CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 ENERGY

Energy is required for a wide range of applications such as transportation,

industrial applications, agricultural applications, household requirements and office
applications. It can have many forms like heat energy, electrical energy, chemical
energy, nuclear energy, light energy and so on. In the pre-industrial era, fuel wood
was the major source of energy. After the discovery of steam engine, coal has
become the choice of energy source. The discovery of internal combustion engine
resulted in the use of petroleum products (petrol, diesel and natural gas) to fulfill
our energy requirements. The fossil fuel (coal, oil and gas) are either used directly
or converted to electricity and transported to be used in industries and homes.
Electrical energy is the most convenient form of energy.

Since the use of energy has become an integral part of our life, its supply
should be secured and sustainable. At the same time, it should be economical,
environmentally friendly and socially acceptable. The current trends in energy
consumption are neither secure nor sustainable.

1.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is defined as energy that comes from resources which are
naturally refilled on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves
and geothermal heat. About 16% of global final consumption comes from
renewable resources, with 10% of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used
for heating and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. While many renewable energy projects

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are large scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas,
where energy is often crucial in human development.

 Need of Renewable energy

A developing country requires more energy. Now-a-days, most of the energy

supplied by fossil fuels such as diesel, coal, petrol, and gas is 80% of our current
energy. On top of this energy demand is expected to grow by almost half over the
next two decades. Increasing demand of energy results in two main problem
climate change and energy crisis. The global energy demand increases, the energy
related greenhouse gas production increases. It is a global challenge to reduce the
CO2 emission and offer clean, sustainable and affordable energy. Renewable
energy is a good option because it gives a clean and green energy, with no CO 2
emission.

 Advantages of Renewable energy

 They are practically inexhaustible sources of energy (sun, wind, rivers,

organic matter, etc.) and contribute to reducing the dependence on
conventional energy resources, such as oil, natural gas, coal, etc.

 Renewable energy facilities generally require less maintenance than

traditional generators.

 Their fuel being derived from natural and available resources reduces the
costs of operation.

 Even more importantly, it produces little or no waste products such as CO 2

and other chemical pollutants, so has minimal impact on the environment.

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  Renewable energy projects are also bringing economic benefits to many
regional areas, as most projects are located away from large urban center and
suburbs of the capital cities.

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar power is one of the renewable energy resource that will hopefully lead
us away from coal dependent and petroleum dependent energy resource. Solar
power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical energy.
Modern technology can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including
generating electricity, providing light or a comfortable interior environment, and
heating water for domestic, commercial, or industrial use.
There are several ways to harness solar energy: photovoltaic (also called
solar electric), solar heating & cooling, concentrating solar power and passive
solar. The first three are active solar systems, which use mechanical or electrical
devices that convert the sun's heat or light to another form of usable energy.  Solar
energy is a flexible energy technology: solar power plants can be built
as distributed generation (located at or near the point of use) or as a central-station,
utility-scale solar power plant (similar to traditional power plants). Some utility-
scale solar plants can store the energy they produce for use after the sun sets. 
The major problem with PV charging systems is the energy conversion
efficiency of solar panel is poor and high cost. Solar panels themselves are quite
not efficient in their ability to convert sunlight to energy. The solar panel converts
35-45% of energy incident on into electrical energy. So our aim is how to decrease
the overall cost and energy conversion efficiency of solar panel. To store solar
energy charging system is also required to efficiently charge battery with lesser
charging time. A Maximum Power Point Tracking algorithm is required to increase
the efficiency of the solar panel.

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  Advantages of solar energy

There are plenty of excellent reasons that equate to advantages in using solar
energy. Here are some of the advantages in using solar energy.

 Solar power helps to slow/stop global warming

Global warming threatens the survival of human society, as well as
the survival of countless species. Solar power is now very clearly one of the
most important solutions to the global warming crisis.
 Solar power provides energy reliability
The rising and setting of the sun is extremely consistent. While clouds
may be a bit less predictable, we do also have fairly good seasonal and daily
projections for the amount of sunlight that will be received in different
locations. All in all, this makes solar power an extremely reliable source of
energy.
 Solar power provides energy security
Combined with the simplicity of solar panels, this also provides the
notable solar power advantage of energy security and a major reason why it
is also putting a lot of its money into the development and installation of
solar power systems.
 Low maintenance cost
Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. In
the long run, solar power is economical. Solar panels and installation involve
high initial expenses, but this cost is soon offset by savings on energy bills. 
Eventually, they may even produce a profit on their use. 

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  Accessibility of solar power in remote locations
Solar power can generate electricity no matter how remote area as
long as the sun shines there. Even in areas that are inaccessible to power
cables solar power can produce electricity.
 Technology development
Technology in the solar power industry is constantly advancing and
improvements will intensify in the future. Innovations in quantum physics
and nanotechnology can potentially increase the effectiveness of solar
panels and double, or even triple, the electrical input of the solar power
systems.
1.4 MOTIVATION

Solar energy is one source of power generation that independent away from
petroleum and coal dependent energy resource. The major problem with solar
energy is conversion efficiency poorer and high installation cost. Research going
into this area to develop the efficient control mechanism and provides better
control. So the overall installation cost of photovoltaic charging system reduces.
The challenging research work going on in this area is the motivation behind the
project.

1.5 OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this project are given as follows:

 To propose a high voltage gain power converter that incorporates less

duty cycle operation to enhance the energy conversion efficiency.
 To track maximum power from the PV module under Partially Shaded
Condition (PSC), Fuzzy logic based Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) technique is preferred.

