PNEUM. t 7,16 1.2/1 2-1
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NOTE EACH SIFTER BOX SHOWN 1 5121. 213.1 12.

REPRESENTS 1/4 2.14 SIFTER N54. 17

10

FEEL

FIGURE 7 Flowsheet of Kansas State University 200 cwt flour mill.

the roll axis ranging in the order of 4-16%. The inclination
would be expressed in inches per foot in the United States
or in percent per roll length in European countries. The
number of corrugations on the first break rolls would be
about four per centimeter; in later stages there is a gradual
increase in the number of corrugations per inch (smaller
corrugations) on the roll surface. Between corrugations
there should be a "land," which is the width of unmachined
roll surface. The land strengthens the corrugations and re-
duces the bran cuttings to fine particles. The effect of the
speed differential between the rolls is also responsible for
what is called the "action." The action of the front angle of
one roll against that of the other is named "sharp to sharp"
(S:S). In the case that the back angle of the two corruga-
tions act against each other, the action is "dull to dull"
(D:D). Millers could subjectively arrange roll action as
S:D or D:S based on variables related to the wheat condi-
tion and mill flowsheet.
Starting with the first break, the objective is to open the
kernel. The shape and depth of the first break roll corruga-
tions should be selected to fit the size of the kernels. Opti-
mum results in the first break are achieved if the kernels
are fed to the gap between the rolls horizontally, held by
the corrugation of the slow-moving roll, and opened exact-
ly at the crease by the fast-moving roll. Optimum for the
second break rolls and the subsequent breaks is feeding the
material (endosperm attached to a flake of bran) directly to
a precisely adjusted gap where with the right pressure the
Wheat
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8 Roll corrugations: (a) the cutting effect between rolls as a result of corrugations spiral; (b) action between corrugated rolls
(S:S); (c) roll cross section showing the shape of corrugation.
fast-moving roll scrapes the endosperm from the bran. As
the bran flakes get smaller toward the final breaking stages
and the endosperm layer attached to it becomes thinner,
gradually smaller corrugations are used (or a larger num-
ber of corrugations per inch of roll surface). Optimally
conditioned wheat and the right corrugations, pressure,
and differential minimize splitting of the bran to particles
of a size that can be sieved through with the flour. Good re-
sults in conventional milling are obtained when most of
the endosperm free bran consists of large flakes.
The commercial flow should be designed to meet the re-
quired capacity, wheat quality, and end products, and it is
based on specific machine surface values as shown in
Table 3 [56]. For example, the roll unit in the United States
allocates 0.3 inch of roll length per 100 pounds (cwt) of
flour milled per 24 hours. Mills that use the metric system
would express the same roll units as 12.58 mm/100 kg
wheat/24 h. Conventionally with a longer break system, up
to six stages in hard wheat and seven in durum wheat
TABLE 3 Mill Technical Specifications for Major Equipment for Different
Kinds of Wheats'
Hard
Roll unit (mm) 10-15
Sifter surface (m2) 0.055-0.081
Purifier width (mm) 3-7
aPer 100 kg processed wheat in 24 hours.
Source: Ref. 56.
15
Length of Corrugation
Land
Back
Cutting
edge
edge
-0 1 0--
(c)
mills, it is possible to grind the material fed to the rolls in a
less severe manner. Roll surfaces should be maintained in
good condition to ensure good flour extraction and quality.
Depending on the quality of the steel and the type of
milling technology used, corrugated rolls should be refur-
bished every 3-6 months of milling Other factors that in-
fluence the need for refurbishing are roll surface alloca-
tion, feed rate per unit, severity of grinding, wheat
hardness, and presence of stones or other impurities in
wheat. Recent advances in metallurgy that allow casting of
harder outer surfaces for corrugated rolls extend the time
between refurbishing up to 8 months.
Even when the mix in the mill is changed drastically in
wheat size and kernels are smaller or larger than normal,
usually mills will continue using the existing corrugations,
keeping many exiting variables unaltered. Generally, the
gap between the rolls will be adjusted intuitively by the
miller based on his or her experience. A few studies were
conducted to evaluate the first roll action and the different
Wheat
Soft Durum
10-13 16-20
0.083-0.088 0.086-0.093
0-3 8-12
16
parameters that could effect conventional milling of differ-
ent kinds of wheat. Grinding of soft and hard wheats on a
set of rolls at different rotating speeds indicated that better
separation between bran and endosperm occurred on the
first break with a lower speed and smaller diameter [57].
Wheat moisture is another important factor that affects the
grinding process for common and durum wheat [58]. The
best semolina production with first break rolls from durum
wheat was achieved by sharp to dull action, angle profile
of 25°/65°, and a differential of 1.5:1 [59].
The severity of grinding between the rolls and the parti-
cle size distribution of the ground meal is controlled by ad-
justing the break release, which is defined as the percent-
age of material passing through the first group of
overtailing sieves in a break sifter, based on the amount fed
to the sifter. The miller adjusts the release of the different
grinding stages using a laboratory sifter on which a repre-
sentative sample taken from under the rolls is sifted. With
a given mill flow the miller sets the appropriate break re-
leases for each wheat mix. Normally the cumulative re-
lease of all the breaks should be about 2-3% higher than
the expected total flour extraction from the mill. Following
each grinding stage, the material is conveyed to a sifter
section.
1. Sieving
In the sifter, particles of the grounded material are separat-
ed according to size. Sifters are available in two, four, six,
and eight sections. Modern sifters are more sanitary than
those used in the past, which often were a source of infes-
tation. Each section contains 26-30 frames covered with
tightly stretched sieves of appropriate apertures. Properly
tensioned sieves on the frames are critical for a sifting effi-
ciency. The optimum degree of tension (-11 N/cm) is re-
lated to the cloth material used. Excessively slack sieves
reduce the mill throughput up to 4%. In the past, sieves
were stretched by hand over the frame and stapled. Today,
special stretching devices are used to uniformly stretch the
sieves, which are glued to the frames. Sifter sieve areas in
mills are specified in m2/100 kg wheat/24 h (Table 3).
The sieves in a sifter section are divided into groups. At
the top of the section, there are usually coarser sieves sep-
arating the larger material that flows out of the sifter
through a side channel. The material passing through the
sieve is either transferred out of the machine or directed
down to finer-aperture sieves for a further separation. Be-
low each sieve, a backwire is attached to the frame on
which hard rubber balls, plastic elements, or cotton pads
bounce to keep the sieve clean. "Throughs," a stream pass-
ing through the upper sieves in a break stage sifter, is a
mixture of flour and chunks of endosperm to which often
some bran is also attached. While the "overs" of the top
Posner
sieves are transferred to the next break for additional
scraping of endosperm, the mixture of the throughs is seg-
regated, based on particle size differences on lower sieve
groups in the section. This is evident from a schematic
view of a first break sifter section where six materials that
differ in quality and size flow out (Fig. 9).
2. Grading or Redusting
Graders are sifter sections used to handle mainly materials
directed from the breaks. A blend of medium-sized and
fine sizings as well as middlings is directed to the graders.
Materials from primary breaks are directed to the first
grader. Materials from secondary breaks (e.g., the third or
fourth) are directed to second or third graders. The main
objective of the grader is to remove the remaining flour
from the middlings and to separate the granular material
to narrow particle size ranges for better efficiency in the
purifiers.
3. Purification
At the head end of the milling system granular intermedi-
ate materials of the same size range are directed to ma-
chines called purifiers. The different size groups differ also
in the amount of pure endosperm, bran, and such particles
of endosperm to which bran is still attached. The more
similar the particles are in size, the more effective is the
purifier performance. The purifier's main purpose is to
separate particles into fractions of pure endosperm, a mix-
ture of particles to which bran is attached, and bran parti-
cles. This is achieved by using sieves and air currents. The
purifiers classify the material into several fractions accord-
ing to size, shape, and specific gravity. The endosperm par-
ticles, essentially free from bran and germ, are spouted to
smooth rolls, where they are ground into flour. Other parti-
cles to which bran and other outer layers of kernel adhere
are delivered to different pairs of rolls ("sizings") for care-
ful reduction and separation of the bran.
The purifier includes two set of sieve "beds" with one to
three layers of graded sieves positioned on top of each oth-
er (Fig. 10). Each layer in the bed consists of four sieves
that are finer in the head than in the tail end. The upper
sieves in each bed are coarser than the lower ones. Vibrat-
ing motors apply a reciprocating motion to the sieves that
hang in an inclined position. In older models, sieve hang-
ers could be adjusted to vary the sieve inclinations and
strokes that move the material. In today's modern ma-
chines the vibrating motors and their counterweights are
adjusted to control the sieves motion. This permits the
miller to adjust the machine to have more pitch for fibrous
material than pure endosperm particles. Brushes moving
back and forth or rubber balls bouncing on a backwire at-
tached to the sieve frame keep the sieves clean. Air cur-
Wheat 17

