Physics Project File

Topic- Errors And Significant Figures

SUBMITTED BY- SUBMITTED TO -

SHASHANK KUMAR HITESH KUMAR SIR
 INDEX
S.No. Topic Page Signature

1. Certificate 3

2. Acknowledgement 4

3. Introduction To Errors 5-6

4. Types Of Errors 7-8

5. Causes Of Errors 8-10

6. Error In Measurement 11-13

7. Combination of Errors 13

8. Significant Figures 14-15

Rules For Arithmetic
9. Operations of Significant 16-18
Figures

10. Questions Based On Topic 19-22

11. Bibliography 23
 Certificate
This is to certify that project entitled “Errors and Significant
Figures” has been prepared by Shashank Kumar of Class XIth A4
of Kanha Makhan Public School. He has submitted this project
during the academic year 2021-2022 under my guidance
and supervision.

Hitesh Kumar Sir (PGT Physics)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Primarily I would thank God for being able
to complete this project. Then I would like to thank my
Physics teacher Mr. Hitesh Kumar, whose
valuable guidance has been the ones that help me to
complete this project, without his help I would not have
been able to complete my project.
Then I would like to thank my parents and
my brother who have helped me with their valuable
suggestions and guidance lead to the completion of this
project.
 Introduction To Errors
 Measurement -
Measurements are an integral part of living, we measure time, we measure
steps walked to know the calories burnt, we measure the materials added for
cooking, and we also measure the size of clothes to know whether it fits
perfectly. Measurement is the foundation for all experimental science. All the
great technological development could not have been possible without ever-
increasing levels of accuracy of measurements. The measurement of an
amount is based on some international standards which are completely
accurate compared with others. Just like your vegetable vendors,
measurements are taken by comparing an unknown amount of weight with
a known weight. Every measurement carries a level of uncertainty which is
known as an error. This error may arise in the process or due to a mistake in
the experiment. So 100% accurate measurement is not possible with any
method.
When we make a measurement, we generally assume that some exact
or true value exists based on how we define what is being measured. While
we may never know this true value exactly, we attempt to find this ideal
quantity to the best of our ability with the time and resources available. As
we make measurements by different methods, or even when making multiple
measurements using the same method, we may obtain slightly different
results. So how do we report our findings for our best estimate of this elusive
true value? The most common way to show the range of values that we
believe includes the true value is:
Measurement = (best estimate ± uncertainty)
 Accuracy -
Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true
or accepted value. Measurement error is the amount of inaccuracy.
 Precision -
Precision is a measure of how well a result can be determined (without
reference to a theoretical or true value). It is the degree of consistency and
agreement among independent measurements of the same quantity; also the
reliability or reproducibility of the result.
 Error -
An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and
the actual value. For example, if the two operators use the same device or
instrument for measurement. It is not necessary that both operators get
similar results. The difference that occurs between both the measurements is
referred to as an ERROR.
 Types Of Errors
 Gross Error –
This category basically takes into account human oversight and other
mistakes while reading, recording, and readings. The most common errors,
the human error in the measurement fall under this category of errors in
measurement. For example, the person taking the reading from the meter of
the instrument he may read 23 as 28. Gross errors can be avoided by using
two suitable measures, and they are written below:

 Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the
calculation of error should be done accurately.
 By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross
errors. If each experimenter takes different reading at different points, then
by taking the average of more readings we can reduce the gross errors.

 Random Error-
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are
random. These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in
experimental conditions (Example: unpredictable fluctuations in
temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups,
etc, errors by the observer taking readings, etc. For example, when the same
person repeats the same observation, it is very likely that he may get different
readings every time.
 Systematic Error-
Systematic errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the
same direction. These errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed
statistically. If a systematic error is identified when calibrating against a
 standard, applying a correction or correction factor to compensate for the
effect can reduce the bias. Unlike random errors, systematic errors cannot be
detected or reduced by increasing the number of observations.