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1.6 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

PV energy has attracted interest as a next generation energy source capable

of solving the problem of global warming and energy exhaustion caused by
increasing energy consumption. The proposed block diagram is shown in the
Figure 1.1. The output power of the solar system is affected by surrounding
condition such as irradiation and temperature. The PV panel has low efficiency.
Hence high efficiency is required for the power condition system, which transmits
the power from the PV array to the load. The converter topology integrates the PV
system with load. The proposed power converter is high gain DC-DC converter.

Figure 1.1 Block Diagram of the proposed system

This topology raises the efficiency of the PV power conditioning system and
it also minimizes switching losses by recycling the energy stored in inductor. The
resulting system has high efficiency, low cost and very fast tracking speed. Fuzzy
logic based MPPT techniques is proposed to track the maximum power under PSC.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. “A bridgeless boost rectifier for low voltage energy harvesting

applications" Wang, Haoyu, Yichao Tang, and Alireza Khaligh

In this paper, a solitary stage ac– dc control electronic converter is proposed

to effectively deal with the vitality reaped from electromagnetic smaller scale and
me so scale generators with1 low voltage yields. The proposed topology joins a lift
converter and a buck-support converter to condition the positive and negative half
parts of the info air conditioning voltage, separately. Just a single inductor and
capacitor are utilized as a part of the two hardware to diminish the measure of the
converter.

2. “A Single-Inductor Multiple-Output Switcher with Simultaneous Buck,

Boost, and Inverted Outputs”, Majid Abbasi; Ahmad Afifi; Mohamad
Reza Alizadeh Pahlavani.

The paper presented a single-inductor multiple-output switcher was

presented to produce buck, boost, and inverted outputs simultaneously.
Unfortunately, this study showed some unexpected mistakes, especially in state-
space equations and in the calculation of output voltages. The objective of this note
was to provide correct analysis and rectify the errors in this paper. Some tables and
equations have been modified that were present in the initial draft of this paper.

3. “Deadbeat Control for a Single-Inductor Multiple-Input Multiple-

Output DC–DC Converter”, Benfei Wang; Xinan Zhang; Jian Ye; Hoay
Beng Gooi.

In this paper investigate a deadbeat-based method for the single-inductor

multiple-input multiple-output (SI-MIMO) DC-DC converter. By solving the cross
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regulation problem of the SI-MIMO DC-DC converter, the proposed method is
capable of achieving the input current regulation (ICR) and the output voltage
regulation (OVR) simultaneously. Moreover, the output current observers are
adopted to replace the output current sensors, which are required by the
conventional model-based methods for DC-DC converters. The proposed control
approaches including ICR and OVR are discussed in detail.

4. “An Independently Controlled Single-PWM Multiple-Output Narrow-

Band Resonant Converter”, Daniel Thenathayalan ; Joung-Hu Park,

Here the author designed a novel DC-DC converter prototype is proposed

that can be utilized to construct independently controlled multiple-output converter
topology with a single PWM signal driving the primary inverter switches.
However, the existing converter topologies are capable of regulating outputs only
with the help of auxiliary converter circuits and additional switches. The converter
also fails to control all of the outputs independently when the converter has a
greater number of output stages than that of the peripheral switching/linear
regulators.

5. “Integrated Multiple-Output Synchronous Buck Converter for Electric

Vehicle Power Supply”, Guipeng Chen ; Yan Deng ; Jie Dong ; Yihua
Hu ; Lin Jiang ; Xiangning He.

This study proposes a novel integrated synchronous buck converter for the
auxiliary power supply system of electric vehicles, which achieves multiple
independently regulated outputs with reduced switching components in
comparison with the conventional separate buck converters. In order to obtain a
better understanding of the proposed converter, operational principle and
performance characteristics of a simplified dual-output buck converter are
introduced in detail, as an example. The analysis shows that zero-voltage-

17
switching (ZVS) operation and lower conduction losses could be attained. In
addition, its dynamic behavior is similar with the conventional buck converter and
thus the controller design is simple.

6. “Analysis, Design, and Control of Switching Capacitor Based Buck–

Boost Converter”, Mummadi Veerachary ; Vasudha Khubchandani,

This converter is low source current ripple content irrespective of its mode
of operation (buck-boost, buck, or boost). Firstly, feasible pulse width modulation
(PWM) schemes for the proposed converter are identified and thereafter the
corresponding circuit performance analysis, steady-state analysis and state-space
modeling is established. Through steady-state analysis, voltage gain expressions
are formulated and equations defining L-C components are derived in terms of
their ripple quantities. The state-space models are used to formulate small-signal
analysis and to obtain the relevant transfer functions required in the controller
design. A voltage-mode/current-mode controller is designed, with a trade-off in
bandwidth, to control the proposed converter and transit it from buck to boost
mode or vice-versa seamlessly.

7. “A Simple Smooth Transition Technique for the Non inverting Buck–

Boost Converter”, Leonardo Callegaro ; Mihai Ciobotaru ; Daniel J.
Pagano ; Eugenio Turano ; John E. Fletcher,

A new dead zone compensation technique is proposed with the scope of

smoothing the transition between operating modes, eliminating the voltage ripple
and improving the regulation performance, while maintaining high efficiency. The
converter under analysis is studied together with its gate driving circuit, which is
based on a bootstrap capacitor power supply for the high-side switches. The
proposed dead-zone compensation technique is deduced using the principle of
maintaining the ideal voltage gain function across the converter operating range.
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The technique is analyzed, implemented and tested on a purposely built PV module
integrated non-inverting buck-boost converter.

