J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532
DOI 10.1007/s11051-010-0145-6
RESEARCH PAPER
Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles: effect
on phytopathogen Colletotrichum gloesporioides
Miguel A. Aguilar-Méndez • Eduardo San Martı́n-Martı́nez
Lesli Ortega-Arroyo • Georgina Cobián-Portillo •
Esther Sánchez-Espı́ndola
Received: 26 July 2010 / Accepted: 8 November 2010 / Published online: 20 November 2010
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
Abstract Colloidal silver nanoparticles were synthe-
sized by reducing silver nitrate solutions with glucose,
in the presence of gelatin as capping agent. The obtained
nanoparticles were characterized by means of
UV–Vis spectroscopy, transmission electron micros-
copy (TEM), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy. The response surface methodology
(RSM) was also used to determine the influence of the
variables on the size of the nanoparticles. The antifungal
activity of the silver nanoparticles was evaluated on the
phytopathogen Colletotrichum gloesporioides, which
causes anthracnose in a wide range of fruits. The UV–
Vis spectra indicated the formation of silver nanopar-
ticles preferably spherical and of relatively small size
(\20 nm). The above-mentioned was confirmed by
M. A. Aguilar-Méndez (&)  E. San Martı́n-Martı́nez 
L. Ortega-Arroyo
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro de Investigación en
Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnologı́a Avanzada, Legaria 694,
Colonia Irrigación 11500 México, DF, México
e-mail: maguilarme@ipn.mx
G. Cobián-Portillo
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Interdisciplinario
de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional,
Hornos 1003, Colonia Nochebuena, 71230 Oaxaca,
México
E. Sánchez-Espı́ndola
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Nacional de
Ciencias Biológicas, Prolongación Manuel M. Carpio s/n,
esq. Plan de Ayala, Colonia Santo Tomás, 11340 México,
DF, México
•
TEM, observing a size distribution of 5–24 nm.
According to RSM the synthesis variables influenced
on the size of the silver nanoparticles. By means of FTIR
spectroscopy it was determined that gelatin, through
their amide and hydroxyl groups, interacts with nano-
particles preventing their agglomeration. The growth of
C. gloesporioides in the presence of silver nanoparticles
was significantly delayed in a dose dependent manner.
Keywords Silver nanoparticles  Colletotrichum
gloesporiodes  Gelatin  Antifungal activity 
Antimicrobial
Introduction
Several metals at nanometer scale present antimicrobial
properties mainly due to their large surface area (Azeredo
2009). This fact has promoted the study of metal
nanoparticles with the purpose of using them as new
antimicrobial agents (Sondi and Salopek-Sondi 2004).
Among the inorganic antimicrobial agents, silver has
been widely used since ancient times to fight infections
and control microbial contamination (Pal et al. 2007).
The bactericidal effect of silver ions is well known, but
the mechanism is not totally clear. Some theories have
been developed to explain the inhibitory effect of silver
ions and metallic silver on microorganisms (Cho et al.
2005). It is believed that silver ions interact strongly with
the thiol groups of vital enzymes, causing their inactiva-
tion (Feng et al. 2000). It is also possible that DNA from
123
2526 J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532