Causes of Errors
 Incomplete definition – (May be systematic or random) — One reason that it
is impossible to make exact measurements is that the measurement is not
always clearly defined. For example, if two different people measure the
length of the same string, they would probably get different results because
each person may stretch the string with a different tension. The best way to
minimize definition errors is to carefully consider and specify the conditions
that could affect the measurement.
 Failure to account for a factor- (usually systematic) — The most challenging
part of designing an experiment is trying to control or account for all
possible factors except the one independent variable that is being analyzed.
For instance, you may inadvertently ignore air resistance when measuring
free-fall acceleration or you may fail to account for the effect of the Earth's
magnetic field when measuring the field near a small magnet. The best way
to account for these sources of error is to brainstorm with your peers about
all the factors that could possibly affect your result. This brainstorm should
be done before beginning the experiment in order to plan and account for
the confounding factors before taking data. Sometimes a correction can be
applied to a result after taking data to account for an error that was not
detected earlier.
 Environmental factors- (systematic or random) — be aware of errors
introduced by your immediate working environment. You may need to take
 account for or protect your experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes in
temperature, and electronic noise or other effects from nearby apparatus.
 Instrument resolution - (random) — all instruments have finite precision
that limits the ability to resolve small measurement differences. For instance,
a meter stick cannot be used to distinguish distances to a precision much
better than about half of its smallest scale division (0.5 mm in this case). One
of the best ways to obtain more precise measurements is to use a null
difference method instead of measure a quantity
directly. Null or balance methods involve using instrumentation to measure
the difference between two similar quantities, one of which is known very
accurately and is adjustable. The adjustable reference quantity is varied until
the difference is reduced to zero. The two quantities are then balanced and
the magnitude of the unknown quantity can be found by comparison with a
measurement standard. With this method, problems of source instability are
eliminated, and the measuring instrument can be very sensitive and does not
even need a scale.
 Calibration - (systematic) — whenever possible, the calibration of an
instrument should be checked before taking data. If a calibration standard is
not available, the accuracy of the instrument should be checked by
comparing with another instrument that is at least as precise, or by
consulting the technical data provided by the manufacturer. Calibration
errors are usually linear (measured as a fraction of the full scale reading), so
that larger values result in greater absolute errors.
 Zero offset - (systematic) — when making a measurement with a
micrometer caliper, electronic balance, or electrical meter; always check the
zero reading first. Re-zero the instrument if possible, or at least measure and
record the zero offset so that readings can be corrected later. It is also a good
 idea to check the zero reading throughout the experiment. Failure to zero a
device will result in a constant error that is more significant for smaller
measured values than for larger ones.
 Physical variations - (random) — it is always wise to obtain multiple
measurements over the widest range possible. Doing so often reveals
variations that might otherwise go undetected. These variations may call for
closer examination, or they may be combined to find an average value.
 Parallax – (gross) — this error can occur whenever there is some distance
between the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a
measurement. If the observer's eye is not squarely aligned with the pointer
and scale, the reading may be too high or low (some analog meters have
mirrors to help with this alignment).
 Instrument drift - (systematic) — most electronic instruments have readings
that drift over time. The amount of drift is generally not a concern, but
occasionally this source of error can be significant.
 Personal errors - These come from carelessness, poor technique, or bias on
the part of the experimenter. The experimenter may measure incorrectly, or
may use poor technique in taking a measurement, or may introduce a bias
into measurements by expecting (and inadvertently forcing) the results to
agree with the expected outcome.
 Errors In Measurement
 Error for a single measurement –
The uncertainty of a single measurement is limited by the precision and
accuracy of the measuring instrument, along with any other factors that
might affect the ability of the experimenter to make the measurement.

For example, if you are trying to use a meter stick to measure the
diameter of a tennis ball, the uncertainty might be ± 5 mm, but if you used a
vernier caliper, the uncertainty could be reduced to maybe ±2 mm. The
limiting factor with the meter stick is parallax, while the second case is
limited by ambiguity in the definition of the tennis ball's diameter (it's fuzzy!).
In both of these cases, the uncertainty is greater than the smallest divisions
marked on the measuring tool (likely 1 mm and 0.05 mm respectively).
Unfortunately, there is no general rule for determining the uncertainty in all
measurements. The experimenter is the one who can best evaluate and
quantify the uncertainty of a measurement based on all the possible factors
that affect the result. Therefore, the person making the measurement has the
obligation to make the best judgment possible and report the uncertainty in a
way that clearly explains what the uncertainty represents:
Measurement = (measured value ± standard error)
Example: Diameter of tennis ball = 6.7 ± 0.2 cm.
 Error in series of measurement –