8. “A Buck and Boost Based Grid Connected PV Inverter Maximizing

Power Yield From Two PV Arrays in Mismatched Environmental
Conditions”, Subhendu Dutta, Kishore Chatterjee

As the inverter can operate in buck as well as in boost mode, depending on

the requirement, the constraint on the minimum number of serially connected solar
PV modules that is required to form a sub array is greatly reduced. As a result,
power yield from each of the sub array increases when they are exposed to
different environmental conditions. The topological configuration of the inverter
and its control strategy are designed so that the high-frequency components are not
present in the common mode voltage, thereby restricting the magnitude of the
leakage current associated with the PV arrays within the specified limit. Further,
high operating efficiency is achieved throughout its operating range. A detailed
analysis of the system leading to the development of its mathematical model is
carried out. 

9. “Adaptive control technique for suppression of resonance in grid-

connected PV inverters”, Hongsoo Goh ; Matthew Armstrong ; Bashar
Zahawi

This study proposes an adaptive control algorithm for grid-connected PV

inverters to suppress the resonance condition excited by grid inductance variation,
resulting from the dynamic changes in the operating conditions of the distribution
network. The causes of resonance between grid-connected PV inverters and the
distribution grid are discussed and the design of an active band-pass filter for
capturing resonance is described. The proportional gain within the proportional-

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integral controller is then adaptively controlled in real time to compensate for
changes in the grid impedance and suppress resonant excitation while maintaining
excellent low-order harmonic performance compared with alternative fixed gain
controller techniques, particularly for systems with high values of grid inductance.

10.“Grid Synchronization of a PV System With Power Quality

Disturbances Using Unscented Kalman Filtering”, Sudarshan Swain ;
Bidyadhar Subudhi

This paper proposes a new grid integration control scheme for a single-stage
PV system connected to a three phase grid, that implements an Unscented Kalman
Filter algorithm (UKF) to abstract the fundamental components of the PCC voltage
and load current. The dc link capacitor voltage and the PCC voltage are regulated
using a Proportional Integral (PI) controller. UKF effectively extracts the
fundamental components of the PCC voltage and the load current. The simulation
and real-time studies show that the proposed UKF-PI control scheme effectively
extracts the maximum PV power and mitigates the load current harmonics by
decreasing the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of the utility grid current. The
THD is within the limits prescribed by the IEEE 519. The performance of the
proposed scheme is verified under grid voltage sag and swell conditions. The
results obtained envisage that effective grid synchronization is achieved with
Power Quality Disturbances, i.e., the grid current is sinusoidal while the PCC
voltage is regulated by providing appropriate reactive power.

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 CHAPTER 3

SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

3.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM

A Photovoltaic (PV) system is a power system designed to supply

usable solar power by means of photo-voltaic. A photovoltaic system uses
photovoltaic cells to directly convert sunlight into electricity. The word
“photovoltaic” combines two terms – “photo” means light and “voltaic” means
voltage. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar
panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to change the
electric current from DC to AC, as well as mounting, cabling and other electrical
accessories to set up a working system.

PV system may also use a solar tracking system to improve the system's
overall performance and include an integrated battery solution, as prices for
storage devices are expected to decline. Strictly speaking, a solar array only
encompasses the ensemble of solar panels, the visible part of the PV system.

The main factors limiting their use are that they are costly and that there is
very little economy of scale associated with the magnitude of power generation in
an installation. Due to the exponential growth of photovoltaic, prices for PV
systems have rapidly declined in recent years. However, they vary by market and
the size of the system. Other benefits that can be achieved from installing PV
systems in domestic buildings are listed below:

 Solar energy generates no carbon dioxide or other heat-trapping gases that

contribute to climate change helping to make your home a green
environment, therefore helping to protect our planet for future generations.

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  It produces none of the other harmful emissions or wastes associated with
coal power, such as mercury, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, lead, and
arsenic.
 Home will be protected from rising fuel costs as generating own electricity. 
 Solar energy does not depend on electricity grids and fuels.  It is the ideal
source for a largely private, local, ecological and just electricity supply
which is available anywhere.

3.2 PV HIERARCHY

The PV system typically consists of following basic components. They are,

 PV cell also called a solar cell. Electricity is generated by solar cells.

 Individual solar cells are grouped together into a PV “panel” or
“module”.
 Then, several solar modules are grouped together to form a PV array.

The Figure 3.2.1 shows the PV cell, Panel (Module) and Array. An example
of a PV / Solar Cell made of Mono-crystalline Silicon.

Figure 3.2.1 PV cell, Panel (Module) and Array

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3.2.1 PV Cell

A photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a semiconductor device that

converts light to electrical energy by photovoltaic effect. If the energy of photon of
light is greater than the band gap then the electron is emitted and the flow of
electrons creates current. However a photovoltaic cell is different from a
photodiode. In a photodiode light falls on n-charnel of the semiconductor junction
and gets converted into current or voltage signal but a photovoltaic cell is always
forward biased.

The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at

turning sunlight into electricity. Only sunlight of certain energies will work
efficiently to create electricity, and much of it is reflected or absorbed by the
materials that make up the cell. Because of this, a typical commercial solar cell has
an efficiency of 15%-about one-sixth of the sunlight striking the cell generates
electricity.

A typical silicon PV cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-

thin layer of phosphorus-doped (N-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron-
doped (P-type) silicon. When sunlight strikes the surface of a PV cell, this
electrical field provides momentum and direction to light-stimulated electrons,
resulting in a flow of current when the solar cell is connected to an electrical load.
This process of converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the
photovoltaic (PV) effect.