bacteria treated with nanoparticles, loses its ability to were obtained from Baker, Mexico. Gelatin was
replicate due to the affinity of silver to bind with supplied by Gardhal, Mexico. Deionized water
phosphorylated and sulfur groups (Pal et al. 2007). Other (18 MX cm-1) was used throughout the experiments.
studies have reported that silver ions cause irreversible
structural changes in the bacterial cell membrane, Synthesis of silver nanoparticles
affecting drastically the permeability and respiration
functions (Cho et al. 2005; Morones et al. 2005). In a typical experiment, an aqueous solution of
The effect of silver nanoparticles against several gelatin–glucose was prepared adjusting the pH to 10
types of bacteria has been extensively studied; how- with NaOH. Then, 10 mL of AgNO3 0.1 M was
ever, there is limited information about the antifungal added to the solution and the final mixture was heated
activity on phytopathogenic fungi (Panacek et al. for 30 min under controlled magnetic stirring. The
2009). Petica et al. (2008) reported only a fungistatic contents of glucose and gelatin, as well as the
effect of silver nanoparticles against Aspergillius, temperature of synthesis varied according to the
Penicillium, and Trichoderma species. On the other experimental design (Table 1). Before experimental
hand, Kim et al. (2009) observed a significant inhibi- analysis the colloidal solutions were stored at room
tion in the growth of the fungus Raffaelea sp. when temperature.
treated with silver nanoparticles. They also reported
that the inhibition was more efficient as the concen- Characterization of silver nanoparticles
tration of nanoparticles increased.
It is estimated that about 20–25% of the harvested The UV–Vis spectra were obtained with a 1-cm path
fruits and vegetables are decayed by pathogens during length quartz cell using a Cary 50 spectrophotometer
postharvest handling (Sharma et al. 2009). One of these (Varian, USA). The absorbance of the colloidal
pathogens is C. gloesporioides which causes anthrac-
nose in a wide range of fruits, such as apple, avocado,
mango, papaya, etc. Anthracnose lesions, for example
Table 1 Experimental design
in strawberry, develop as tan or light brown, circular,
sunken lesions on ripe or ripening fruit. Generally, the Assay Glucose Gelatin Temperature
(wt%) (wt%) (°C)
symptoms become evident only during the postharvest
period. Anthracnose is controlled principally by 1 0.54 0.36 65
application of synthetic fungicides during the posthar- 2 0.54 0.36 85
vest period (Muñoz et al. 2009). However, the indis- 3 0.54 0.72 65
criminate use of them has caused the emergence of 4 0.54 0.72 85
resistant strains. Also the residue levels of the chem- 5 0.90 0.36 65
icals may represent a serious problem to the human 6 0.90 0.36 85
health (Gamagae et al. 2003). The use of metal 7 0.90 0.72 65
nanoparticles as new antimicrobial agents could rep- 8 0.90 0.72 85
resent a viable alternative to delay or inhibit the growth 9 1.02 0.64 75
of many pathogens species. 10 0.72 0.84 75
The aim of this work was to synthesize silver 11 0.72 0.54 92
nanoparticles by a chemical reduction method and 12 0.41 0.54 75
evaluate their effect on the growth of C. gloesporioides. 13 0.72 0.23 75
14 0.72 0.54 58
15 0.72 0.54 75
Experimental
16 0.72 0.54 75
17 0.72 0.54 75
Reagents
18 0.72 0.54 75
19 0.72 0.54 75
Silver nitrate (AgNO3) was acquired from Sigma-
20 0.72 0.54 75
Aldrich, USA. Glucose and sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

123
J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532
solutions was measured in the range of 300–800 nm.
The size and shape of the nanoparticles were
observed using a transmission electron microscopy
(TEM, JEOL-JEM1010, Japan) operated at an accel-
erating voltage of 100 kV. A drop of silver nanopar-
ticles solution was placed on a carbon-coated copper
grid. The mean particle size was calculated by taking
approximately 150 particles of each sample. The
electron diffraction pattern of the nanoparticles was
also obtained to confirm the crystalline structure of
silver. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of
the precursors (AgNO3 and gelatin) and silver
nanoparticles were recorded on a Spectrum One
Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, USA). For FTIR
measurements of silver nanoparticles, a small amount
of a colloidal solution of the particles was dried in a
desiccator. The dried sample was mixed with KBr
and the spectrum was obtained over a range of
4000–400 cm-1.
Isolation of C. gloesporioides
The phytopathogen C. gloesporioides was isolated
from papaya fruits with symptoms of anthracnose.
The infected part of the fruit was sanitized with
alcohol 70%. Then, small portions were cut and
immersed in a sodium hypochlorite solution (1%) for
1 min and washed with sterile distilled water. The
portions of the fruit were placed on petri dishes
containing the growth medium potato dextrose agar
(PDA) and incubated at 27 ± 1 °C. Continuous re-
seeds of the mycelium on PDA were realized until
obtain a pure culture. Conidia were observed with an
optical microscopy and identification was according
to a published description (Barnett and Hunter 1972).
The identification of the fungus was done by Biol.
David Bonilla López (SENASICA, México DF).
Antifungal activity of silver nanoparticles
The antifungal activity of the silver nanoparticles was
evaluated using the methodologies proposed by
Bautista-Baños et al. (2003) and Guo et al. (2007).
Two different mean particle sizes (5 and 24 nm) and
various concentrations (13, 26, and 52 lg silver/mL
PDA) of silver nanoparticles in colloidal solution
were added to sterilized PDA. Control dishes con-
tained only PDA. The mycelium of C. gloesporioides
was placed in the center of each petri dish and
2527
incubated at 27 ± 1 °C. Measurements of the colony
diameter (cm) were carried out at 24 h intervals. The
experiment concluded when the mycelium of fungi
reached the edges of the control dish. The antifungal
index (AI) was calculated at the end of the experiment
by using the Eq. 1.
 
