Divisibility Theory and

Canonical DecompositionsS 3
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,..,
These numbers are also known as the natural considered to be man's first mathematical creation.
n, are
...

numbers or positive integers. The theory of numbers

is that branch of mathematics, which deals
with the properties of natural numbers. Once
time number theory was considered as the upon a
purest of pure mathematics because it had no
applications. But today modern technology has brought a new dimension to the power ofpracticanumber
theory with many areas of applications such as art,
In this chapter we study the basic
coding theory, cryptography computer science etc.
concepts of elementary numbers theory such as divisibility,
greatest common divisor, prime and composite numbers, division algorithm, fundamental theorem of
arithmetic, least common multiple and related results.
Usual Notations
. The set of natural numbers
N= {1,2,3,
4,.
where N is the first letter of the word Natural.
2. The set of integers
Z={.,-3, -2, -1,0, 1, 2, 3,..
where Z is the first letter ofthe word Zahlen', means number in German.
Now we state some important properties of natural numbers which will be used in proofs of
results.

3.1 THE PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

1. First Principle of Induction:
Let p(n) be a proposition corresponding to positive integersn satisfying the following conditions:
(i) p(n) is true for some integer no
is also true. Then p(n) is true for all
(ii) Ifp(k) is true for an arbitrary integer k > ng, then p(k 1)
+

integers n 2 no
Induction:
2. Second Principle of Induction or Strong Principle of
Let p{n) be a proposition corresponding to positive integers satisfying
n the following conditions:
) p(n) is true for some integer no
k
(i) If the proposition is true for all integers upto (> no).
1) is
2),. p(k) are true, then p(k
+ true.
i.e., if plng+ 1).p(n% +
Then p(n) is true for all integers n 2 ng

Note induction. or 2
be 1 or 3,..
. In both the principles (i) is called the basis for
condition n may
is called
p(n) is the basis step. The assumption in condition (ii)
The verification of the truth of inductive or induction step.
step
is true is the
the induction hypothesis. Verification of p(k+ 1)
3.2 Algebra and Number Theory

Theoretically, both the principles:

2. The two principles differonly in the induction hypothesis. that
are
there are proposition
is in the sense
equivalent. But in practice the second principle stronger
All those propositions for which first principle
for which only the second principle is applicable.
also.
is applicable, we can apply the second principle
3. Sometimes, if the proposition p(n) is true for
n 0, we take no 0.
=
=

numbers W= {0, 1, 2, 3,...} rather than N.

In computer service, we use the set whole
of
3.1.1 The Well-ordering Principle
least number.
Every non empty set of positive integers has
a

Note
1. The well ordering principle can be extended to the set of non negative integers and also to the set
of integers 2 k for some integer k.
2. The well-ordering principle is logically equivalent to the principle of induction.

3.1.2 Pigeon Hole Principle

If m pigeons are assigned to n pigeon holes, where m > n, then at least two pigeons must occupy the
same pigeon hole.
The pigeon hole principle is also known as Dirichlet box principle because the German
mathematician Dirichlet used it in number theory.

3.2 DIVISIBILITY THEORY AND DIVISION ALGORITHM

Definitlon 3.1 Divisibility

Let a be Z. we say b divides a and write bla ifa = be for some integer c.
We also say that b is a factor of a or b is a divisor of a or a is a multiple of b.
Ifb does not divide a, we write ba.
Divisibility gives a relation between two integers with the following properties

Theorem 3.1 Ifa,b,ce Z, then

(i) ala va+0eZ(reflectivity)
) alband bjc > alc Va, b * 0, c #0eZ (transitively)
(ii) alb a|bc,Va + 0, beZ

(iv) a|b and a |e a|xb+ ye Vx,y¬ Z, a*0e Z (linearity)

Proof
G) If a* 0, ala (: a=a-1)
(i) alb b=4q aand ble c=42 b
where a 0, b#0 in Z, 41. 92 are some integers
:.c= 92(91a) =(9241)a alc.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.3