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 Figure 3.2.1.1 working of PV cell

3.2.2 PV Module

Due to the low voltage generated in a PV cell (around 0.5V), several PV

cells are connected in series (for high voltage) and in parallel (for high current) to
form a PV module (Panel) for desired output. For example, a 12 V Module will
have 36 cells connected in series and a 24 V Module will have 72 PV Cells
connected in series. Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and
parallel to meet the energy requirements. For example, a typical small scale
desalination plant requires a few thousand watts of power. The output power is
given in WP (Watt peak), which means the module was rated at Standard Test
Conditions (STC). The STC are an illumination level of 1000W/m2, 25oC module
temperature at the test.

3.2.3 PV array

To achieve the desired voltage and current, Modules are wired in series and
parallel into what is called a PV Array. Therefore, (Partially Shaded Condition)
PSC is sometimes inevitable because some parts of the module may receive less
intensity of sunlight due to clouds or shadows of trees, buildings, and other

24
neighboring objects. PSC can have significant impact on the power output of PV
generating system, depending in the system configuration, shading pattern, and the
bypass diodes incorporated in the PV modules. The resulting P-V characteristic
curve becomes more complex and exhibits multiple peaks. While designing a PV
array, bypass diodes and blocking diodes are used.

3.2.4 Functioning of bypass and blocking diodes

PV / Solar cells are wired in series and in parallel to form a PV / Solar

Module. If many cells are connected in series, shading of individual cells can lead
to the destruction of the shaded cell, so the Module may blister and burst. To avoid
such an operational condition, Bypass Diodes are connected anti-parallel to the
solar cells as shown in the Figure 3.2.4.1

Figure 3.2.4.1 functioning of bypass and blocking diodes

Bypass diodes also allow current to flow through the PV module when it is
partially shaded, even if at a reduced voltage and power. In a parallel connection
blocking diodes are connected in series with each series string of modules, so that
if any string fails, the power output of the remaining series strings will not be
absorbed by the failed string.

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3.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF PV SYSTEM

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create

a model which is electrically equivalent. An ideal solar cell may be modeled by a
current source in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so
a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the model. The
simplified equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown in figure 3.3.1

Figure 3.3.1 Equivalent circuit of a practical PV cell

From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell
is given by,

… (3.1)

Where,

ID = Diode current (A),

IPH = Photo current (A),

ISH = Shunt current (A).

By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is given by,

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 …(3.2)

…(3.3)

Where,

K = Boltzmann’s constant (1.3806503e-23 J/K), T = Ambient Temperature (K),

q = Electron charge (1.6021764e-19 C), n = Diode constant

…(3.4)

Isc,n = Nominal short circuit current (A), Voc,n = Nominal open circuit voltage (V)

The photocurrent is given by,

…(3.5)

Where,

Ki = Short circuit/temperature coefficient (A/K), G = Actual sun radiation (W/m2),

Gn = Nominal sun radiation (W/m2), IPH,n = Nominal photocurrent (A)

Table 3.1 Manufacturer datasheet of PV panel

Parameters Symbol Ratings

Maximum Power P max 10 W
Voltage at P max Vmp 18 V
Current at P max Imp 0.55 A
Short circuit current Isc,n 0.61 A
Open circuit voltage Voc,n 22.1 V

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3.4 PARTIAL SHADING OF SOLAR PANEL:

In sunlight, each solar cell in an array acts as a little electron pump, pushing
electrons from one side of the cell to the other, and giving a voltage boost
to the system as they do so.

Fig. 3.4.(a) Partially shaded solar cell, (b) Bypass diode connected in parallel
with the Solar cell, (c) the P-V peaks consisting of GMPP and LMPPs.

A single cell isn't very powerful though, so in order to get a useful voltage, you
need to put quite a number of cells in series. The output of one cell becomes the
input to the next cell. When a cell is shaded, the number of electrons it can pump
from one side to the other drops. The shaded solar cell is shown in Fig.3.4 (a).
That, in it, wouldn't be too bad you might think -you would just lose out by

28
the power output of one cell. But unfortunately, because it is not pumping
so many electrons up to its neighbor now, it limits the number of electrons that
the neighbor can pump too. Same for the next cell in the line and the next, and so
on.

The other cells can manage to force some extra electrons through the
badly performing cell, so it's not quite the case that the whole system
performs as poorly as the worst-performing cell in the string-but it's not all
that far off. You might easily see a 50% loss in power from a string of solar cells if
just a single cell is shaded. Fortunately, we can help to some extent by fitting
bypass diodes to solar panels. Bypass diodes are fitted in parallel with a string of
PV cells, and they do exactly what they say on the tin -they allow current to bypass
a poorly performing set of cells. By-pass diodes come into play as shown in the
Fig.3.4 (b). Now, if one panel is shaded, the current produced by the un-
shaded panel can flow through a by-pass diode to avoid the high resistance
of the shaded panel. By-pass diodes will not be of use unless panels are connected
in series to produce a higher voltage. They are most likely to be of benefit
where an MPPT Controller or String Inverter involves panels connected in
series to produce voltages well above that items minimum input voltage.
Some solar panels are constructed with the cells divided into groups, each
group having a built-in by-pass diode. Shading of part of a panel may be caused by
a tree branch, debris, or snow. So, in P-V curve we do not get a unique maximum
power point (MPP) but receive several local peaks and one MPPT. The P-V
curve shown in Fig. 3.4(c) depicts the multiple maxima during partial shading
condition.