1st Break
1000 x 250
4 corr./cm
Spiral 6%
Diff. 2.5:1
D:D
4-1080 µ .#1. To 2nd break coarse roll
3-950 µ
► #2. To 2nd break fine roll
3-750 µ
► #3. To 1st sizings roll
3-360 µ
#4. To purifier #1
3-135 µ
► #5. To 1st middlings

#6. Flour

FIGURE 9 Schematic view of a first break sifter section.

A A
I

Air Suction
50 mm W.G.
Material entrance: 50 m.cu./min
1st BK 530-300 µ 4
2nd BK 530-300 µ

— ....
--V 1 4
I 432µ I + 467 ii i 1 478 µ 500µ
3 BKf
I I I I
II I I I A
1 3 BKf
400 II 1 I 432 µ1 1 46711 l 1 4781.1
1 1 1
, i
i t
/ 375 µ 400 li. I 432 µ 1 1 467 µ 1Sizc

1M 1 Sizf 1Sizc

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10 (a) Schematic view of a purifier. (b) Schematic view of a purifier sieve bed.
18
rents drawn through the sieves fluidize and stratify the ma-
terial based on the particle size, specific weight, and shape.
The vibrating motion of the purifier sieves also stratifies
the material on the sieve layer. The heavier endosperm par-
ticles move closer to the sieve surface while the more bran-
ny material floats on top. At the head end of the purifier the
purest and most dense endosperm particles pass through
the sieves. Materials with more bran attached pass to siz-
ing rolls through the coarser sieves. Tailings over the
sieves are materials that are directed to the last fine break
stages.
The purifier air hood is divided into sections and is po-
sitioned above the enclosed airtight sieve bed, allowing air
to move only through the sieves. The amount of air drawn
through the layer of material moving on is controlled by
valves in each of the sections. The miller can also regulate
the amount of material to the purifier to keep the sieves
covered and prevent bare areas on the sieves. Bare areas
allow the air to flow through because of the reduced resis-
tance, causing ineffectiveness in stratifying material on the
sieves. The number of purifiers in a mill is specified based
on the total sieve width per 100 kg of wheat processed in
24 hours (mm/100 kg wheat/24 h) (Table 3). In some cases
where space is limited, two machines are stacked on top of
each other.
4. Sizings
The material at each of the sizing stages is a mixture of
particles close in size range, some pure endosperm, and
others still with attached bran. The objective of the sizing
stages is to reduce the particle size and, during reduction,
to separate the still attached bran from the endosperm.
Material from the sizing stages can be diverted to puri-
fiers, to middlings for final reduction, or to flour as a final
product. However, the miller tries to refrain from severe
grinding in the sizing stage to avoid production of flour
TABLE 4 Effect of Matte, Polished, and Fine Corrugated Rolls on Second Middlings Materials
Smooth rolls,
matte
Flour through 136 gm (%) 65.6
Flour Ash (%) d.m. 0.52
>107 gm (%) 29
>95 gm (%) 9.5
>73 gm (%) 18
Through 73 gm (%) 43.5
Dough resistance (Dw) 665
Dough elasticity (Dl, cm) 11
Bread volume: cm3 (m1/100 g flour) 561
Dw and D1 = Extensigraph values.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 60.
Posner
that may be contaminated by the presence of bran. Some
millers use corrugated rolls on sizing stages, while others
use smooth rolls. Smooth rolls will have a more delicate
effect and produce lower-ash flour than corrugated ones.
When corrugated rolls are used in sizings stages, the corru-
gation features are adjusted to the particle size and the bran
adhering to them.
5. Middlings or Reductions
Coarse and fine pure endosperm particles from breaks, pu-
rifiers, sizings, and reductions in the mill are reduced to
flour on smooth rolls. The outer layer of smooth rolls is of
"softer" steel than that of corrugated rolls. The "softer"
steel, which includes more carbon molecules in the cast,
"loses" them with time, thus keeping a rough surface.
Table 4 [60] shows the different effects of rough, polished,
and finely corrugated reduction rolls on the middlings'
ground material, particle size, and flour quality. Smooth
roll surfaces should be refurbished about once a year de-
pending on the steel quality. The speed differential be-
tween smooth rolls is 1.15:1-1.8:1, i.e., much lower than
in breaks or other corrugated rolls (2.5:1). The low differ-
ential causes higher pressure and lower shear forces be-
tween the rolls.
Between smooth rolls that practically touch each other,
high pressure is exerted on the material. However, that
pressure should be optimized for each reduction stage.
Tests conducted with a third middling material showed
that maximum flour was extracted through a 11XX (124
pm aperture) bolting cloth following the use of 64.5
pounds per linear inch pressure between a pair of smooth
rolls [61]. Higher pressures flaked part of the endosperm
material, resulting in a lowering of the amount of flour
passing through the bolting cloth. The pressure causes a
rise in the temperature of the smooth rolls, which can reach
50°C (122°F) or higher. To decrease the rise in tempera-
Smooth rolls,
polished Fine, corrugated
62.1 64.7
0.54 0.56
29 41
11.5 14
18 15
41.5 30
640 540
11 13
576 571
Wheat
ture, certain rollstand models include a water cooling sys-
tem. The material is acted upon between the rolls for about
1/390 of a second. In the nip between the rolls the material
temperature can reach 60°C (140°F) for a short time. How-
ever, the temperature of the material usually rises about
7°C (12.6°F), as indicated by measurements taken above
and under the rolls. In addition to the action of the rolls on
the material, it was also recognized that reduction of parti-
cles occurs among the particles themselves. This depends
on the layer of material fed to the rolls [60]. The pressure
exerted by the rolls on the endosperm particles is responsi-
ble for the physical reduction in size but also causes other
physical and chemical changes, including damage to the
starch and some modification of the proteins [60].
In general, the reduction system substantially affects
the quality of the end product through the compression and
shear applied on the endosperm matrix of protein in which
starch granules are embedded. In hard wheat the adhesion
between the starch granules and the protein matrix of the
endosperm cells is stronger than in soft wheat. Therefore,
flours from soft wheat disintegrate easier in milling and
produce finer flours than those of hard wheats. Millers ad-
just the flowsheet and mill equipment to produce flours of
coarser granulation from weaker wheats and finer granula-
tion from stronger wheats to achieve optimum results in
baking.
Starch damaged by milling absorbs five times more wa-
ter during the dough process and is susceptible to diastatic
activity by enzymes that decompose starch to dextrin,
oligosaccharides, and simple sugars during the dough
preparation. When present at an excessive level, damaged
starch has an adverse effect on dough and bread quality.
Because of its harder cell structure, hard wheat endosperm
generates flour with more damaged starch by the action of
high roll pressure or high impact forces during the reduc-
tion stages of the mill. A matte surface will generate more
starch damage than polished surface. The amount of starch
damage is also affected by the velocity differential be-
tween the rolls [62]. On the other hand, if this differential
is unchanged but the roll speed is increased, the starch
damage would increase because of the difference between