D1
AI ð%Þ ¼ 1   100; ð1Þ
D2
where D1 is the colony diameter in the test dishes and
D2 is the colony diameter in the control dish.
Statistical analysis
In order to determine the effect of the synthesis
variables on the size of the silver nanoparticles, the
data of mean size were analyzed by the response
surface methodology (RSM) with Design-Expert 7
statistical software (State-Ease Inc). There were five
replicates for antifungal activity experiments and the
results were evaluated by analysis of variance
(ANOVA). Significant differences among mean val-
ues for mycelial growth were identified using
Tukey’s studentized range test at P \ 0.05.
Results and discussion
Formation of silver nanoparticles
After the addition of AgNO3 to the alkaline solution
of glucose and gelatin, the color of the solution
changed from colorless to brown indicating the
formation of silver nanoparticles. The possible reac-
tion between glucose and silver ion in gelatin solution
can be written as follows:
2Agþ þ 2OH ! Ag2 O þ H2 O; ð2Þ
Ag2 O þ CH2 OH  ðCHOHÞ4 CHO þ 2 Gelatin
! CH2 OH  ðCHOHÞ4 COOH þ 2AgðGelatinÞ # :
ð3Þ
According to Eq. 2, silver ions in aqueous solution
react with hydroxyl ions forming silver oxide.
Subsequently, the silver oxide is reduced by glucose
generating silver nanoparticles (Eq. 3). The function
of the gelatin is to form a protective layer on the
surface of nanoparticles with the aim of preventing
their aggregation and thus maintain the stability in
colloidal solution.
123
2528
UV–Vis spectroscopy
Figure 1 presents some UV–Vis absorption spectra of
the colloidal solutions of silver nanoparticles
obtained in this work at different conditions of
synthesis (Table 1). All the UV–Vis spectra pre-
sented only a single symmetric absorption band, in
the wavelength interval characteristic of silver nano-
particles. The position and shape of the surface
plasmon absorption band are dependent on the size,
shape, and polydispersity of the particles (Mitra and
Bhaumik 2007; Slistan-Grijalva et al. 2008). If the
size of the particle increases, the absorption band
tends to shift to longer wavelength. Also the number
of absorption peaks increases as the symmetry of the
nanoparticle decreases (Pal et al. 2007). Then, based
on the position, shape, and width of the absorption
bands, it was possible to estimate the predominant
presence of spherical silver nanoparticles with a size
relatively small (\25 nm). Even after 3 months, the
characteristics of the absorption bands remained
without significant changes (Fig. 2), confirming the
colloidal stability. These results were later confirmed
by TEM.
TEM characterization
The TEM images confirmed the presence of spherical
silver nanoparticles with a relatively small size
(Fig. 3). According to Fig. 3a, the synthesis condi-
tions of the assay 10, favored the production of silver
2.1
1.8
Absorbance (a. u.)
1.5 Assay 11
Assay 9
1.2 Assay 20
Assay 2
0.9 Assay 1
0.6
0.3
0.0
300 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 1 UV–Vis absorption spectra of silver nanoparticles
showing a single symmetric absorption band
123
J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532
2.1
1.8 30 min
3 months
Absorbance (a. u.)
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.0
300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 2 UV–Vis absorption spectra of silver nanoparticles
obtained under conditions of assay 16. The spectra were
recorded immediately after synthesis and after 3 months
nanoparticles with a mean particle size of
24 ± 6.9 nm; meanwhile working with the condi-
tions of the assay 6, the mean size was reduced to
5 ± 2.4 nm (Fig. 3b). Particle size distributions were
determined by measuring the diameter of more than
150 particles on the TEM images. Figure 4a, b show
the corresponding histograms obtained from Fig. 3a,
b, respectively.
By electron diffraction pattern (Fig. 5) it was
possible to confirm the crystalline nature of the silver
nanoparticles. The interplanar spacing was deter-
mined from the rings of the diffraction pattern and
indexed according to JCPDS card No. 04-0783,
showing a structure face-centered cubic (fcc).
The values of average size were analyzed by means
of the RSM (Fig. 6). In accordance with Fig. 6a
(58 °C), small nanoparticles (*3.5 nm) could be
obtained using the lowest gelatin content (0.23 wt%)
and the lowest glucose concentration (0.41 wt%). On
the other hand, nanoparticles with a bigger size
(*29 nm) could be synthesized under a high concen-
tration of protein (0.84 wt%) and the lowest concen-
tration of reducing agent (0.41 wt%). When the
temperature is increased until 92 °C, the effects of
gelatin and glucose concentrations on the size of the
silver nanoparticles were opposite to that observed at
58 °C (Fig. 6b). The size of metal nanoparticles is
800
greatly influenced by the concentration of reducing
agent. In general, an increase in the concentration of
reducing agent increases the reduction rate of metal
ions, leading to the formation of smaller metal
J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532 2529