(ii) a lb b=qja
be
(q,a)c q, (ac)
=
= =
qi (ca) =
(4©)a
a lbc vb e Z.
(iv) ab= b=qa and a c C=424
for some integers q and g, e Z

xb+ yc =
x(ga)+ y42a)
=
(xg, )a +g2)a
=
(xq1 + yq2 )a; xgi + yg2 is an integer
a
| xb+ ye
Note xb + yc is called a linear combination of b and c.
If x= 1,y= 1, alb+c and ifx =1,y=-1, a|b- c.
Next we shall see the division algorithm as an application of well-ordering principle.
Theorem 3.2 The division algorithm.
Let a be any
integer and b be a positive integer.
Then there exist unique integers q and r such that a=qb+r, where 0 S r<b.

Proof First we prove existence and then uniqueness.

Existence is usually proved by suitable construction.
Consider the set S = {a-nb|ne Z,a-nb 20
Clearly S W.
Given a is any integer. Then a <<0 or a 2 0.
Ifa2 0, then a = a - 0 b e Sand so a e S.

Hence Sis non-empty.

Now let a <0.
Since b is a positive integer, b 21.
Multiplying by a, we get ab Sa

- ab 2-a [as a < 0, in equality will reverse]

a - a b 2 a - a=0
a -ab e S Sis non empty

So, we find S is non-empty if a20 or a <0.

Since S is a set of non-negative integers (by its construction), by well-ordering principle S contains
a least integer r.
Asre S, we can find an integer q such that

r=a-q b, where r2 0.

Weshall now prover<b.

We prove by contradiction.
 3.4 Algebra and Number Theory

Supposer2b, then r- b 20 and hencer- beS.

Since r20 and b> 0, r- b<r.
(as the least number in S)
Now r-be Sandr-b<r, which contradicts the choice ofr
r<b

Thus there exist integers q and r such that

a=qb +r, 0Sr<b (1)

We now prove the uniqueness.
a =4 b+ r 0Sr<b
Suppose we also have
Then qb+r=4bt'
q-91) b=r - r

blr-r
I f r - r *0, then b |r-7, which is a contradiction (-d<b)
r-r=0 n=r
Hence (q-41)b=0 g - 4 1 =0 (b>0)

the expression a =qb +r, 0 ar<bis unique, which is the division algorithm.

Note In the expression a = qb +r, OSr<b.

q is called the quotient and r is called the remainder.

Ifr= 0, then a = q b bla.
i.e., ifr =0, then b is a factor ofa.
Though the theorem is called division algorithm, it does not give an algorithm
i.e., a sequence of steps that leads to the answer) to find q and r.
We find q and r by using the usual long division method.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find q and r when
(i) 207 is divided by 15
(i) -23 is divided by 5. 13
15) 207
Solution.
G) We have 207 13(15) + 12, 0< 12< 15 15
57
g= 13 and r= 12.
45
(ii) We have -23-5(5)+2, 0<2<5
12
q=-5 and r = 2.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.5

EXAMPLE 2

Let b be an integer 22. Suppose b + 1 integers are randomly selected prove that the difference
of two of them is divisible by b.
IAU 2013]
Solution.
Given b is an integer2 2.
We know, when an integer a is divided by b, we have the division algorithm a =q b+r,0Sr<b.
Given b+1 integers are selected
randomly.
When they are divided by b, we get b + 1 remainders
(pigeons).
But there are only b possible remainders
(pigeon holes).
So, by pigeon hole principle two of the remainders must be
equal and equal to r.
Let x and y be the numbers among the b + 1 numbers with remainder r when x and y are
divided by b.
Then x =g,b+rand y =q, b+r

X-y91b-42b=(4 -42)b
blx-y
Hence the result.
We now recall some simple functions which are frequently used in our discussion.