the peripheral speed of the rolls.
Some flaking of endosperm occurs during reduction
with smooth rolls. To disintegrate the flakes, different
types of flake disruption or impact machines are used. Dis-
ruption of the flakes can be achieved by impaction with a
fast rotating rotor on which an arrangement of blades, pins,
hammers, or stripes hits the endosperm particles at an ap-
propriate tip speed. Impact machines are used in some cas-
es instead of rolls to reduce the size of clean endosperm
particles of flour. If the position of the impactor and speed
are set correctly to grind endosperm of appropriate hard-
19
ness, impact milling could be more effective than rolls in
reducing it to flour. A rotor tip speed of 110 m/s applied to
granular endosperm produced 87% flour [63]. Flour pro-
duced with impact milling is finer and has a lower level of
starch damage as compared to that from roll stand grind-
ing. Protein levels in these flours were higher after impact
grinding than in flours produced by rolls. The investment
costs in an impact mill are lower, but the energy expense
per quantity of material reduced is higher than that of a
rollstand [64].
6. Air as a Means of Processing
Machine location and product transfer in the mill are opti-
mized by maximizing the use of gravity flow for interme-
diate materials. For vertical transfer of materials positive
or negative pneumatic systems are used. Negative pneu-
matic systems are usually used for the transfer of all inter-
mediate materials in the grinding unit. Properly designed
and efficient air-handling systems for pneumatic convey-
ing or suction in various locations in the mill reduce signif-
icantly the energy consumption of the operation. In a mod-
ern mill about 10 times more air weight than wheat weight
is moved through the system. Accordingly, it is essential to
maintain the relative humidity at about 65% and tempera-
ture at about 25°C (77°F) in the mill to control moisture
evaporation in intermediate and final products. In locations
where extreme humidity levels or temperatures exist, air
control units should be installed in the mill. If intermediate
stocks are too dry or too wet this affects the sieving effi-
ciency, the breaking up of the bran, and accordingly the fi-
nal quality of the flours.
VIII. MILL CONTROL
Control of mill performance is a continuous chore of the
miller who sets methods and procedures to achieve opti-
mal performance. As an example, when changing wheat
mixes in the mill, the flours are directed to a set-off bin un-
til the mill is adjusted for the new wheat mix. The mill
flours are directed to the set-off bins also upon starting and
shutting down the mill. The reason for such measures is to
prevent production of off-grade flours while the mill is un-
derloaded. The flour in the set-off bins is reblended to the
main stream at a very low rate. Scales to weigh wheat at re-
ceiving point, before and after cleaning, tempered wheat,
and final products could indicate changes in loads, extrac-
tion levels, and any other problems in each section of the
mill. On-line instrumentation to determine moisture, pro-
tein, ash, and color ensures uniformity of raw materials
and final products.
Evaluation of the mill technological performance is
measured by using the ash content of wheat, intermediate
20
300 T/D
Line #1
0,8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100
CUMULATIVE EXTRACTION (%)
FIGURE 11 A cumulative ash curve of a flour mill.
materials, individual flour streams, and final products. The
significant difference in ash content among the three main
parts of the wheat kernel endosperm, bran, and germ is
used as a measure to determine the level of the separation
efficiency from each other. However, in the past, because
no other accurate tools were available, ash was used as a
criterion of flour quality. Flour ash was an inconclusive pa-
rameter and in the past created significant economic losses
to millers and bakers. The reason is that ash values of
flours are not directly related to the flour end user's speci-
fications. Millers compromised on flour extraction to sup-
ply flour within specifications from good baking quality
wheats that inheritably had higher endosperm ash. Today,
fast and accurate instrumentation to determine flour quali-
ties such as color, starch damage, rheological characteris-
tics, and baking qualities is widening the parameters for
flour specifications.
The objective in milling is to achieve as high as possi-
ble flour extraction with the lowest contamination of bran
and germ that increase ash content. The ash curve is a
mean to express cumulative ash of the flour streams in the
mill. To construct the ash curve the streams are arranged in
increasing order of ash content, and they are weighted
based on the extraction of each into a function that is a re-
lationship between the cumulative ash content of a number
of streams and the related total flour extraction (Fig. 11).
The miller's objective is to reach an ash curve that is flat
and start to turn upward at the highest possible flour ex-
traction.
While the ash values and curve are an indication of the
mill separation efficiency between the endosperm and
bran, the granulation curve is a function of mill adjustment
and screen selection. The granulation curve (Fig. 12) ex-
presses the disintegration of the wheat kernel at different
Posner
stages of the milling process. The curve is drawn as a
graph where the horizontal axis shows the various sieve
apertures in micrometers, and the vertical axis shows the
cumulative percentage tailovers of the respective sieves.
The granulation curve shows the particle size distribution
of the ground material. By drawing granulation curves for
each of the grinding stages, the miller can monitor vari-
ability in kernel disintegration and make the necessary ad-
justments in the system. The data to construct the granula-
tion curve can be generated with an experimental sifter.
The miller sieves the stock from under the rollstand on a
stack of sieves and then calculates the percentages of all
the quantities remaining on the sieves and the material in
the bottom pan from the total weight.
If a different set of sieves is used for the separation of a
grounded stock, different points will be allocated on the
same graph to determine a change in the amount overtail-
ing from each sieve. The shape of the curve does not de-
pend on the sieve aperture, but on the sample granulation
distribution. The miller draws the granulation curves of the
mill for each wheat mix at the time when mill performance
is optimum. Granulation curve analysis can generate the
following information: (1) corrugation condition, (2) mill
balance, (3) roll adjustment, and (4) sieve area, aperture,
division, and efficiency of the sieving stages.
IX. THE MILL END PRODUCTS
A. Flours
Flour quality is a subjective concept that relates to final
product usage. For different types of bread around the
world specific wheat characteristics and flour qualities are
required. Quality parameters such as color, protein, granu-
lation distribution, gluten quantity and quality, and starch
damage play a role in the suitability of flour for the baker.
Another important factor besides the determination of
120
1st bk
CUM. RETAINED (%)
100
2nd bk
80 ——•
3rd bk
60
40
20
0
0 110 125 130 210 282 368 437 505 682
MICRONS
FIGURE 12 A mill granulation curve.
Wheat 21