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 CHAPTER 4

MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF PROPOSED HIGH GAIN DC-DC

CONVERTER

4.1 PROBLEMS IN CONVENTIONAL DC-DC BOOST CONVERTER

On the PV source side, a dc–dc converter with a high voltage gain is
necessary for converting the low PV panel voltage into the high dc-link voltage.
There are many high-gain converter topologies were analyzed. The conventional
boost converter is not adequate in such applications because the high output
voltage demands high value for the duty cycle, which, on the other hand, leads the
main switch to remain turned on for long time intervals in the switching period.
Since the current through the diode is high, serious drawbacks concerning the
reverse recovery phenomenon exist. The connection of several boost converters in
cascade would be a possible solution, although increased complexity and reduced
efficiency are serious drawbacks. Achieving high gain requires more number of
components that result in reduced converter efficiency. A conventional family of
dc–dc converters using the 3SSC (Single Switch Capacitor) and voltage multiplier
cells (VMCs), whereas significant advances have been achieved in terms of
reduced voltage stress across the main switches, reduced input ripple current,
minimization of size, weight, and volume associated to magnetic, reduced
switching losses, and high efficiency over the entire load range. However, the
reduced useful life of series capacitors and high-component count can be pointed
out as drawbacks. When several VMCs are adopted, conduction losses in the
multiplier diodes are also of major concern. In the phase-shifted full-bridge can
achieve a high step-up gain by increasing the turn’s ratio of the transformer.
However, more input electrolytic capacitors are required to suppress the large input
current ripple and the output-diode voltage stress is much higher than the output

30
voltage. The passive lossless three-level boost converter is another alternative for
achieving higher gains. However, the voltage stress or current stress of the power
devices increases. In order to overcome the problems mentioned above, a novel
high gain DC-DC converter is proposed.
4.2 PROPOSED HIGH GAIN DC-DC CONVERTER

In order to integrate the low-voltage PV panels to the distribution system,

the output voltage of the intermediate dc–dc converter should be high enough to
generate the required dc-link voltage. Hence, a dc–dc converter with a high-voltage
gain is necessary. The use of novel high gain DC-DC converter in the dc/dc energy
conversion stage in a renewable energy generation system provides many
advantages, such as a low cost, high power density, low-duty cycle operation.
These characteristics, as wells as the fact that the novel high gain power converter
has only a single active power switch, cause the novel power converter to have a
very simple structure, low switching losses, a small volume, and a low weight.
Compared to the converter topologies mentioned before, the proposed converter
has the following features:
 It provides higher voltage gains.
 It does not employ VMCs and, hence, is less complex.
 It avoids the converter operation at extreme duty cycles.
 Though the converter switching stresses are more, low-duty cycle
operation results in moderate efficiency.
4.2.1 Circuit description for novel high gain DC-DC converter

The aim of this work is to construct a power electronics converter that can
be implemented in the renewable energy generation systems. The figure 4.2.1.1
shows a basic circuit diagram of the proposed novel single switch high gain DC-
DC converter for renewable energy generation applications.

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 Figure 4.2.1.1 Novel high gain DC-DC Converter

The configuration comprises of four diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4), five capacitors (C1,
C2, C3, C4, C5), two inductors (L1, L2), a single power switch Q (MOSFET) and
a resistive load. These elements are arranged in topology as shown in
Figure.4.2.1.1 which provides a high Voltage gain ratio step-up converter with
continuous input and Output powers.

4.2.2 Operating principles of high gain DC – DC converter

The key waveforms for each mode of the proposed converter are shown in
figure 4.2.2.1 One switching cycle is divided into 4 modes, which are described
as follows,

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 Figure 4.2.2.1 Steady state operating waveforms of high gain DC – DC
Converter in one switching period

4.2.3 Modes of operation of the proposed converter

Mode 1 [0≤ t≤t1]: In this period of time, the main power switch Q is turned ON.
The input current starts to magnetize the Inductor L1. The diodes D3 and D4 are
turned off. The voltages Across the C2 stands as equal to the diode D1 inversely
and turn it off. A current flow through C2, D2, C1 and Q which transmits a part of
energy stored in C2 to C1. This process continues until the voltage of the
capacitors C1, C2 is equal. At this time, t1, D2Turns off.

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 Figure 4.2.3.1 Mode I configuration

Mode 2 [t1≤t≤t2]: All diodes are OFF during this time interval. The inductor L1 is
still charging. The capacitors C1, C3 and C4 feed the output load. Therefore,
during this time interval, C3 andC4 discharges and C1 charges while the voltage of
the C2remained unchanged.

Figure 4.2.3.2 Mode II configuration

Mode 3 [t2≤ t≤t3]: The power switch Q, the diodes D3 and D4 turn. OFF at t2. So,
the output load is fed by the capacitors C3 and C4. The current path of the input
inductor changes and starts to demagnetize it. Two paths exist for this current. The
first path Is through the C2 and D1 and the second is provided by the Capacitors
C1 and C3. According to the voltage across diode D1, the second path is chosen.
This current discharges C1. Since the Voltage of the C2 does not change in this
period, the reverse Voltage for D2 decreases. This process continues until it (the
Voltage of D2) falls to zero at t3.
34
 Figure 4.2.3.3 Mode III configuration

Mode 4 [t3≤ t≤t4]: In this time interval, the condition of power Switch, the diodes
D2, D3 and D4 remain unchanged while D1Turns ON. Hence, part of the current
of L1 passes thought C2 and D1. Hereinafter, C1 discharges while C2, C3 and C4
charges. This Process continues till the power switch turns ON. The Equivalent
circuit and the current paths for each state are shown

Figure 4.2.3.4Mode IV configuration

4.2.4 Designing of proposed converter

35
 To calculate the voltage for all capacitors, the equations are solved. The
results are given by:

… (4.1)

... (4.2)

Therefore, the ratio of output to input voltage for the proposed converter in
continuous conduction mode (CCM) is extracted by the help of the equations
which can be written a follows:

… (4.3)

Where D, Vo, and Vin are the duty cycle, average output voltage, and input voltage,
respectively. The steady-state voltage gain of the proposed high-gain PV converter
is plotted against duty cycle with inductor and capacitor parasitic elements (rsL1 ,
rsL2 , rL1 = 0.1Ω and rc1 , rco = 0.15Ω).