Absolute Error- It is the difference between the measured value and

“true” value. For example, if a scale states 90 pounds but you know your true
weight is 89 pounds, then the scale has an absolute error of 90 lbs – 89 lbs =
1 lbs.
This can be caused by your scale not measuring the exact amount you
are trying to measure. For example, your scale may be accurate to the nearest
pound. If you weigh 89.6 lbs, the scale may “round up” and give you 90 lbs.
In this case the absolute error is 90 lbs – 89.6 lbs = 0.4 lbs.
The formula for the absolute error (Δx) is: Δx = |xi – xo|
Where xi is the measurement and x0 is the true value.
 Mean Absolute Error - The mean absolute error is the average of all
absolute errors of the data collected. It is abbreviated as MAE. It is obtained
by dividing the sum of all the absolute errors with the number of errors. The
formula for MAE is:
𝑛
𝟏
𝑴𝑨𝑬 = |𝒙𝒊 − 𝒙𝒐|
𝒏
𝑖=1
n = the number of errors
|xi – xo| = Absolute Errors
Relative Error – Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of a
measurement to the measurement being taken. In other words, this type of
error is relative to the size of the item being measured. RE is expressed as a
percentage and has no units.
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
As a formula, that’s: 𝑹𝑬 =
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Percentage Error - Percent error is the difference between estimated
value and the actual value in comparison to the actual value and is expressed
as a percentage. In other words, the percent error is the relative
error multiplied by 100.
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
𝑷𝑬 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

Combination of errors
If a quantity depends on two or more other quantities, the combination of
errors in the two quantities helps to determine and predict the errors in the
resultant quantity. There are several procedures for this.
Suppose two quantities A and B have values as A ± ΔA and B ± ΔB. Z is
the result and ΔZ is the error due to combination of A and B.

Raised to the
Criteria Sum or Difference Product
power
k
Resultant value Z Z = A±B Z = AB Z=A
Z±ΔZ = (A±ΔA) + Z±ΔZ = (A±ΔA) +
Result with error Z±ΔZ =(A±ΔA)k
(B±ΔB) (B±ΔB)
Resultant error ΔZ/Z = ΔA/A +
±ΔZ = ±ΔA±ΔB ΔZ/Z = k(ΔA/A)
range ΔB/B
ΔZ/Z = ΔA/A +
Maximum error ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB ΔZ/Z = k(ΔA/A)
ΔB/B
Sum of absolute Sum of relative k times relative
Error
errors errors error
 Significant Figures
Significant figures can be defined as important numbers between 0 and 9 that
are used in the coefficient of an expression that explains the precision of the
expression. These figures are obtained by rounding off the expression after the
calculations are executed on them.

 Rules for determining number of significant

figures-
 All non-zero digits are significant.
 All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant irrespective of
decimal place.
 For a value less than 1, zeroes after decimal and before non-zero digits are
not significant. Zero before decimal place in such a number is always
insignificant.
 Trailing zeroes in a number without decimal place are insignificant.
 Trailing zeroes in a number with decimal place are significant.

 Cautions to remove ambiguities in determining

number of significant figures
 Change of units should not change number of significant digits. Example,
4.700m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm. In this, first two quantities have 4 but
third quantity has 2 significant figures.
 Use scientific notation to report measurements. Numbers should be
expressed in powers of 10 like a×10b where b is called order of magnitude.
Example, 4.700 m = 4.700 ×102 cm = 4.700 ×103 mm = 4.700×10-3 Km. In
all the above, since power of 10 are irrelevant, number of significant
figures are 4.
  Multiplying or dividing exact numbers can have infinite number of
significant digits. Example, radius = diameter / 2. Here 2 can be written as
2, 2.0, 2.00, 2.000 and so on.
Following is the table of examples with decimal notation, scientific notation,
and significant figures:
Decimal Notation Scientific Notation Significant Figures