quality is the concept of flour uniformity. For the commer-
cial baker uniformity of flour supplied is more important
than variations in characteristics such as premium protein
or reduced starch damage.
Flours from the different stages in the mill are not identi-
cal in physical appearance, chemical analysis, or baking
properties. These flour streams are composed of varying
amounts of different parts of the wheat kernel. In the case
that all the flour streams are blended to one composite, the
result is a "straight-grade flour." The quality of the straight-
grade flour is directly related to the quality of the processed
wheat. It is possible to combine these flour streams in dif-
ferent ratios to produce simultaneously two or more final
flours that differ in color, ash content, protein content,
dough-handling properties, and bread baking characteris-
tics. This method of producing more than one final flour
from one wheat mix is called "split milling" or "divide mill-
ing." In wheat-importing countries the method of split
milling is used to accommodate the requirements for flour
qualities of different end uses. In wheat-growing countries
such as the United States split milling is not frequently used
since the wide variety of wheat types accommodate differ-
ent end uses.
In the United States the common types of flours pro-
duced in a mill are patent, first clear, and second clear. Fig-
ure 13 shows an example of products from a flour mill and
their proximate analysis. Amounts and types of final prod-
ucts vary among mills are a result of differences in flow-
sheet, adjustments, and kinds of wheat milled. Flour
streams from the head end middlings, primary sizings, and
in some cases that of second and third breaks originate
from the center of the wheat kernel. The blend of these

Protein - 12.3% Fat - 1.54% Starch - 56.28%

100 POUNDS OF DRY WHEAT Ash _ 1.44% Fiber - 2.11% Moisture 12.5%

Protein 10.7% Fat 0.87% Moisture 14%

Varied Flour Extractions 74-78% Ash 0.60% Starch 68.4% Color KJ 0 Total Feed

Farina (optional) 2% (of total flour)

Bran
1st Clear Flour up to 20%
Shorts 8% 1°%

2nd Clear Flour3%, Protein13.5%, Ash 1.2%, Fat 1.3%, Color KJ 3

Patent Flour up to 75% (of total flour) (of total flour)
Protein 13.8% Protein
Protein 12.7%
Protein 10.8% Ash 1.49% 13.8%
Ash 0.75%
Ash 0.40% Fat 6.6%
Fat 1.3% Ash 6.1%
Fat 0.88% Fiber 10.1%
Ave. Particle Size 50µ Color KJ 1.5
Starch 18.5% Fat 3% 0
Color KJ -2 a
Fiber
Red Dog 3% 10.1%