36
The voltage gain of this converter is compared with conventional boost converter
as shown in Table 4.1 and plotted as a graph as shown in Figure 4.2.4.1

Table 4.1: Comparison of different converters

Figure 4.2.4.1 Steady state Voltage gain versus duty ratio of different
converters

37
 It is clear from Figure 4.3.4.1 that, for a given duty cycle, the proposed high-
gain converter topology provides higher gain when compared to other topologies.
The on resistance of the power switch and the primary winding of the coupled
inductor result much conduction loss for the low input power source of the
proposed converter.

Table 4.2 Design parameters of proposed high gain DC-DC converter

Therefore, the maximum operating duty ratio is selected as a reasonable duty

ratio for the high-current issue in this design. The maximum duty ratio is selected
nearly 0.5. The table 4.2 shows the design parameters for the proposed high gain
DC – DC converter.

38
 CHAPTER 5

INTERFACING OF PV ARRAY WITH PROPOSED CONVERTER

5.1 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT) CONTROL

5.1.1 An overview of MPPT Control

A typical solar panel converts only 30 – 40% of the incident solar irradiation
into electrical energy. Maximum paver point trading technique is used to improve
the efficiency of the solar panel. In the source side we are using a high gain
convertor connected to a solar panel in order to enhance the output voltage so that
it can be used for different applications. By changing the duty cycle of the high
gain converter appropriately we can match the source impedance with that of the
load impedance.

5.1.2 Classification of MPPT control techniques

Figure 5.1.2.1 Classification of MPPT control techniques

39
 There are different ways of classifying MPPT techniques, some based on the
number of variables used to track MPP like one variable or two variable methods,
and some based on the type of techniques used to track MPP.

Offline control techniques usually use technical data of PV panels to

estimate the MPP. These data includes prior information like, I-V and P-V curves
of the panels for different climatic conditions, different mathematical models etc of
PV panels. Online (direct) methods on the other hand use real time, PV voltages
are/or current measurements for tracking MPP. These methods do not require the
measurement of temperature and solar irradiance and also the PV array model. The
off line methods are cost effective but performance wise less effective than online
and other methods. Other methods include either modification or combination of
these methods or methods based on indirect calculations.

5.1.3 Description of different MPPT techniques

There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few
of the most popular techniques are:

 Fractional short circuit current

 Fractional open circuit voltage
 Perturb and observe (hill climbing) method
 Incremental Conductance method
 Improved Incremental Conductance method
 Neural networks
 Fuzzy logic

40
5.2 FUZZY BASED MPPT

Fuzzy logic based intelligent MPPTs have been gained more attention
because of their capability to handle nonlinearity associated with the system. Due
to lack of precise modeling of PV modules and uncertainty in the performance of
PV system due to varying irradiance and temperature, the fuzzy MPPT (FMPPT)
is found to be more suitable for tracking of MPP than conventional algorithms in
PV Systems. FMPPT can deal with uncertainty such as un-modeled physical
quantities, nonlinearity and unpredictable changes in operating point of the PV
system. This MPPT technique enhances the choice of the variable step size of the
duty cycle and therefore improves the performances of photovoltaic system. The
concept of this algorithm is to compute the variable step according to the slope
value of Power-Voltage characteristic for photovoltaic module. Then, it provides
the appropriate value of duty cycle.

Figure 5.2.1 Flowchart for I&C algorithm

41
 The fuzzy controller consists of three functional blocks namely fuzzification,
rule inference and defuzzification . In the proposed system, the input variables of
the FLC are error (e) and the change in error (ce) whereas the output of FLC is
change in duty cycle. Design considerations and effectiveness of the fuzzy MPPT
algorithm depend on the selected input and the output variable selected. The output
variable of the FMPPT algorithm is usually duty ratio command for adjusting the
operating point of the PV module in order to maximize the power output. The most
commonly used input variables for FMPPT are slope of P-V curve of the PV
module and changes in this slope. Since slope vanishes at the MPP, the both inputs
can be calculated as follows: e(k)=Ppv(k)−Ppv(k−1)Vpv(k)−Vpv(k−1) ce=e(k)
−e(k−1) Where, Ppv and Vpv represent the power and voltage in P-V curve
respectively.

In fuzzification process, input variables e & ce and output variable Δd are

converted into linguistic variables by assigning values of membership function.
These variables are expressed in different fuzzy levels: NB (negative big), NS
(negative small), ZE (zero), PS (positive small), PB (positive big). In this work
triangular membership functions are considered which presumes that for any
particular input there is only one dominant fuzzy subset. The membership
functions for e, ce and Δd are shown in Figure. Modeling of FMPPT depends upon
heuristic defining rules and fuzzy rule base is a combination of if-then rules that
are used for fuzzified inputs. Fuzzy rules are found based on experimental
knowledge about the problem or characteristics of PV system. The number of the
rules depends upon the number of linguistic variables in input Membership
functions. In this study, the fuzzy rules include 25 fuzzy control rules. Fuzzy
inference system performs composition operation that formulates a logical decision

42
based on fuzzy rules by which a control output is generated. Mamdani fuzzy
inference method has been used in this work with Max-Min composition operation.
According to Figure , the fuzzy rule database is divided into three regions.