Definition 3.2 For any real number x,

1. Absolute value or modulus function

Jx if x20
-rif x<0o
2. Greatest integer function
=the greatest integer Sx.
In computer science the greatest integer function is called floor function and is denoted
by Lx.
3. The |x|
ceiling function is the least
integer2x.
Forexample, |-3.4] = the greatest integer -3.4 is4

-3.4= the least integer 2-3.4 is -3

3.4]= the leastinteger2 3.4 is 4
3.4=the greatest integer 3.4 is 3

Theorem 3.3 Let a and b be any positive integers. Then the number of positive integers Sa
and divisible by b is
3.6 Algebra and Number Theory

For example, the number of positive integers 2076 and divisible by 19 is

6-109.26J-100.
19
Corollary In the set of integers {1, 2, 3, ...n} the number of integers divisible by a prime p is

Instead of floor function notation, we will be using greatest integer function notation.
Ifp.P2 are distinct primes, the numbers of integers divisible by p, P2 is

LP1P2. PIP2
3.2.1 Inclusion Exclusion Principle
If S is a set, the number of elements in S is denoted by |S|.
IfA, B, Care finite sets, then
1. 4uB=|4+|p|-|4nB|
=S-S2
where S sum taken one at a time
= |4+|B|

S =AnB
2. 4UBUC|= S -S2 +S,
where S = sum taken one at a time

=14+|B+|c
S = sum taken two at a time

=|4nB+|4nC]+|BnC]
Sy =|4nBnC
3 4uBUCuD =S -S2 +S-S4.
where S =14+|p|+|C|+|D [one at a time, 4c = 4 terms

S =|4nB+|4nC|+|4nD]+|BnC|+|BoD]+|CnD
[taken two at a time, 4c2 = 6 terms)

Sy =|AnBnC+|4nCnD+|4nBnD]+|BnCnD
[taken three at a time, 4c = 4 terms
S = |AnBnCnD

This can be extended for more number of sets.

 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3 . 7

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1

Find the number of positive integers in the range 1976

through 3776 that are divisible by 13.
[AU 20171
Solution.
The number of positive integers s 1976 that are -----

1976 3776
divisible by 13 is = = [152]=152
The number of positive integers S 3776 that are divisible by 13 is

P290.46]- 290
. The number of positive integers from 1976 to 3776 that divisible by 13 is

290 152 +1
= 139

: 1976 is included in the list ofnumbers divisible by 13]

Aliter: Among the positive integers form 1976 to 3776 that are divisible by 13, the first number is
1976.
When 3776 is divided by 13, the remainder is 6.

1.e., 3776 290 (13) +6

3770 290 (13)
So, the last number divisible by 13 is 3770.
. The list of numbers is 1976, 1989, 2002,..,3770.
This is an A.P. with a = 1976 and c.D d = 13, 1=3770.
Ifn is the number of terms, then

3770-1976+1
13
= 138+1

= 139

EXAMPLE 2
Find the number of positive integers S 2076 and divisible by neither 4 nor 5. AU 2013, 20181

Solution.
that are divisible by 4 or 5.
First we find the number of positive integers S 2076
3.8 Algebra and Number Theory

Let A, B be the set of integers s 2076 that are divisible by 4 or 5 respectively.

By inclusion - exclusion principle, we know

AUB= S1 -S2
Where S =|A+|B|
S =|4nB|
Now

14-2-s19)-519
Pl -415.2]-415
S =
|4+|B= 519+415 934

and Sh =4n= 03.8-103

AUB=934-103 831
the set ofintegers divisible by neither 4 nor 5 is

A'OB'=(AUB)

the total number of integers -AUB

2076-831 = 1245

EXAMPLE 3
Find the positive integers S 3000 and divisible by 3, 5 or 7. AU 2018
Solutlon.
Let A, B, C be the set of numbers 3000 that are divisible by 3, 5, 7 respectively.
Required AUBUC
By inclusion and exclusion principle, we get

4UBUC|= S -S, +S
Now
M--1o0o 1000

l - - 0 0 ) =600

lcl- 42857]- 428

 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.9

S =14+|B+C=1000+600+428= 2028

AnB 200]= 200

4nc= 3000
<7]-42.85-142
Bn 30001-85.711-85
S =|AnB+|4nC]+|BnCl = 200 +142 + 85 427
3000
and
S =4nBcl= l3x5x7][28.57]= 28
4UBUC=S -S2 +S
2028-427+28 =1629
EXAMPLE 4
Find the number ofintegers from 1 to 250 that divisible by any
are of the integers 2,3, 5,7.
AU 20131
Solutdon.
Let A, B, C, D be the set of integers divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7 respectively.
Required AUBUCUD
By inclusion-exclusion principle, we know