Starch
le
Protein 13.1%
5.46%
Ash 1.49%
Fat 2.29%
Fiber 2.9%
Starch 36.96%

Germ 1%
Baker's Patent up to 97% (of total flour)
Protein 11.1% Protein 22%
Ash 0.50% Ash 4.05%
Color KJ -1
Fat 6.6%
Fiber 3.55%

Starch 21.4%

Straight Grade Flour 100%

FIGURE 13 Flour grades for a typical milling system. 14% moisture basis. KJ = Kent—Jones Color Grader. (Adapted from Ref. 65.)
22
flour streams is called "patent flour." Patent flour is about
77% of the total flour, is the whitest, and contains the lowest
relative amount of ash (0.38-0.42%, corrected to 14%
moisture basis—m.b.). Other flour streams of the process
that contain a higher percentage of the endosperm parts ad-
jacent to the bran and germ are distinguished from the for-
mer by higher ash and protein contents, darker color, and
inferior baking qualities. These flour streams can be com-
bined to make up "first-clear flour." First-clear flour is
about 20% of the total flour and contains about 0.75% ash.
"Second-clear flour," made up of the rest of the streams, is
3% of total flour and contains up to 1.2% ash (14% m.b.).
The ratio between patent, first clear, and second clear could
vary substantially in percentages in other instances and, ac-
cordingly, in ash and quality. Blending part or all of the first
clear into the patent comprises the "baker's patent."
The miller subjectively blends the flour streams from
different stages in the mill to make up the final products.
Each of the final flours are collected under the sifters in
conveyors. As a result, characteristics of the final flours do
not follow a regression line of quality.
Optimum flour granulation distribution is an important
parameter for the baking process. Drastic change in granu-
lation effects water absorption, water retention during fer-
mentation, proofing, and quality of finished breads. The
mill adjusts product granulation to the kind of additives
added during dough preparation and to the types of breads
baked. Control of flour particle size distribution is a pa-
rameter the miller controls by wheat selection, tempering,
mill flow, and mill adjustment.
The ash content does not affect the baking quality of the
flour; it relates basically to the level of bran in the flour.
Ash content of flour is a very valuable test for mill control.
However, in many cases flour ash is used in flour quality
specifications disproportionately to its value and signifi-
cance in baking. This creates a situation where millers are
constrained to lower flour extraction when using good bak-
ing quality wheat of inherently high endosperm ash.
Flour color depends on wheat cleanliness, tempering
level, finesse of flour, and the amount of bran particles it
contains. Too much fine bran effects flour shade, produc-
ing a darker shade. Frequently during the mill operation
the miller slicks a flour sample and wets it. This method,
called the Pekar test, is used by the miller to evaluate the
color and amount of bran particles in the flour. Change in
mill ambient conditions could also affect flour color. In ad-
dition, flour carries a yellow cast due to the presence of
carotene. Natural aging during storage of the flour for up to
2 weeks or usage of different bleaching agents, where per-
mitted, could overcome this problem.
In some countries improvers and enrichments are fed
into the flour in the mill or in the blending facilities before
Posner
load-out. The powders are added to the flour with great ac-
curacy and uniformity by special feeders. Modem systems
use programmable logic controller (PLC)-controlled feed-
ing systems. At the end of the milling process the microin-
gredients are conveyed by air and introduced and mixed
into the flour by special agitators. In mills where microin-
gredients are added to flour according to customers' specifi-
cations, they are introduced into large-capacity, high-speed
batch mixers during final blending and before load-out.
B. Bran
Commercial bran differs from the botanical outer layers of
the wheat kernel. The bran that is removed during the var-
ious stages of the milling process is made up of fractions
that differ in size and endosperm content. Bran is de-
scribed using factors such as minimum protein, minimum
fat, maximum fiber, and maximum moisture. In the United
States "wheat mill run" would be a product that includes
all offal fractions from a typical mill. According to the
American Feed Control Officials [66], wheat mill run con-
sists of the following: minimum protein, 13.0%; minimum
fat, 4.0%; maximum fiber, 9.5%; and maximum moisture,
14.0%. The American Feed Control Officials [66] define
proximate analysis for all other by-products from the
milling process. Specifications will vary from country to
country based on milling technology, feed regulations,
kind of wheat used, and climatic conditions.
C. Wheat Germ
The germ constitutes about 2.5-3% by weight of the wheat
kernel depending on the size of the whole kernel. The two
main parts of the wheat germ are the embryo and the
scutellum. The loosely held embryo part of the germ can
be extracted relatively easily, but the soft scutellum, high
in fat and protein, is difficult to separate from the en-
dosperm and the bran [67]. The embryo and the whole
germ differ in size, shape, and the level at which they are
embedded into the kernel among the different kinds of
wheat.
The mill flow is designed to separate whole embryos
during the breaking stages. The moist, soft, and easily flat-
tened embryos are directed in the mill flow, usually from a
purifier, to a pair of smooth rolls with low differential,
where they are flaked [68]. The small flakes are extracted
in the sifters over a 14 US mesh sieve (1410 lim). Accord-
ing to definitions of the Association American Feed Con-
trol Officials [66], pure wheat germ that is used primarily
for human food should contain a minimum of 30% protein.
In some mills the germ is separated with an impact ma-
chine ahead of the first break roll. After impaction the ma-
terial is sifted on a sifter, where it is separated into differ-
Wheat 23

ent fractions. The coarse material is diverted to the first- TABLE 6 Protein Composition of Wheat Fractions
break coarse, the intermediate material to first-break fine, Protein
and the fines containing the embryos to a smooth pair of
rolls, where it is flaked for separation. Graina Soft wheat Hard wheat
Fraction (%) (%) (T)

X. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WHEAT Pericarp and testa 8.0 4.1 7.6