43
 Figure 5.2.2 Membership function of e, ce and Δd.

Region-1

• The slope of PV curve i.e. e(k) is negative in this region. This indicates that
the operating point of the PV module is located right side of MPP and the duty
ratio should be increased in order to track the MPP. The ce(k) is used to determine
magnitude of duty cycle to be increased.

• If e(k) is NS and ce(k) is positive, it will mean that the operating point is
approaching MPP from the right side. So at this time the output is set to ZE in

44
order to prevent the system from oscillation. Figure P-V curve of PV module
indicating different regions for fuzzy rule set.

e∖ce NB NS ZE PS PB
NB ZE PB PB PB PB
NS PB PS PS ZE ZE
ZE PS ZE ZE ZE NS
PS ZE ZE NS NS NB
PB PB ZE NS NB ZE
Table 5.1 Control rule base of FMPPT

Region-2

• In this region e(k) is ZE which indicates that the operating point is close to
MPP. Hence the principle should be to maintain same duty ratio under such
conditions.

• If ce(k) is NB, the operating point is approaching the MPP from the left
side. So the duty ratio is decreased. In order to prevent the operating point from
moving to right side of MPP, the control rule should be PS to suppress the change
of magnitude of duty cycle to opposite direction.

Region-3

• When e(k) is positive, the operating point is located on the left side of the
MPP. So the duty cycle should be decreased. The ce(k) is used to determine the
magnitude of duty ratio to be decreased.

• When ce(k) is negative at this point, the operating point is approaching the
MPP from the left side. At this time, the controller should set the output to ZE in

45
order to prevent reduction in duty cycle and oscillation of the system around the
operating point.

The output of FLC is a change in the duty cycle of the DC-DC converter.
The process of defuzzification converts linguistic value of output into a crisp
output value. The input to defuzzification process is an aggregated output fuzzy set
and the output is a single number. Many defuzzification techniques have been
proposed in the literature. The most commonly used method is the Center of
Gravity (COG) or centroid defuzzification method. In this method, the defuzzifier
determines the center of gravity (centroid) and uses that value as the output of
FLC. For a continuous aggregated fuzzy set, the centroid is given by:
Δd=∑i=1nWiΔdi∑i=1nWi

Where, Δd is a crisp value, Wi is the weighting factor and Δd is a value

corresponding to the membership function of Δd The output of FLC is the change
in duty cycle (Δd) and is expressed as d(k)=d(k−1)+s.Δd

Where, s is the output scaling factor of fuzzy MPPT controller.

CHAPTER 6

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the prototype of the proposed high gain DC-DC converter is
fabricated as per the model, and the results are analyzed and discussed to confirm
the feasibility of the converter.

46
 Figure 6.1 Block Diagram representation for closed loop system

Figure 6.1 is the block diagram that describes the hardware development for
controller circuit. Closed-loop systems are designed to automatically achieve and
maintain the desired output condition by comparing it with the actual condition. It
does this by generating an error signal which is the difference between the output
and the reference input. The proposed high gain DC-DC converter is implemented
in hardware for the closed loop with the specifications. The PWM signal required
for switching of converter is done through the PIC microcontroller.

6.1.1 Components required

 Solar panel

 Microcontroller

 Driver circuit

 IRF840 MOSFET

47
6.1.1.1 Solar Panel - 10W 12Volts 36-cell Solar Panel (41 x 30 cm)

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate

electricity through the photovoltaic effect.

Figure 6.1.1.1 Solar panel

The features of 10W panel are

 12 volt 10-watt polycrystalline solar panel USB charging.

 High conversion speed, high-efficiency output.
 Excellent low light effect.
 High transmittance tempered glass.
 A unique technique to prevent water frozen within the deforming
framework.
 Small Epoxy Solar Panels are simple to install or add to your existing
product.

6.1.1.2 Microcontroller

48
  Microcontroller: DSPIC30F2010-20I/SP
 Manufacturer: Microchip

 Main Crystal: 7.372MHz

 Speed: 29.4912MHz

 Processor Language: PIC

The DSPIC family of Digital Signal Controllers features a fully-

implemented digital signal processor (DSP) engine, 30 MIPS non-pipelined
performance, C compiler friendly design, and a familiar Microcontroller
architecture and design environment. The 20 new dsPIC30F2010 devices form
three product families targeting motor control and power conversion, sensor, and
general-purpose applications. The pin configuration of PIC controller is shown in
Figure 6.1.1.2.

Figure 6.1.1.2 DSPIC 30F2010 Pin Configurations

49
6.1.1.3 Driver circuit

Gate driver circuit is circuit integral part of power electronics converters

which is used to drive power semiconductor devices like BJT’s , IGBT’s and
MOSFETs. Output of DC-DC converters mainly depend on behavior of gate driver
circuits. Therefore design of gate driver circuit is critically important in designing
of power electronics converters.

Fig 6.1.1.3.1 TLP 250

The TOSHIBA TLP250 consists of a GaAlAs light emitting diode and a

integrated photo detector. This unit is 8-lead DIP package. TLP250 is suitable for
gate driving circuit of IGBT or power MOSFET.

