Optical Sources and Transmitters

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lasing stops, but too much will destroy the device. Laser diodes often use thermoelectric coolers for
temperature control and have their light output monitored by a photodetector to allow the current to be
adjusted automatically. Therefore, lasers are usually modulated by changing the current from a value just
below the lasing threshold to some considerably higher value. This can be done at rates exceeding 10 GHz.
2 5. Are there any precautions to be taken while using lasers?
A safety note about lasers: since the light emitted is coherent and intense, and even a low-power laser
such as a laser diode can damage the eye, which may focus the light onto a small spot on the retina,
adequate care should be taken not to look into the laser beam. Infrared lasers are especially dangerous
because the light is invisible and it is not known that the laser is operating. Anyone operating with lasers,
even with very low-powered ones used in communications, should be very careful not to look into an
operating laser.
2 6. When does a semiconductor diode work like a laser?
A semiconductor diode works like a laser when the conditions of stimulated emission, population inversion,
and positive feedback are met. The spectral characteristics of a semiconductor laser are strongly influenced
by the properties of the function medium such as doping.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. In a semiconductor if the charge carriers (electrons or holes) can make a transition from the conduction
band to the valence band without any change in the momentum value, the semiconductor material is
known as
A. Narrow band gap material. B. Wide band gap material.
C. Indirect band gap material. D. Direct band gap material.
2. The absolute power level produced by an optical source is 0 dBm. On a linear scale, it will be
A. 0 mW B. 1 mW
C. 0.1 W D. 1 W
3. If the band gap of a semiconductor material is 1 eV, its emission wavelength will be
A. 1300 nm B. 1240 nm
C. 1550 nm D. 685 nm
4.
Which one of the following statements is true in case of an LED?
A. It is an incoherent optical source that emits light over a relatively wider angle with a broad spectrum.
B. It is a highly coherent optical source that emits light over a relatively wider angle with a broad spectrum.
C. It is an incoherent optical source and emits radiation in a narrow range of angles and contains a
narrow spectrum of wavelengths.
D. It is a highly coherent optical source and emits radiation in a narrow range of angles and contains a
narrow spectrum of wavelengths.
5. Which one of the following statements is true?
A. A laser diode is an incoherent optical source that emits light over a relatively wider angle with a broad
spectrum.
B. A laser diode is highly coherent optical source that emits light over a relatively wider angle with a
broad spectrum.
C. A laser diode is an incoherent optical source and emits radiation in a narrow range of angles and
contains a narrow spectrum of wavelengths.
D. A laser diode is a highly coherent optical source and emits radiation in a narrow range of angles and
contains a narrow spectrum of wavelengths.
 172 Optical Fiber Communications

6. is an example of a direct bandgap semiconductor material which is suitable for

emission of light.
A. Si B. Ge
C. GaAs D. GaAlSi
7. For the emission wavelength of 954 nm, the bandgap of a material of which a laser is made, is
A. 1 eV B. 1.24 eV
C. 1.3 eV D. 1.5 eV
8. When a particular semiconductor device is formed by adding
A. higher impurities concentrations into the same crystal, the resultant junction is known as homojunction.
B. lower impurities concentrations into the same crystal, the resultant junction is known as homojunction.
C. lower impurities concentrations into the same crystal, the resultant junction is known as heterojunction.
D. higher impurities concentrations into the same crystal, the resultant junction is known as heterojunction.
9. are the advantages of employing double heterojunction type devices.
A. Low injection efficiency, improved ohmic contact, optical guidance, and minority carrier confinement
B. High injection efficiency, improved ohmic contact, optical guidance, and majority carrier confinement
C. Low injection efficiency, majority carrier confinement, optical guidance and improved ohmic contact
D. High injection efficiency, improved ohmic contact, minority carrier confinement, and optical guidance
10. When an LED is modulated by an electrical signal,
A. the output optical power is constant at low modulation frequency but falls off at high modulation
frequency.
B. the output optical power is constant at high modulation frequency but falls off at low modulation
frequency.
C. the output optical power falls off at low modulation frequency but is constant at high modulation
frequency.
D. the output optical power rises at low modulation frequency but falls off at high modulation frequency.
11. The modulation response of an LED is described by
Po Po
A. P (f ) = B. P (f ) =
1 + ( 2p f t ) 1 + ( 2p f t )
2 2

Po Po
C. P (f ) = P (f ) =
D.
1 + ( 2p f t )
2
1 + 2p f t

12. By definition, the internal quantum efficiency is related with radiative and non-radiative lifetimes as per
following relationship
A. hint = 1 B. hint = 1
1 - (t r t nr ) 1 + (t r t nr )