AND MILL PRODUCTS Testa and hyaline 15.7
Aleurone 7.0 18.4 24.3
A. Protein Germ 1.0 31.1 26.3
Scutellum 1.5 24.9
Various classes of wheat are intentionally bred and select- 12.5 12.8 16.2
Outer endosperm
ed for a specific composition, usually to meet end-use re- Middle endosperm 12.5 8.2
quirements for a product. For example, commercial soft Inner endosperm 57.5 5.8 8.0
wheats are maintained at low protein levels, although cer- Whole grain 100.0 8.2 12.1
tain soft wheats are associated with genes for high protein
and are used as germplasm in breeding programs to devel- aN x 5.83, 14% moisture basis.
Source: Refs. 6, 71.
op high-protein hard wheats [69]. Protein content in a sin-
gle variety of wheat can vary from 7 to 20% depending
upon growing environment and fertilizer use.
Typical protein ranges for selected world wheats are dosperm (subaleurone) is higher in protein than the inner
given in Table 5. Protein content is negatively correlated portion [72,73]. The embryo and scutellum, which make
with grain yield, so that spring wheats are generally higher up the germ, are high in protein, lipids, reducing sugars,
in protein content than winter-grown types. and ash. Because of the structure of various parts, as noted
Constituents of hard and soft wheats are given in Table in Table 1, milling extraction rates affect flour composi-
6. The high-protein hard wheat is higher in protein in all tion. With an increase in extraction rates, protein, fat, and
constituents except the germ. Constituents of wheat grains fiber increase, whereas carbohydrates decrease. It is com-
are not distributed uniformly. Composition of anatomical monly accepted that the protein content of straight-grade
parts of the wheat grain along with caloric values are com- flour is about 1% less than that of the wheat used by the
pared in Table 1. The pericarp (bran) is high in pentosans, mill. The miller controls variation in flour protein by ad-
cellulose, and ash. The aleurone is a botanical part of the justing wheat protein, wheat size, and wheat-blending
endosperm, but during milling it is removed with the bran. methods [46]. The protein "difference" between the whole
It is high in protein, lipids, pentosans, and ash, thus con- kernels and flour is larger for smaller size kernels [49].
tributing significantly to the nutritional quality of bran as a In cereals only wheat-and to some extent rye-have
feedstuff. Starch is found in the endosperm. The outer en- storage proteins that form the gluten network in flour and
water doughs, which has the unique properties of elasticity
and strength to produce yeast-leavened bread. Storage pro-
TABLE 5 Protein Content Ranges of Wheat Types teins comprise 85% of wheat endosperm proteins and con-
sist of gliadin (alcohol-soluble) and glutenin (alkali- or
Wheat type Approximate protein range (%)
acid-soluble) fractions.
HRS (United States) 11.5-18 Amino acid compositions for four classes of wheat are
Durum 10-16.5 listed in Table 7. The amino acid composition of a com-
Plate (Argentina) 10-16 mercial hard red winter wheat mill mix and its flour, bran,
CWRS (Manitoba) 9-18 break shorts, and red dog are listed in Table 8. Glutamic
HRW (United States) 9-14.5 acid and proline are highest in the endosperm. Lysine, ar-
Russian 9-14.5
genine, aspartic acid, and alanine are lowest in the wheat
Australian 8-13.5
8-13 and flour. Lysine is the limiting essential amino acid in
English
Other European 8-11.5 wheat and most cereals.
SRW (United States) 8-11
8-10.5 B. Lipid
White (United States)
Lipid contents of wheat grains typically range from 2 to
HRS = Hard red spring; CWRS = Canadian western red spring; HRW =
hard red winter; SRW = soft red winter. 4%. Lipid material is not dispersed evenly throughout the
Source: Ref. 70. grain. The embryo (germ) contains 30% of its weight as
24 Posner

TABLE 7 Amino Acid Composition of Wheats (% by weight) oil. Commercial germ is in the 10-11% range. The en-
dosperm is lowest in oil, and the outer layers have an inter-
HRS HRW SRW SRS
mediate lipid level between the germ and the endosperm.
Amino acid wheat wheat wheat wheat
Wheat germ oil includes a high proportion of unsaturated
Tryptophan 1.24 fatty acids. The fatty acid contents of several classes of
Threonine 2.88 3.1 3.2 3.01 wheat and their milled products are presented in Table 9.
Isoleucine 4.34 3.9 4.3 4.10
Leucine 6.71 7.2 7.3 7.12 C. Vitamins and Minerals
Lysine 2.82 2.9 2.9 2.88
Methionine 1.29 1.5 1.4 1.35 Vitamins are found in high concentrations in wheat germ
Cystine 2.19 1.8 2.18 and bran, and minerals are especially concentrated in the
Phenylalanine 4.94 4.7 4.8 5.41 bran. Whole kernel data for each are influenced by kernel
Tyrosine 3.74 2.7 2.0 1.79 size and the ratio of bran to endosperm, which may be
Valine 4.63 4.5 4.7 4.76 higher in small kernels. Kernel size can be influenced by
Arginine 4.79 5.0 4.5 4.85 environmental stress or genetic factors.
Histidine 2.04 2.5 2.4 2.58
Milling and the degree of flour extraction will also af-
Alanine 3.50 3.6 3.7 3.54
fect vitamin and mineral analysis on flour and other milled
Aspartic acid 5.46 5.3 5.4 5.63
Glutamic acid 31.25 31.9
products. The vitamin content of spring wheat along with
34.8 30.48
Glycine 6.11 4.3 4.3 3.80 milling products of flour, shorts, and bran are given in
Proline 10.44 11.0 10.4 11.57 Table 10.
Serine 4.61 4.8 4.9 4.63
Xl. VARIOUS MILL TECHNOLOGIES
HRS = Hard red spring; HRW = hard red winter (NE701132); SRW = soft
red winter (Atlas 66); SRS = soft red spring (NapHal). As mentioned previously there are significant differences
Source: Ref. 4. between milling systems for different kinds of wheat.
Table 3 shows general specific machine allocations used

TABLE 8 Amino Acid Composition of Hard Red Winter Commercial Mill Wheat Mix and Its
Milling Fractions