AUBUCUD= S-S2 +S3 -S4

where S=41+141+|4|+|4|
S =AnB+|4nC+|4nD]+|Bnc]+|BnD]+|CnD
S =4nBnC]+|4nBnD]+|4nCnD]+|BnCn
S =\4nBnCnD]
Now
4-20-129-i2s
-283.3]-83
--so-50
1-5-157]-35
S =14+|B+|c]+|p|
= 125+83+50+35 = 293
 3.10 Algebra and Number Theory

Now

AnM-23- o-4
Anc--125]-25
4nD= =17.8]-17
lBnc-(16.0]-16
BD 3-19-11
Dx7-714=7
S =41+25+17+16+11+7=117

Now
l4nBnd- 250-8.3-8
4nBnD= 5.95)=5
250
4nCnD2x5x7B57=3
250
BnCnD-x5x7-238 =2

S =8+5+3+2=18

250
and S =|AnBnCnD|2x3x5x7]
193
AUBUCUD= 293-117+18-1 =

EXAMPLE 5
11.
Find the number of positive integers
in the range 1976 through 3776 that are not divisible by

Solution.
that are divisible by 17.
First we shall find the number of integers
are divisible by 17 is
The numbers of integers 1976 that

-16.2]= 16
17
 3.11

Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions

The numbers of integers s 3776 that are divisible by 17 is

37-22-22
the number of integers from 1976 to 3776 that are divisible by 17 is =222-116
= 106

the number of integers from 1976 to 3776 that are not divisible by 17 is
total number of numbers 106
But the total number of integers from

1976 to 3776 is = 3776- 1976 + 1

= 1800+ 1 = 1801

the number of numbers that are not divisible by 17 is 1801 - 106 = 1695.

EXAMPLE 6
Find the number of positive integers S 3076 that are not divisible by 24.

Solution.
The number of integers 3076 that are divisible by 24 is

24-128.1=128

total number of numbers 128

The number of numbers not divisible by 24 is
-

= 3076-128 = 2498.

EXAMPLE 7
20.
Prove by induction that 2n3+3n?+n is
divisible by 6 for all integers n

Solution.
is divisible by 6.
Let p(n) be the statement 2n3 +3n2+n
lo prove p(n) is true Vn20.

Basis step: Here no=0 which is true

P{0): 0 is divisible by 6, p(0) is true
So,
k> 0.
nductive step: Assume p(}) is true,
2k+3k2+kis divisible by 6 istrue
2k3+3k2+k=óx (1)

where x is an integer.
 3.12 Algebra and Number Theory

To prove p k + )) is true.

That is to prove 2(k1+ 3(k + 1? +(k + 1) is divisible by 6 is true.

Now
2k+1)+3Kk+1) +(k+1) =2(k + 3k2 +3k +1)+3(k +2k+1)+k+1
= (2k + 3k +k) +6k2 +6k + 2+6k +3+1
= (2k +3k +k)+ 6k +12k +6
= 6x + 6(k + 2k +1)
[using(1))
=6[x +k* +2k + 1].

where x+k+ 2k+7 is an integer.

. plk+ 1) is true.
Thus p(k) is true plk+ 1) is true.
Hence by first principle of induction p(n) is true V n 20.
EXAMPLE 8

Prove by induction that 247+3n -1 is divisible by 9 Vn20.

Solution.
Let pln) denote the statement

24M+3n-1 is divisible by
Toprove p(n) is true Vn20.
Basis step: Here n = 0

p(0) is 20 +3.0- 1 = 0, which is divisible 9

P(0) is true.