1.324*106 4
1,324,000.000
132400000*106 9

6.75*10-5 3
0.00006750000
6750000*10-5 7

-1*10-8 1
0.0000000100
-1.00*10-8 3
 Rules for Arithmetic Operations of
Significant Figures
 Addition and Subtraction –
The result is rounded off to the last common digit occurring furthest to the
right in all components. Another way to state this rule is as follows: in
addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off so that it has the same
number of digits as the measurement having the fewest decimal places
(counting from left to right). For example,
200 (assume 3 significant figures) + 69.693 (5 significant figures) = 269.693
Which should be rounded to 269 (3 significant figures). Note, however, that
it is possible two numbers have no common digits (significant figures in the
same digit column).
13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2290
We can see that the second number, 234.6, is only accurate to the tenths
place; all the other numbers are accurate to a greater number of decimal
places. Complying with the rule of the weakest link, the answer should be
rounded to the tenth place. We get,
13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2
 Multiplication and Division –
Let’s see how to perform multiplication and division by keeping significant
figures. The multiplication is performed normally and the decimal points are
all noted down. The rule of the weakest link also extends to the
multiplication of significant figures. In both multiplication and division, the
result should be rounded off to have the same number of significant figures
as the component with the least number of significant figures.
16.235 × 0.217 × 5 = 17.614975
Since the component with the lowest number of significant digits has only
one significant digit, we will need to round 17.614975 to 20 which is the
nearest answer with one significant digit. Another example is,
0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.02001
4.6 here has only 2 significant digits, we will round 0.02001 to two
significant digits. From this, we get,
0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.020
0.02 here is not the right answer, because 0.02 has only one significant digit;
namely, the “2”. The trailing zero in 0.020 indicates that “this is accurate to
the thousandths place, or two significant digits”, and is necessary to complete
the answer.
 How To Reduce Errors In Measurement
Keeping an eye on the procedure and following below listed points can help
to reduce the error.

 Make sure the formulas used for measurement are correct.