Amino acid Wheat Flour Bran Break shorts Red. shorts Red. dog

Lysine 3.0 2.2 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.7

Histidine 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.4
Arginine 4.2 3.5 6.4 6.5 6.2 5.2
Aspartic acid 5.5 4.2 7.3 7.6 7.9 6.5
Threonine 3.4 3.0 3.5 3.6 3.8 3.4
Serine 5.1 4.8 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.9
Glutamic acid 32.8 36.9 20.8 20.7 19.1 26.8
Proline 10.1 11.5 6.9 6.9 6.2 8.1
Glycine 4.3 3.5 5.5 5.5 5.7 4.8
Alanine 3.7 2.9 4.9 5.2 5.3 4.5
Cystine 1.5 1.6 0.7 0.7 0.9
Valine 4.6 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.0
Methionine 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.5
Isoleucine 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.9
Leucine 7.2 7.2 6.7 6.8 6.8 7.1
Tyrosine 2.0 2.3 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.2
Phenylalanine 4.5 4.7 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.3
Proteina 13.3 12.2 17.7 16.8 14.4 14.1
Milling yield (%)b 100 72.8 21.4 3.2 2.2 0.23

Red. = Reduction.
Red. dog = overs of the flour sieves of the last reduction stage in a mill.
aN x 5.7 dry weight basis.
bMilled on Kansas State University 200 cwt flour mill.
Wheat 25

TABLE 9 Fatty Acid Composition of Wheat and Wheat Kernel Parts

Saturated fatty acid
Total Unsaturated fatty
Grain Water lipid Sum acid, sum
Wheat
Whole grain
Hard Red Spring 14.0 2.7 0.37 1.56
Hard Red Winter 14.0 2.5 0.35 1.47
Soft Red Winter 14.0 2.4 0.35 1.40
White 14.0 2.0 0.30 1.14
Flour
Hard Red Spring 14.0 1.5 0.23 0.84
Hard Red Winter 14.0 1.5 0.20 0.74
Soft Red Winter 14.0 1.4 0.22 0.76
All purpose 14.0 1.4 0.23 0.72
Bran 14.0 4.6 0.74 3.09
Germ 14.0 10.9 1.88 8.18
Wheat, durum
Whole grain 14.0 3.3 0.54 1.88
Semolina 14.0 1.8 0.33 0.90
Source: Ref. 74.

for each kind of wheat. Values would vary among mills as semolina product granulation distribution. The granulation
a result of wheat quality and specific needs of final prod- distribution of the semolina affects water absorption of the
ucts. In general because of the harder endosperm structure particles during hydration in a pasta-production process.
hard wheats require more grinding steps and accordingly Subsequently, it also affects the drying of the pasta and its
longer grinding surfaces than soft wheat mills. On the oth- quality. Optimum semolina granulation for each pasta
er hand, to cope with the softness of the endosperm of soft product is a major concern of the miller and pasta manu-
wheats, more sifter surface area is required in soft wheat facturer. Common semolina particle size for long pasta is
mills than in hard wheat mills. finer than 630 Rm and for short goods finer than 350 i.tm.
Couscous is made from very coarse durum semolina with a
A. Durum Wheat Milling particle size range between 550 and 1100 lam. Couscous is
not extruded, but is coagulated and steamed in granular
Usually drum wheat is milled into a granular product
form.
called semolina for pasta production. Depending on the
Durum wheat semolina is evaluated based on speck
pasta manufacturing system, ranges of semolina granula-
count, protein level, and ash. The origin of specks in the
tion and particle distribution will vary. Products with parti-
cles in the ranges of 600-180, 475-180, and <350 lam are
produced as coarse, middle, or fine semolina, respectively. TABLE 10 Vitamin Contents of Chris Hard Red Spring Wheat
Regulations by the U.S. Federal Drug Administration [76] and Its Milling Fractions'
define semolina as a product made only from durum wheat
that passes through a No. 20 sieve, not more than 3% pass- Vitamin Grain Flour Shorts Bran
ing through a No. 100 sieve. Its moisture content is not Thiamine 9.9 0.7 10.1 13.2
more than 15% and maximum dry ash content is 0.92%. Riboflavin 3.1 1.5 1.8 5.5
Durum wheat is also milled to flour of a granulation finer Niacin 48.3 9.5 23.5 171.4
than 200 in some parts of the world for local bread Biotin 0.056 0.013 0.055 0.162
baking. The extraction of final products based on wheat Folacin 0.56 0.09 0.59 1.59
entering the durum semolina mill ranges from about Pantothenic acid 9.1 2.5 7.0 31.7
Vitamin B6 4.7 0.48 5.3 13.0
65-70, 10, and 25-20% of semolina, flour, and bran, re-
spectively. 'Rig (dry basis).
Table 11 shows an example of typical commercial Source: Ref. 75.
26
TABLE 11 Durum Semolina
Granulation Distribution
Sieve aperture (i.tm) % over
600 0
425 18
250 67
180 10
140 3
Pan 2
semolina could arise from different sources. Generally
about 45% originate from discolored germs, 25% discol-
ored endosperm, 15% bran particles, 10% grit, and 5%
other sources. Ergot, when present in wheat, could show
up as specks in the semolina. Durum and spring wheat, like
other cereals that might go through the flowering period
during cold and wet weather, could be infected by the fun-
gus Claviceps purpurea or ergot. Ergot is a fungus that
produces alkaloids toxic to humans and animals when it
invades spring wheat, durum wheat, and rye. The word
"ergot" is applied to both the fungus and the disease that
the fungus causes. Hard wheats are more vulnerable to er-
got attack than soft wheats [77]. Hybrid varieties are more
susceptible presumably because they have smaller anthers
with less than sufficient pollen for quick fertilization, re-
sulting in sensitivity to ergot attack. Millers use different
methods such as gravity tables and color sorters to separate
ergot from the wheat. According to U.S. Department of
Agriculture Standards for Grain [30], ergoty wheat is
wheat that contains more than 0.05% percent ergot.
The specks have an adverse effect on the aesthetic ap-
pearance of pasta and, to some extent, the resistance to
breakage of long varieties. Grit content in the granular
semolina is also a quality measure. Grit originates from
ground stones not separated from the wheat during clean-
ing. Grit in semolina could damage the pasta extruder's
surface.
Durum milling is substantially different from flour
milling. To achieve maximum extraction of granular en-
dosperm, more break and corrugated sizing stages are
used. Although the total cumulative break release would be
the same, the release on the individual breaks is lower than
in flour milling. The number of purifiers used in semolina
milling is significantly higher than in conventional flour
milling. The purifier is the machine from which the final
semolina is extracted. In durum milling the miller sends
material to purifiers with much narrower particle size
ranges than in flour milling to differentiate more sharply
between the different characteristics of materials based on
size, shape, and specific gravity. The tail-end materials in
Posner
the mill that could not be extracted as semolina are usually
ground on smooth rolls to flour.
B. Soft Wheat Milling
The soft wheat—milling process differs from that for hard
wheat because of the softer kernel endosperm. Soft wheat
is milled to flour that is used mainly for the manufacture of
baked goods not requiring a developed structure during
fermentation. Protein contents of flours produced in the
soft wheat mill ranged from 4.7 to 9.1% and patent ash
contents from 0.23 to 0.42% (14% m.b.).
Soft wheat kernels are wider and have a lower specific
weight than hard wheat kernels. Accordingly, cleaning ma-
chinery must be adjusted to the physical characteristics for
efficient separation of unmillable materials. The en-
dosperm structure of soft wheat is not vitreous and dense,
allowing water to penetrate at a faster rate than in hard
wheats through the capillary spaces in the endosperm.
Therefore, tempering time to reach a milling moisture is
very short for soft wheat, usually about one half of the time
required by hard wheat. In cases when the natural moisture
of the wheat is high, only a limited amount of water is
sprayed on the wheat about 30 minutes before milling to
toughen the bran.
Endosperm of soft and hard wheats fracture differently
during the milling process. Hard wheats are more crys-
talline and break into large chunks of endosperm while soft
wheat endosperm is amorphous and crumbles into smaller
particles. The soft endosperm disintegrates during the
milling process with less pressure. As a result, soft wheat
produces finer flour particles with lower levels of starch
damage compared to hard wheat. In countries where soft
wheat flours are used for bread baking, the miller is aware
that he or she has to control the starch damage of the flour.
This is done by applying heavy roll pressures in the reduc-
tion system. Also, the starch protein bond in soft wheat is
weaker than that in hard wheat. With proper impact force,
it is possible to separate the granules from the protein ma-
trix in which they are embedded. During milling more
flour from breaks and less sizing production are the main
characteristics of soft wheats compared to hard wheats.
The sifter effective area in a soft wheat mill is relatively
larger than in the hard wheat mill. This should overcome
difficulties in sieving of fine flours. Some millers over-
come the difficulties of sifting soft wheat materials by us-
ing centrifugal sifters. The centrifugal sifters might have
advantages over regular gyrating sifter boxes. The action
of a centrifugal machine, in which a counterrotating rotor
throws the stock against a cylindrical sieve, allows effi-
cient separation, especially in the poorly flowing stocks of
the soft milling flow. In general, purifiers are not used in
Wheat 27