Inductive step: Assume thatp(k) is true for k >0

24k+3k-1 is divisible by 9 is true

24+3k-1 =9x,
wherex is an integer. ()
To proveplk+ 1) is true.
i.e., to prove 24k+ 1) +3(k + 1)-1 is divisible by 9 is true.

Now

244+1) +3(k +1)-1 =2k 2 +3k +3-1

16(9x-3k +1)+3k +2
=

using ()]
= 144x-45k+18

9(16x - Sk + 2),
where 16x-Sk+ 2 is an integer.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.13

2(k+1)+ 3(k + 1)-1 is divisible by 9 is true

p(k+ 1) is true.
Thus p(k) is true p(k +1) is true.
Hence by I principle of induction p(n) is true V n 20.
EXAMPLE 9

Ifthe sum of the cubes of three consecutive integers is a cube k" prove that 3|k.
Solutlon.
Let n, 1,n+2 be the three consecutive integers.
n +

Given +(n+1)° +(n+2)* is a cubek

n+n +3n? +3n+1+n +3n2 2+3m-22 +23=k3

3n +9+15n+9 =k
3(n° +3n* +5n+3) = k*

31k3|k.k-k
Since 3 is a prime, 3 |k.

EXAMPLE 10
Show thatn$+ (n +1)3 + (n + 1)+ (n +2)3 = (n +3)* has a unique solution.

Solution.
Given n+(n +13 +(n +2) =(n+3)3 (1)
Since L.H.S is the sum of cubes ofthree consecutive integers, by example 11, 3 n+3
Since 3|n +3 and 3 |3, we get 3|n +3-3 3n
n = 3m, where m is an integer

(3m)+(3m+ 1)' + (3m +2 = (3m + 3

(1)=
27m+(3m) +3-(3m)-1+3(3m)+1
+ (3m)' +3.-(3m) 2+3(3m)-22 +23

= (3m)° +3(3m) 3+3(3m) 3 +3

27m +27m +27m2 +9m+1

+27m+54m+36m+8 27m +8Im +81Im +27

54m3-36 m - 18 =0
Simplifying, we get
3m-2m -1= 0

(m-1)(3m+3m+1) =0
m-1 = 0 (::3m +3m+10)
 3.14 Algebra and Number Theory

0 has real roots

because 3m + 3m + l = no

m= 1 > n = 3.

So, the solution ofequation (1) is unique.

b REPRESENTATIONS
3.3 BASE -

real number
to express any integer or
We are familiar with the use of decimal notation, base 10,
We use it every day.
For example,
352 3(10) + 5(10) + 2(10)

3(10)+5(10) +2.1
This is called the decimal expansion of 352.
35.23 3(10) +5 (10) +2 (10-1) +3(10)
And
out arithmetic operations. Very
But computers usuallybinary notation, base 2, when carrying
use
octal (base 8) or hexadecimal (base 16) notations
long binary numbers are often handled by using characters such as letters or digits.
Similarly these bases are used for expressing
In fact, any integer 22 can be used as a valid
base for representing integers.
We now state a fundamental result without proof.

it can be uniquely expressed

Theorem 3.4 integer 22. Ifn is a positive integer, then
Let b be an
are non negative integers less
in the formn +a, b+a b + . . . +a, b+ag, where a,4.., 4
than b and a, # 0.
This theorem enables us to define the following representation.

Definltion 3.3 Ifn is a positive integer and b 22 and

n = a b + ag- b t . . t a , b + G

where ad a are non negative integers then the expression in (1) is called the base b expansion
of the integer n.
We then wrTite n =
(a, a-1 a,40
For example,
(345)10 =3(10) + 4 (10) + 5 (10°)
(345) 3(8) + 4(8) + 5 =165
=

3.3.1 Binary Expansions

When base is 2, then the expansion is called the binary expansion when b = 2, each coefficient
0 or 1 The digits 0 and 1 are called binary digits or bits. So, the binary expansion of an intege
used by computers to represent and do arithmetic wi"
is just a bit string. Binary expansions are
integers.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.15

Note
1. The number system with base 10 is called the
means 10. decimal system because the latin word decem
The decimal system
uses the 10 digits 0, 1,2,3,...9.
2. If the base b > 10, we use the
letters A, B, C, to represent the
in decimal notation.
...

digits 10, 11, 12,... respectivey

3.3.2 Hexadecimal Expansion

Another base used in computer science is 16. The base 16
expansion of an integer is called its
hexadecimal expansion. Hexadecimal expansion uses the sixteen digits 0,
Where the letters A to F represent the digits 10 to 15
1,2,...9,A, B, C, D, E andF
respectively (in decimal notation).
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1

Express (101011111), in base 10.