C. hint = 1 hint =
D. 1
1 + (t nr t r ) 1 + (t r ¥ t nr )
13. When an LED is modulated by an electrical signal,
A. the output optical power is constant at low modulation frequency but falls off at high modulation
frequency.
B. the output optical power is constant at high modulation frequency but falls off at low modulation
frequency.
C. the output optical power falls off at low modulation frequency but is constant at high modulation
frequency.
D. the output optical power rises at low modulation frequency but falls off at high modulation frequency.
 Optical Sources and Transmitters 173

14. In a quarter wave shifted DFB laser diode, is introduced at the

center of the laser cavity.
A. a phase shift of π/4 radians for a path difference of l/2
B. a phase shift of π/2 radians for a path difference of l/2
C. a phase shift of π/2 radians for a path difference of l/4
D. a phase shift of π/4 radians for a path difference of l/4
15. An LED is applied with an input electric power of 170 mW. If the optical power launched into the fiber by
this LED is typically 25 µW, then the percent efficiency is
A. 1.5 B. 0.15
C. 0.015 D. 0.0015
16. Statement I - Laser operation occurs only above a certain threshold current.
Statement II – Below threshold current, the laser diode acts as a conventional LED.
A. Statement I and Statement II are correct.
B. Only statement I is correct.
C. Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct.
D. Both statements I and II are incorrect.
17. In a heterostructure geometry for semiconductor optical source,
A. The active region has a relatively smaller refractive index as compared to that of adjoining p- and
n-type semiconductor cladding layers due to a smaller bandgap.
B. The active region has a relatively larger refractive index as compared to that of adjoining p- and n-type
semiconductor cladding layers due to a larger bandgap.
C. The active region has a relatively smaller refractive index as compared to that of adjoining p- and
n-type semiconductor cladding layers due to a larger bandgap.
D. The active region has a relatively larger refractive index as compared to that of adjoining p- and n-type
semiconductor cladding layers due to a smaller bandgap.
18. A laser device as optical source has a very narrow angular light beam spread as compared with LEDs,
which permits coupling efficiency of the order of into single mode fibers.
A. 100% B. 70%
C.  50% D. 30%
19. A relatively narrow emitted light spectral width by semiconductor laser diodes enables operation at
approximately data rates.
A. 10 Gbps B. 1 Gbps
C. 500 Mbps D. 100 Mbps
20. DFB laser structures exhibit
A. lower mode partition noise, lower mode stability and narrower linewidths.
B. lower mode partition noise, higher mode stability and narrower linewidths.
C. lower mode partition noise, higher mode stability and wider linewidths.
D. lower mode partition noise, lower mode stability and wider linewidths.
21. Assuming the effective refractive of the waveguide as 3.3, the grating period in a DFB laser to obtain
single-mode operation at 1550 nm will be
A. 85 nm B. 177 nm
C. 235 nm D. 360 nm
2 2. The main function of an optical fiber transmitter is
A. to amplify optical signals, followed by launching them to an optical fiber.
B. to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal, followed by launching them to an optical fiber.
 174 Optical Fiber Communications

C. to convert an optical signal into an electrical signal.

D. to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal, followed by launching them through the air.
2 3. In comparison with a surface-emitting LED (SLED), an edge-emitting LED (ELED) possesses all the
properties except that it
A. Emits light in a relatively narrower angle of emission.
B. Couples relatively more power into optical fibers having small numerical aperture.
C. Emits optical signal over a relatively wider spectral range.
D. Is relatively more sensitive to operating temperature.
24. The term lasing threshold means
A. the minimum possible value of the drive current at which the laser output will be primarily from
stimulated emissions.
B. the front step of the laser chip.
C. the shortest wavelength that the laser emits.
D. the cut or polished surfaces at either edge of the active region in the laser.
25. In order to operate the lasers under varying thermal conditions, one of the following devices is generally
included in the standard laser package
A. An optical isolator B. Automatic overload protection circuitry
C. Thermoelectric cooler D. Variable attenuator

Keys to Multiple Choice Questions

1. D 2. B 3. B 4. A 5. D 6. C 7. C 8. B 9. D 10. A
11. A 12. B 13. C 14. C 15. C 16. A 17. D 18. C 19. A 20. B
21. C 22. B 23. B 24. A 25. C

Review Questions

1. Outline desirable properties of an optical source to be used for optical fiber communications.
2. Compare and contrast important properties of LED and LD as optical sources. Also comment on their
suitability for various applications of optical fiber communications.
3. What are the two primary types of LEDs? Briefly describe the operation of an LED as optical source.
4. Draw a cross-section of an LED structure, and describe its operation.
5. Sketch at least two different structures each for LED and laser diode.
6. Draw a cross-section of a laser diode and describe its operation briefly.
7. For what is the term laser an acronym? Compare the emission linewidth of a typical laser diode with the
emission linewidth of an LED.
8. What do you mean by lasing?
9. What do you understand by population inversion? Illustrate population inversion mechanisms in a three
or four level system.
10. Describe the theory of semiconductor lasers and derive an expression for the threshold current.
11. List the conditions necessary for a semiconductor to function as a gain medium in a laser.