soft wheat mills. In cases where they are incorporated in
the flow they treat only the small amount of sizings from
the primary breaks. The less rigid endosperm attached to
the bran in the tail end breaks is difficult to separate with
conventional grinding rolls that might splinter the bran.
Impact dusters are used before the third, fourth, and fifth
break rolls to achieve more flour extraction. In general,
more impactors are used in a soft wheat mill between the
rolls and sifters to increase flour extraction compared to
hard wheat milling
A survey of U.S. millers listed the primary differences
in the flow diagram of soft versus hard wheat [78]. Soft
wheat flow diagrams had about twice the number of bran
dusters and flake detachers in the grinding system, about
10% more centrifugal sifters and 12% more break sifter
surface, and about 50% less purifier surface than hard
wheat flow diagrams.
structure of the kernel in such a way that the crease "struc-
ture" will stay intact. This technology reduces to a large
extent the number of machines in the mill. The benefits of
such a technology are reduced capital investment, shorter
milling process, reduction in energy, reduction of cc-amy-
lase content of flour when partially sprouted wheats are
used [79], and reduction of fragments and bacteria count in
flours.
The rapid developments in electronics and instrumenta-
tion are implemented in the mill for rapidly sensing online
the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of mill
products. Evaluation of intermediate and final mill prod-
ucts allows the development of mill automation and con-
trol. Near-infrared reflectance [80], fluorescence imaging
[81], microwave, and electronic weighing are some of the
current and future areas of development.

C. Air Classification of Specialty Flours

Air classification of flours is used where there is a demand
for extremely precise specification of granulation and pro-
tein content of flour. Flour with a narrow range of particle
size has the advantage of increasing the tolerance of oven
temperature and water absorption during the baking of
cakes. In general, soft wheat millers use about 35% more
air classifiers. Commercial flour particle granulation is be-
tween 0-150 pm. A flour fraction of 1-17 tm contains a
high level of protein. A flour fraction of 17-40 .tm will
usually be marked as to its higher starch content and lower
protein level. It is not practical to separate particles of less
than 73 gm with conventional sieves. Accordingly, parti-
cles are segregated by air using differences in particle
shape, specific gravity, and size. One of the objectives of
air classification is protein shifting. Classifying flours to a
granulation of between 17 and 40 gm will produce a very-
low-protein flour that can be used for special cake mixes.
The fine fractions in the range below 17].tm are blended in
with flours to increase protein levels. To increase the effi-
ciency of the air-classifying system, millers use pin mills
to disintegrate chunks of endosperm larger than 40 gm in
order to release the starch granules that are embedded in
the protein matrix.

D. New Developments in the

Milling Industry
There is a new technical approach to the separation of the
three main parts of the wheat kernel: endosperm, bran, and
germ. The new technology applies intensive and accurate
abrasion of the wheat kernel bran. The miller can selec-
tively remove wheat pericarp layers from the outside in.
The objective of the new technology is to break up the
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