Fig. 3 TEM micrographs

silver nanoparticles
obtained under conditions
of assay 10 (a) and assay
6 (b)

Fig. 4 Particle size (a) 25 (b)

distribution histograms of 12
silver nanoparticles shown 10 20
in Fig. 3a and b

Frequency
Frequency

8
15
6
10
4
5
2

0 0
10 20 30 40 50 3 6 9 12
Particle size (nm) Particle size (nm)

Fig. 5 Electron diffraction

pattern of silver
nanoparticles (assay 10)

nanoparticles (Tan et al. 2004). In accordance with Sun a smaller size. However, in this investigation, this fact
and Luo (2005), when the concentration of capping only was observed using a temperature of synthesis of
agent is increased it is possible to obtain a particle with 92 °C. It was possible to observe that the temperature

123
2530 J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532

(a) (b)
29.0 40.0

31.5

Particle size (nm)

22.5
Particle size (nm)

16.0 23.0

9.5 14.5

3.0 6.0

0.84 1.02 0.84 1.02

0.69 0.87 0.69 0.87
0.53 0.72 0.53 0.72
0.38 0.56 0.38 0.56 Glucose (wt%)
Gelatin (wt%) Glucose (wt%) Gelatin (wt%)
0.23 0.41 0.23 0.41

Fig. 6 Response surface plots of the combined effects of gelatin and glucose contents on the particle size at 58 °C (a) and 92 °C (b)

of synthesis favored importantly the growth of the

particles. Similar results were reported by Luo et al.
(2005).
Equation 4 represents the mathematical model for (a)
% Transmittance

the particle size, presenting a moderate fitting with

the experimental data (R2 [ 60%). (b)
1376

Particle size ¼ 53:18  39:87  ðGlucoseÞ (c) 1640

1540

þ 78:36  ðGelatinÞ  1:63  ð TÞ 3400 1385

þ 25:48  ðGlucoseÞ2 1648

3417 1240
þ 55:49  ðGelatinÞ2 1548

þ 0:011  ð TÞ2  94:71  ðGlucoseÞ

4000 3000 2000 1000
 ðGelatinÞ þ 0:80  ðGlucoseÞð TÞ -1
Wavenumber (cm )
 0:98  ðGelatinÞð TÞ: ð4Þ
Fig. 7 FTIR spectra of: AgNO3 (a), silver nanoparticles
FTIR spectroscopy (assay 6) (b) and gelatin (c)

The main utility of the FTIR spectroscopy in the hand, in the spectrum of the silver nanoparticles, the
characterization of metal nanoparticles is to detect absorption bands corresponding to the amide groups,
chemical species that interact with the surface of the shifted to lower wavenumber values. These changes on
particles (Baker et al. 2004). the position bands may be due to the interaction with
Figure 7 shows the FTIR spectra of the precursors silver nanoparticles. Also the band intensity of the ion
(AgNO3 and gelatin) and silver nanoparticles. The pair Ag?NO3- decreased and shifted to a higher
spectrum of the gelatin revealed characteristic absorp- wavenumber value (1385 cm-1). This peak, centered
tion bands at 3417 cm-1 (amide A, N–H stretching and at 1385 cm-1, is characteristic of the NO3- ion in free
O–H bending and stretching), 1648 cm-1 (amide I, form, and the absorption band displacement is caused
C=O stretching), 1535 cm-1 (amide II, N–H bending by a change in the electronic environment of the anion,
and C–N stretching) and 1240 cm-1 (amide III, N–H as a result of the separation of its counterpart Ag? (Cho
bending). The spectrum of the AgNO3 displayed a very and So 2006).
intense absorption band at 1376 cm-1, which is With these results it is possible to deduce that
characteristic of the ion pair, Ag?NO3-. On the other silver nanoparticles interacted with the different