Solutlon.
(101011111), =1(2)+0(2')+(2)+0(2')+(2 )+1(2>)+(2)+1(2)+(2)
256+64+16+8+4+2+1
351
EXAMPLE 22

Express (3 ABOE)16 in base ten.

Solution.
We know A = 10, B =11, E= 144

(3ABOE)6 =
3(16*)+ A(16*)+ B(16)+0(16)+E(16°)
3(16)+10(16*)+ 11(16) +14
= 196608+ 40960+ 2816+14

240398

EXAMPLE 3

Express (3 ABC) in base 10.

Solution.
We know A 10, B =11, C= 12
=

(3ABC)h6 =
3(16°)+ A(16)+ B(16)+C
1\(16)+ 12
=3(16 ) 10(16)
+ +

= 12,288+ 2560+176+12

= 15036
 3.16 Algebra and Number Theory

3.3.3 Base Conversion Algorlthm- Decimal to Base b

Weshall now consider the converse problem of writing a decimal integer n into base binteger
First divide n by b and obtain the
quotient and remainder.
1.e., n =
4b) + ro 0Sr<
Next we divide qo by b

i.e., 909 b+ 0S<b

Next divide q, by b,

1.e., 442b+ 0sr<b

Proceed in this way until we get zero quotient.
Then the remainders in the reverse order gives the b representation ofn.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE4
Express 1076 in the binary system.

Solution.

1076 538(2) + 0 538 269 134 67

538 269 (2) +0 1076 2) 538 2 269 2134
269 =
134 (2) +1 10 4 2 12
134=67 (2) 13 14
67 33 (2) +1 12 14
33 16(2)+1 16 18 0
16 8(2) +
16 18
8 =4 (2)
2 (2) 0 0
2 1 (2)
= 0 (2) +1 33 16
2 67 33
6 2
13
12

1076 (100001 10100)

 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.17
EXAMPLE 55

Express 12345 in the octal system.

Solution.
We have to write the decimal integer into base 8
system.

12345 1543 (8) + 1 1543 192 24 3

1543 192192 (8) + 8 12345 8 1543 8) 24
192=24 (8) + 8192
= 3 (8)
8 8 16 24
24 43 74 32
3 0 (8)
+3 40 72 32
34 23
32 16
25 7
24

12345 (30071)s

EXAMPLE 6
Express 1776 in the octal system.

Soluton.

222 27 3
1776 222 (8) +0
222 27 (8) +6 8 1776 8 222 827
27 3(8) 3 16 16 24
0 (8) +3 17 62
16 56
16 6
16
0

1776 (3360)
3.18 Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 7

Express 3014 in base8.

Solution.

3014 376(8) +6 376 47 5

376=47(8) +0 8 ) 3014 8 376 8 47
47 5(8) + 24 32 80
O (8) + 5 61 56
56 56
54
48

/ 6

3014 (5706)g

EXAMPLE8
Represent 15036 in hexadecimal system.

Solution.
We write

153036 = 939 (16)+ ¡12 = C 939 58

939=58 (16) 11;=B 16) 15036 16 939 16 58
+10 A 144 80 48
58=3 (16)
3 0(16) 63 139 10
+3
48 128
156 11
144
12

153036 (3 ABC)16
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.19

EXAMPLE 9

Express 177130 in hexadecimal system.