• Input threshold current: 5mA(max)

• Supply current : 11mA(max)

• Supply voltage : 10-35V

• Output current : ±1.5A (max)

• Switching time (tpLH/tpHL): 0.5μs(max)

• Isolation voltage: 2500Vrms(min)

50
 Figure 6.1.1.3.2 Pin Configurations

The function of Opto Coupler is isolate to the control circuit from power
circuit. Pulse width modulation signal (PWM 1 to PWM 12) comes from DSPIC
Processor. This signal is not directly fed through a power circuit. Suppose Control
Circuit (DSPIC) is connected to power circuit without isolation circuit, the control
circuit may get affected. So we need to isolation circuit interface between power
circuit and control circuit

6.1.1.4 IRF840 MOSFET

IRF840 is rated for 8A, 500A, 0.850 ohm, n-channel power mosfet this n-
channel enhancement mode silicon gate power field effect transistor is an advanced
power mosfet designed, tested, and guaranteed to withstand a specified level of
energy in the breakdown avalanche mode of operation.
51
 Figure 6.1.1.4 IRF840 MOSFET

All of these power mosfets are designed for applications such as switching
regulators, switching converters, motor drivers, relay drivers, and drivers for high
power bipolar switching transistors requiring high speed and low gate drive power.
These types can be operated directly from integrated circuits. Formerly
developmental type ta17425.

6.1.1.5 Regulated power supply

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or

system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or
group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. Power supplies for
electronic devices can be broadly divided into linear and switching power
supplies. The linear supply is a relatively simple design that becomes
increasingly bulky and heavy for high current devices; voltage regulation in a
linear supply can result in low efficiency. A switched-mode supply of the
same rating as a linear supply will be smaller, is usually more efficient, but
will be more complex.

52
 Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service
shop test equipment, allowing the output voltage to be set over a wide range.
For example, a bench power supply used by circuit designers may be
adjustable up to 30 volts and up to 5 amperes output. Some can be driven by
an external signal, for example, for applications requiring a pulsed output.

6.1.2 Hardware circuit description

The complete closed loop of high gain DC-DC converter with resistive load
is developed as hardware in real time as shown in Figure 6.1.2. The experimental
setup consisting of input from regulated power supplies, high gain DC-DC
converter circuit, multi-meter.

53
Figure 6.1.2 Hardware implementation of closed loop of high gain DC-DC
converter

The work bench consists of High gain DC-DC converter circuit,

microcontroller circuit, opto-coupler circuit, current probe for measuring current,
signal generator and load. The expected output is regulated to 58.4 volts in
hardware. The Table 6.3 describes the hardware results of the proposed converter
in closed loop.

S.No Duty Vin (V) Iin(A) Vo(V) Io(A) η (%)

54
 cycle (%)

1 50 12 0.82 58.4 0.1626 96.44

Table 6.1 Hardware results of High gain DC-DC converter for closed loop

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

In this research paper, a novel high gain DC-DC power converter circuit has
been investigated for PV system under different operating conditions by employing
IIC algorithm based MPPT scheme using Matlab-simulink environment. The
voltage gain characteristics have been studied for various duty cycles. The

55
obtained result shows that, for the same duty cycle the voltage gain of this
converter is high as compared to the conventional boost converter. This converter
topology promotes high gain for photovoltaic applications and it increases the
voltage without using high frequency transformer also which reduces the switching
losses. The complete system has been designed and simulated in MATLAB which
resulted in an efficiency of 93%. Moreover, the power converter interfaced with
the PV system are analyzed by employing I&C and IIC techniques and the
simulated results showed that, the IIC MPPT provides better tracking and extracts
significant amount of solar energy from a PV module than I&C algorithm under all
operating conditions. The standalone PV system is also studied along with Lead
acid battery for storage purpose and it is used during low irradiation, night times.

To validate the proposed converter capability and to prove the performance

parameters obtained with simulation, a experimental prototype of proposed
converter is designed. The hardware prototype of the proposed system uses DC
source as the input and resistive load as the output which conserves the power. A
laboratory prototype board has been built and experimentally tested for the input
voltage ranging from 15V-30V. Hardware implemented results almost agree with
simulated results. For the specified input variation, a regulated dc output voltage of
114V has been obtained resulting in an efficiency of 94.42%.

CHAPTER 8

REFERENCES

[1] Wang, Haoyu, Yichao Tang, and Alireza Khaligh. "A bridgeless boost
rectifier for low voltage energy harvesting applications." IEEE transactions
on power electronics 28, no. 11 (2013): 5206-5214.
56
[2] Majid Abbasi ; Ahmad Afifi ; Mohamad Reza Alizadeh Pahlavani, 2019,
“Comments on “A Single-Inductor Multiple-Output Switcher With
Simultaneous Buck, Boost, and Inverted Outputs”, IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 1980 – 1984.

[3] Benfei Wang; Xinan Zhang; Jian Ye; Hoay Beng Gooi, 2019, “Deadbeat
Control for a Single-Inductor Multiple-Input Multiple-Output DC–DC
Converter”, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 34, no. 2, pp.
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[4] Daniel Thenathayalan; Joung-Hu Park, 2018, “An Independently Controlled

Single-PWM Multiple-Output Narrow-Band Resonant Converter”, IEEE
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[5] Guipeng Chen ; Yan Deng ; Jie Dong ; Yihua Hu ; Lin Jiang ; Xiangning
He, 2017, “Integrated Multiple-Output Synchronous Buck Converter for
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[6] Mummadi Veerachary; Vasudha Khubchandani, 2019, “Analysis, Design,

and Control of Switching Capacitor Based Buck–Boost Converter”, IEEE
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[7] Leonardo Callegaro ; Mihai Ciobotaru ; Daniel J. Pagano ; Eugenio Turano ;

John E. Fletcher, Year: 2018, “A Simple Smooth Transition Technique for
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[8] Subhendu Dutta ; Kishore Chatterjee , A Buck and Boost Based Grid
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 Mismatched Environmental Conditions, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
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[9] Hongsoo Goh ; Matthew Armstrong ; Bashar Zahawi, ”Adaptive control

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July 2019.

CHAPTER 9

APPENDICES

58
APPENDIX II

59
60
61
APPENDIX.III

62
63
APPENDIX IV

64
65
APPENDIX V

66
67