123
J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532 2531

amide and hydroxyl groups of gelatin, assuming that Table 2 Antifungal index of silver nanoparticles against
these interactions are responsible in a great manner of C. gloesporioides
the stability of colloidal solutions. According to Treatment Antifungal index (%)
Basavaraja et al. (2008) the carbonyl groups of amino (lg silver/mL PDA)
Average particle size (nm)
acids and proteins have the ability to link metal
particles and thus prevent their agglomeration. 5 24

13 73 ± 3.4 74 ± 2.5
Evaluation of antifungal activity of silver 26 82 ± 3.9 82 ± 5.1
nanoparticles 56 89 ± 3.1 89 ± 3.2

Figure 8 shows the effect of the size and concentra-

tion of silver nanoparticles in colloidal solution, on
the mycelial growth of C. gloesporioides. It is evident
that the addition of silver nanoparticles to PDA
medium caused an important decrease in the growth
rate of the fungus. In accordance with the ANOVA,
differences among the treatments and control were
statistically significant (P \ 0.001). Also the reduc-
tion in the mycelial growth was higher as the
concentration of silver increased in PDA medium.
However, differences were not observed (P [ 0.05)
for the effect of the mean particle size (5 and 24 nm)
on the reduction of the mycelial growth. The last fact
could be explained by the short difference (19 nm)
between the two mean particle sizes of silver
nanoparticles. According to Jo et al. (2009), the
mechanism of antifungal activity of silver nanopar-
ticles is based on the possibility that nanoparticles
may attach to and penetrate the cell membrane and
kill spores. Table 2 shows the antifungal index for
each treatment at the end of the experiment (7 days).
It was possible to observe that using the highest
concentration of silver nanoparticles (56 lg silver/
mL PDA), the inhibition of the fungus reached almost
90%. Then, at the concentrations proposed in this
study, the silver nanoparticles had a fungistatic effect
on C. gloesporioides. Petica et al. (2008) also
reported a fungistatic activity of silver nanoparticles
on fungus species as Aspergillus, Penicillium, and
Trichoderma. On the other hand, Kim et al. (2009)
reported that the decrease in the growth of fungus
Raffaelea sp. was in function on the concentration of
silver nanoparticles.
Conclusions
Spherical and relatively small silver nanoparticles
were prepared by reducing AgNO3 with glucose in
the presence of gelatin as a protective agent. The
mean particle size ranged between 5 and 24 nm and
was a function of the synthesis conditions. The
colloidal solutions remained stable at room temper-
ature for more than 3 months. The silver nanoparti-
cles presented a dose-dependent fungistatic activity
on C. gloesporioides. The inhibition of the fungus
reached almost 90% with a low silver nanoparticles
concentration (56 lg silver/mL PDA). Further
research should focus in the application of silver
nanoparticles on horticultural products to control
postharvest diseases.

Fig. 8 Effect of silver (a) (b)

10 10
nanoparticles at different
concentrations on mycelial 13 µg silver/mL
13 µg silver/mL
Mycelial growth (cm)

Mycelial growth (cm)

8 26 µg silver/mL 8
growth of C. gloesporioides 26 µg silver/mL
56 µg silver/mL
56 µg silver/mL
during 7-days incubation Control
Control
6 6
period: 5 nm mean particle
size (a) and 25 nm mean
particle size (b) 4 4

2 2

0 0
2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (d) Time (d)