 Cross check the measured value of a quantity for improved accuracy.
 Use the instrument that has the highest precision.
 It is suggested to pilot test measuring instruments for better accuracy.
 Use multiple measures for the same construct.
 Note the measurements under controlled conditions
 Questions Based On Topics
 Objective Questions –
(1) A meter reads 125V and the true value of the voltage is 125.5V. Find the static
error of the instrument.
(a) 125/0.5 V (b) 125 V (c) 0.5 V (d) 0.5/125 V
(2) Which of the following is caused by careless handling?
(a) Systematic error (b) Gross error (c) Random error (d) None of the mentioned
(3) Which of the following is not a fundamental quantity?
(a) Length (b) Angle (c) Time (d) Luminous intensity
(4) Starting position of an object is represented as x=5.1±0.2m and finishing position
as y=6.9±0.3m. What will be the displacement and error in displacement?
(a) Displacement = 1m, Error = 0.5m (b) Displacement = 2m, Error = 0.36m
(c) Displacement = 1.8m, Error = 0.36m (d) Displacement = 1.5m, Error = 0.4m
(5) Uncertainty in quantity X is given by ΔX. Then what will be the uncertainty in
quantity R for which R=c.X?
(a) |c|.ΔX (b) ΔX/|c| (c) ΔX (d) (ΔX)c
(6) The magnitude of difference b/w the individual measurement and true value of
the quantity is called
(a) Absolute Error (b) Percentage Error (c) Relative Error (d) None
(7) Systematic Errors can be
(a) Negative only (b) Positive only (c) Either +ve or –ve (d) None
(8) Random Error can be eleminated by
(a) Taking large no. of observations and then their mean
(b) Measuring the quantity with more than one instrument
(c) Eliminating the cause
(d) Careful Observation
(9) The ________ is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
(a) least count error (b) systematic error (c) parallax error (d) None
(10) The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called
(a) least count (b) accuracy (c) parallax (d) precision
(11) The length and breadth of a rectangle are 4.5mm and 5.9mm. Keeping the
number of significant figures in mind, its area in mm2 is
(a) 22.55 (b) 26.55 (c) 26.6 (d) 22
(12) The number of significant figures in 1559.00 is
(a) 6 (b)5 (c) 3 (d) 4
(13) The number 0.005900, in standard scientific form can expressed as
(a) 5.9*103 (b) 59*104 (c) 5.9*102 (d) 5.9*104
(14) The no. of significant figures in 0.0028900 is
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8
(15) What is the no. 75.66852 rounded off to 5 significant digits
(a) 75.67 (b) 75.669 (c) 75.668 (d) 75.667
(16) The length of cube is 2.3cm. What is its volume rounded off to 4 significant
digits in cm3?
(a) 12.67 (b) 12.167 (c) 12.17 (d) 13
(17) How many significant digits are there in 25.33600?
(a) 7 (b) 8 (c) 5 (d) 6
(18) The no. of significant digits in 5.002 is
(a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 6
(19) If Z= A3 then ΔZ/Z is
(a) 3(ΔA/A) (b) ΔA3/A (c) (ΔA/A)3 (d) (ΔA/A)1/3
(20) The pitch and no. of circular scale divisions in screw guage with least count
0.02mm are respectively
(a) 1mm and 50 (b) 1mm and 100 (c) 0.5mm and 50 (d) 0.5mm and 100
 Assertion Reason Questions-
In the following questions mark he correct choice as:
(a)Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is correct explanation
of Assertion (A).
(b)Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true but Reason (R) is not the correct
explanation of Assertion (A).
(c)Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
(d)Assertion (A) is false and Reason (R) is true
(1) Assertion : The error in the measurement of radius of the sphere is 0.3%.The
permissible error in its surface area is 0.6%.
Reason : The permissible error is calculated by the formula ΔA/A=4Δr/r
(2) Assertion : The number of significant figures depends on the least count of
measuring instrument.
Reason : Significant figures define the accuracy of measuring instrument.
(3) Assertion: Out of three measurements I = 0.7 m; I = 0.70 m and I = 0.700 m, the
last one is most accurate.
Reason: In every measurement, only the last significant digit is not accurately
known.
(4) Assertion: Number of significant figures in 0.005 is one and that in 0.500 is
three.
Reason: This is because zeros are not significant.
(5) Assertion: Absolute error may be negative or positive.
Reason: Absolute error is the difference between the real value and the measured
value of a physical quantity.
 Case Study-
The number of significant figures in a value can be defined as all the digits between
and including the first non-zero digit from the left, through the last digit. For
instance, 0.44 has two significant figures, and the number 66.770 has 5 significant
figures. Zeroes are significant except when used to locate the decimal point, as in the
number 0.00030, which has 2 significant figures. Zeroes may or may not be
significant for numbers like 1200, where it is not clear whether two, three, or four
significant figures are indicated. To avoid this ambiguity, such numbers should be
expressed in scientific notation to (e.g. 1.20 × 103 clearly indicates three significant
figures).When using a calculator, the display will often show many digits, only some
of which are meaningful (significant in a different sense). For example, if you want
to estimate the area of a circular playing field, you might pace off the radius to be 9
meters and use the formula: A = πr2. When you compute this area, the calculator
might report a value of 254.4690049 m2. It would be extremely misleading to
report this number as the area of the field, because it would suggest that you know
the area to an absurd degree of precision—to within a fraction of a square
millimeter! Since the radius is only known to one significant figure, the final answer
should also contain only one significant figure: Area = 3 × 102 m2.
(1) The volume of a box, 10m wide, 4.5m long and 2.3m high up to 3 significant
digits in m3 is
(a) 104 (b) 103.5 (c) 103 (d) 100
(2) How many significant digits are there in 002.5001?
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 7 (d) 6
(3)The area of a square is 5.29 cm2. The area of 7 such squares taking into account
the significant figures is:
(a) 37cm2 (b) 37.030cm2 (c) 37.03cm2 (d) 37.0cm2
(4) What is the number of significant figures in 433.00?
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
(5) Which of the following rounding off is correct?
(a) 865.78~865.7 (b) 10.2~11 (c) 325.452~325.5 (d)None
 Bibliography
 Help From Internet-
 This project would be nearly incomplete without these websites-
www.wikipedia.org
www.byjus.com
www.britannica.com
www.fluke.com
 Help From Books-
 Following books were used as a reference in completion of this project-
Physics NCERT
H.C. Verma