Solution.
We write

177130 = 11070(16) + 10j= A 11070 691 43

11070 = 691 (16) +14= E 16) 177130 16) 11070 16) 691 16 43
691 43 (16)
3 16 96 64 32
43=2 (16) +11= B 17 147 51 11
2 0(16)
+2 16 144 48
113 30 3
112 16
10 14

177130=(2 B3EA)16
We have seen how to convert decimal system to base-b system and base-bsystem to decimal system.
We shall now find the method of changing a binary number to octal or hexadecimal system.

3.3.4 Base Conversion from Binary to Octal

into blocks of three
To convert a binary system number to octal system, we group the binary digits
most block and replace each group
bits from right to left and adding if necessary initial zero at the left
with the corresponding octal digit.

WORKEDEXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
octal digit.
Convert the binary number (11110011), into

Solution.
Given 11 110011
three digits from right to left.
We group the digits in blocks of
0 to the left most block to get 3 digits).
Here the blocks are 011, 110, 01l (adding

011 O(2)+1(2) +1=3

Now
110 (24)+1(2) +0 = 6

011= 0(24)+1(2)+1 ==3

and
(11110011), =(363)s
3.20 Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 2
Write 111010 Wo as an octal integer.

Solution.
Given (111010)wo
We rewrite 111010=111,010
111= 1(22)+1(2)+1= 7
Now
010 0(2)+1(2) +0 =2
and
(111010) =(72)s
EXAMPLE 3
Convert (11100101), to octal digit.

Solution.
Given the binary number 11100101
We group into blocks of three bits from right to left.
The blocks are 011, 100, 101 by adding 0 to the left most block.

Now 011 0(2)+1(2)+1 =3

100 1(2*)+0(2)+0 = 4

and 101 =1(2)+0(2)+1 =5

(11100101)2 =(345)s

3.3.5 Base Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal

We group the binary digits into block of four bits from right to left, adding if necessary initial zero al

the left most block to get a block of four bits. Replace each block by a hexadecimal number

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Write (11111010111100), as a hexadecimal digit.

Solution.
Given (111110110111100)
We rewrite 11 1110 1011 1100 as 0011, 1110, 1011, 1100
Now
0011 = 0(2)+O(2)+1(2) +1=3

1110 =1(2')+12')+1(2)+0 = 8+4+2 14(= E)

 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.21
1011=1(2')+0(22) +1(2)+1 =8+2+1 =
1= B)
1100
=1(2)+1(23)+0(2) +0 8+4 = = 12(=C)
(11111010111100), = (3EBC)6
gAMPLE 2
write (1110101), as a hexadecimal number.
Solution.
Given (1110101),
We rewrite 111,0101=0111,0101
0111 0(23) + 1(22) + 1(2) + 1 =7
Now
and
0101 0(23) + 1(22) + 1(2) +1 S5 =
(1110101),= (75)h6
EXAMPLE 3
number.
Write (11110011), as a hexadecimal
Solutlon.
Given (1110011)
11110011 =
1111, 0011
We rewritee 1 15 (=F)
1(23) + 1(2)+ 1(2) +
=
1111 =
Now
=0(2)+0(2) + 1(2)+1
=3
0011
(11110011)> =(F3)16
EXAMPLE 4
digit.
Rewrite 237,, as a binary
Solution.
Given (237)16 rewrite as blocks
of four bits.
have to
So each digit we + 1(2) +O(1) = 0010
2 0(23)+0(2)
.wewrite + 1(2) + I(1)
= 0011
3 0(23)+0(24)
0(2) +O(2) + 1(2)+1(1) =
0111
7
and 0011 0111),
(237)16= (0010
=(1000110111)
 3.22 Algebra and Number Theory
EXAMPLE 5
Rewrite (36) as a binary number.
Solution.
Given
(36)16
We rewrite each digit as a block of four bits.

we write 3 0(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) +1 = 0011

and
0(23) + 1(22) + 1(2) +0
6 =
0110

(36)6= (00110110),
= (110110)

EXAMPLE 66
Write (3 AD)1 as a
binary number.
Solutlon.
Given
(3AD16
We rewrite each digits as block of four bits.
. we write
3 0(23)+ 0(22) + 1(2) +1 =0011
A =
10 =1 (23) + 0(22)+ 1(2) +0 = 1010
D 13 =1 (23) +
1(22)+0(2) + 1 =1101
(3 AD)6(001110101101)
= (1110101101),

EXAMPLE 7
Rewrite (345), as a binary number.
Solution.
Given (345)g
write each digits as block of three bits.
we write 3 1(22)+1(2) + 1 =011
4 1(2) +0(2) +0 = 100
and S 1(22) +0(2)+ 1 = 101
(345), = (01100101),

= (11100101),
22
=
3.24 Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 11
Find the value ofthe base b if 1001,=9.