123
2532
Acknowledgments This work was financially supported by
Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a (CONACYT)
through project no. 90019 and SIP project no. 20082511. The
authors would like to thank Dr. Geonel Gattorno for the
technical assistance in electron diffraction and FTIR.
References
Azeredo HMC (2009) Nanocomposites for food packaging
applications. Food Res Int 42:1240–1253
Baker CC, Pradhan A, Shah SI (2004) Metal nanoparticles.
In: Nalwa HS (ed) Encyclopedia of nanoscience and
nanotechnology. American Scientific Publishers, Steven-
son Ranch, pp 449–473
Barnett H, Hunter BB (1972) Illustrated genera of imperfect
fungi. Burgess Publishing Co, Broken Arrow
Basavaraja S, Balaji SD, Lagashetty A, Rajasab AH, Venka-
taraman A (2008) Extracellular biosynthesis of silver
nanoparticles using the fungus Fusarium semitectum.
Mater Res Bull 43:1164–1170
Bautista-Baños S, Hernández-López M, Bosquez-Molina E,
Wilson CL (2003) Effects of chitosan and plant extracts on
growth of Colletotrichum gloesporioides, anthracnose
levels and quality of papaya fruit. Crop Prot 22:1087–1092
Cho JW, So JH (2006) Polyurethane–silver fibers prepared by
infiltration and reduction of silver nitrate. Mater Lett
60:2653–2656
Cho K, Park J, Osaka T, Park S (2005) The study of antimi-
crobial activity and preservative effects of nanosilver
ingredient. Electrochim Acta 51:956–960
Feng QL, Wu J, Chen GQ, Cui FZ, Kim TN, Kim JO (2000) A
mechanistic study of the antibacterial effect of silver ions
on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. J Biomed
Mater Res 52:662–668
Gamagae SU, Sivakumar D, Wilson Wijeratnam RS, Wije-
sundera RLC (2003) Use of sodium bicarbonate and
Candida oleophila to control anthracnose in papaya dur-
ing storage. Crop Prot 22:775–779
Guo Z, Xing R, Liu S, Zhong Z, Ji X, Wang L, Li P (2007) The
influence of the cationic of quaternized chitosan on anti-
fungal activity. Int J Food Microbiol 118:214–217
Jo Y, Kim BH, Jung G (2009) Antifungal activity of silver ions
and nanoparticles on phytopathogenic fungi. Plant Dis 93:
1037–1043
Kim SW, Kim KS, Lamsal K, Kim Y, Kim SB, Jung M, Sim S,
Kim H, Chang S, Kim JK, Lee YS (2009) An in vitro
123
J Nanopart Res (2011) 13:2525–2532
study of the antifungal effect of silver nanoparticles on
oak wilt pathogen Raffaelea sp. J Microbiol Biotechnol
19:760–764
Luo C, Zhang Y, Zeng X, Zeng Y, Wang Y (2005) The role of
poly(ethylene glycol) in the formation of silver nanopar-
ticles. J Colloid Interface Sci 288:444–448
Mitra A, Bhaumik A (2007) Nanoscale silver cluster embedded
in artificial heterogeneous matrix consisting of protein and
sodium polyacrylate. Mater Lett 61:659–662
Morones JR, Elechiguerra JL, Camacho A, Holt K, Kouri JB, Ta-
pia-Ramirez J, Yacaman MJ (2005) The bactericidal effect of
silver nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 16:2346–2353
Muñoz Z, Moret A, Garces S (2009) Assessment of chitosan for
inhibition of Colletotrichum sp. on tomatoes and grapes.
Crop Prot 28:36–40
Pal S, Tak YK, Song JM (2007) Does the antibacterial activity
of silver nanoparticles depend on the shape of the nano-
particle? A study of the Gram-negative bacterium Esch-
erichia coli. Appl Environ Microb 73:1712–1720
Panacek A, Kolar M, Vecerova R, Prucek R, Soukupova J,
Krystof V, Hamal P, Zboril R, Kvitek L (2009) Antifungal
activity of silver nanoparticles against Candida spp.
Biomaterials 30:6333–6340
Petica S, Gavriliu M, Lungu N, Buruntea PanzaruC (2008)
Colloidal silver solutions with antimicrobial properties.
Mat Sci Eng B 152:22–27
Sharma RR, Singh D, Singh R (2009) Biological control of
postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables by microbial
antagonists: a review. Biol Control 50:205–221
Slistan-Grijalva A, Herrera-Urbina R, Rivas-Silva JF, Ávalos-
Borja M, Castillón-Barraza FF, Posada-Amarillas A
(2008) Synthesis of silver nanoparticles in a polyvinyl-
pyrrolidone (PVP) paste, and their optical properties in a
film and in ethylene glycol. Mater Res Bull 43:90–96
Sondi S, Salopek-Sondi B (2004) Silver nanoparticles as
antimicrobial agent: a case study on E. coli as a model for
gram-negative bacteria. J Colloid Interface Sci 275:
177–182
Sun X, Luo Y (2005) Preparation and size control of silver
nanoparticles by a thermal method. Mater Lett 59:
3847–3850
Tan Y, Li Y, Zhu D (2004) Noble metal nanoparticles. In:
Nalwa HS (ed) Encyclopedia of nanoscience and nano-
technology, vol 8. American Scientific Publishers, USA,
pp 9–40