Solution.
Given 1001, =9
Since the digits are binary, we expect b =2.
We shall now workout
Now 1001,=9
1(b)+0(b) + O(b) + 1 =9

b3 +1 9 b3=8 =23 > b=2

EXAMPLE 12
If 144,=49, find the base b.

Solution.
Given (144),=49
1(6)+4(6)+4 =49
b2+4b-45 = 0

(b+9) (b-5) = 0
Since base b is 2 2, b+9 #0.
b-5 =0 b=5

EXERCISE 3.1
1. Find the number of positive integers 3076 that are divisible by 17.
2. Find the number of positive integers 3076 that are divisible by 19.
3. Find the number of positive integers $ 3076 that are not divisible by 17.
4. Find the number of positive integers from 1976 to 3776 that are divisible by 15.
5. Find the number of positive integers from 1 to 250 that are divisible by 2, 3, 5.
6. Express 3014 in base eight. 7. Express
15036 in the hexadecimal system.
8. Write 6137 in the octal system. 9. Write
(A13F)6 in the binary system.
10. Write 527 in binary system. 11. Write 527 in hexadecimal
system.
12. Write (1010111), in hexadecimal system.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 3.1

1. 11802 2. 161 3. 2896
4. 120 5. 66 6. (5706)
7. (3ABC)16 8. (13771)s 9. (101000010011111)2
10. (1000000 1111)2 11. (20F)16 12. (57)16
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions 3.25

3.4 NUMBER PATTERNS

In drawing sCientific concusions, there are two fundamental processes of reasoning that are commonly
used.
One is the process of deduction, which is the
process of reasoning from general to particular.
The other process of easoning is the process of induction, which is the process of reasoning
from particular to general. This process may lead to true or false conclusion. To succeed in the art
of inductive reasoning one must be good at studying pattern. Observing particular cases or pattern
a general statement is usually made. Such a statement is called a conjecture or educated guess.
A conjecture remains a conjecture until it is proved or disproved.
Inductive reasoning ends with the conjecture. Then the difficult task of proving it begains., one of
the methods of proof is by mathematical induction.
We now consider some of the famous conjectures.

1. The great French mathematician Fermat (1601-1605) observed

22 +1 5, a prime
22+1=17,aprime
22 +1 257, a prime
On the basis of these particular cases Fermat conjectured that 22 +1 is a prime for any positive
integer n and he challenged the mathematicians of his days to disprove it.
After nearly 100 years, the great Swiss mathematician Euler (1707-1783) showed that 22 +l =
4294967297 is not a prime because it is divisible by 641. Thus the conjecture is disproved
2. The great German mathematician G.W. Leibnitz (1646-1716) noticed that for any
positive integern.
n3-n is divisible byy3
n-n is divisible by5
n-n is divisible by 7
Observing this pattern, he was on the verge of conjecturing that for any odd integer r, - n is
divisible by r.
But soon he noticed that 29-2 = 510 is not divisible by 9.
This counter example disproved the conjecture.
3. The Prussian mathematician Christian Goldback (1690-1764) observed

4 2+2
6 3+3
8=3+5
10 3+7
12 5+7,..
These even integers are expressed as a sum of two primes.
On the basis these particular cases he conjectured that every even integer greater than 2 is a sum
of two primes.
In 2006, with the help of computers it is verified for all even integers upto 2.107.
But till today it continues to remain as a conjecture.
From these examples, we find that inductive reasoning need not lead to correct conclusion.