Bird Migration: Definition, Types, Causes

and Guiding Mechanisms

In this article we will discuss about the Migration of Birds:-

1. Definition of Bird Migration
2. Types of Bird Migration
3. Causes
4. Guiding Mechanisms
5. Disadvantages.
Contents:
1. Definition of Bird Migration
2. Types of Bird Migration
3. Causes of Migration
4. Guiding Mechanisms in Bird Navigation
5. Disadvantages of Bird Migration

Definition of Bird Migration: The word “migration” has come from the Latin
word migrara which means going from one place to another. Many birds have the
inherent quality to move from one place to another to obtain the advantages of the
favourable condition.
In birds, migration means two-way journeys—onward journey from the ‘home’ to the
‘new’ places and back journey from the ‘new’ places to the ‘home’. This movement
occurs during the particular period of the year and the birds usually follow the same
route. There is a sort of ‘internal biological clock’ which regulates the phenomenon.

Definition:
According to L. Thomson (1926), bird migration may be described as “changes of
habitat periodically recurring and alternating in direction, which tend to
secure optimum environmental conditions at all times”. Bird migration is a
more or less regular, extensive movements between their breeding regions and their
wintering regions.
2. Types of Bird Migration:
All birds do not migrate, but all species are subject to periodical movements of varying
extent. The birds which live in northern part of the hemisphere have greatest migratory
power.
Migration may be:
(i) Latitudinal,

(ii) Longitudinal,

(iii) Altitudinal or Vertical,

(iv) Partial,

(v) Total,

(vi) Vagrant or Irregular,

(vii) Seasonal,

(viii) Diurnal and

(ix) Nocturnal.

(i) Latitudinal migration:

The latitudinal migration usually means the movement from north to south, and vice
versa. Most birds live in the land masses of the northern temperate and subarctic zones
where they get facilities for nesting and feeding during summer. They move towards
south during winter.

An opposite but lesser movement also occurs in the southern hemisphere when the
seasons are changed. Cuckoo breeds in India and spends the summer at South-east
Africa and thus covers a distance of about 7250 km. Some tropical birds migrate during
rainy season to the outer tropics to breed and return to the central tropics in dry season.
Many marine birds also make considerable migration. Puffinus (Great shearwater)
breeds on small islands and migrates as far as Greenland in May and returns after few
months.

It covers a distance of 1300 km. Penguins migrate by swimming and cover a

considerable distance of few hundred miles. Sterna paradisaea (Arctic tern) breeds in
the northern temperate region and migrates to the Antarctic zone along the Atlantic. It
was observed that Sterna covers a distance of 22 500 km during migration!

(ii) Longitudinal migration:

The longitudinal migration occurs when the birds migrate from east to west and vice-
versa. Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), a resident of east Europe and west Asia migrate
towards the Atlantic coast. California gulls, a resident and breed in Utah, migrate
westward to winter in the Pacific coast.

(iii) Altitudinal migration:

The altitudinal migration occurs in mountainous regions. Many birds inhabiting the
mountain peaks migrate to low lands during winter. Golden plover (Pluvialis) starts
from Arctic tundra and goes up to the plains of Argentina covering a distance of 11 250
km (Fig. 9.54).

Birds migrate either in flocks or in pairs. Swallows and storks migrate a distance of 9650
km from northern Europe to South Africa. Ruff breeds at Siberia and travels to Great
Britain, Africa, India and Ceylon thus travelling a distance of 9650 kilometers.

(iv) Partial migration:

All the members of a group of birds do not take part in migration. Only several members
of a group take part in migration. Blue Jays of Canada and northern part of United
States travel southwards to blend with the sedentary populations of the Southern States
of U.S.A. Coots and spoon bills (Platalea) of our country may be example of partial
migration.

(v) Total migration:

When all the members of a species take part in the migration, it is called total migration.

(vi) Vagrant or irregular migration:

When some of the birds disperse to a short or long distance for safety and food, it is
called vagrant or irregular migration. Herons may be the example of vagrant or irregular
migration. Other examples are black stork (Ciconia nigra), Glossy ibis (Plegadis
falcinellus), spotted eagle (Aquila clanga), and bee eater (Merops apiaster).

(vii) Daily migration:

Some birds make daily journey from their nests by the influence of environmental
factors such as temperature, light, and humidity also. Examples are crows, herons and
starlings.

(viii) Seasonal migration:

Some birds migrates at different seasons of the year for food or breeding, called seasonal
migration, e.g., cuckoos, swifts, swallows etc. They migrate from the south to the north
during summer. These birds are called summer visitors. Again there are some birds like
snow bunting, red wing, shore lark, grey plover etc. which migrate from north to south
during winter. They are called winter visitors.
Nocturnal and Diurnal Flight:
(i) Diurnal migration:
Many larger birds like crows, robins, swallows, hawks, jays, blue birds, pelicans, cranes,
geese, etc. migrate during daytime for food.

These birds are called diurnal birds and generally migrate in flocks.
(ii) Nocturnal birds:
Some small-sized birds of passerine groups like sparrows, warblers, etc. migrate in
darkness, called nocturnal birds. The darkness of the night gives them protection from
their enemies.

3. Causes of Migration:
Most species of birds migrate more or less on schedule and follow the routes in a regular
fashion. The actual causative factors determining the course and direction of migration
are not clearly known.

The following factors may be related to the problems of migration:

i. Instinct and Gonadal changes:
It is widely accepted that the impulse to migrate in birds is possibly instinctive and the
migration towards the breeding grounds is associated with gonadal changes.

ii. Scarcity of food and day length:

Other factors, viz., scarcity of food, shortening of daylight and increase of cold are
believed to stimulate migration. Migration in birds depends upon two important
factors— stimulus and guidance.

Scarcity of food and fall of daylight are believed to produce endocrinal changes which
initiate bird migration.

iii. Photoperiodism:
The increase of day length (Photoperiodism) induces bird’s migration. The day length
affects pituitary and pineal glands and also caused growth of gonads which secret sex
hormones that are the stimulus for migration. In India, Siberian crane, geese, swan
those come from central Asia, Himalayas, begin to return from March and onwards with
the increase of day length.

iv. Seasonal variation:

The north-to-south migrations of birds take place under stimulus from the internal
condition of the gonads which are affected by seasonal variation.
v. Light:
The experiments of Rowan with Juncos (summer visitor to Canada) have established
that light plays an important role in the development of gonads, which has indirect role
on migration. If the gonads undergo regression, the urge for migration is not felt. So the
seasonal changes in illumination appear to be a crucial factor for determining migration.

Despite all these suggestions, it is not clear how birds — through successive generations
— follow the same route and reach the same spot. The instinctive behaviours like
migration, breeding, moulting are phasic occurrences in the annual cycle which are
possibly controlled by the endocrine system. In all migratory birds, accumulation of fat
takes place for extra fuel during prolonged flight in migration.

4. Guiding Mechanisms in Bird Navigation:

For more than a century the celestial navigations of birds have fascinated the
ornithologists. Different explanations have been advanced to explain how birds
navigate. It is difficult to generalize on the means of orientation and navigation in
migration. The different groups of birds with different modes of existence have evolved
different means of finding their way from one place to another (Pettingill, 1970).

The other reasons may be:

Fat deposition:
Migratory birds become greedy and fat is deposited in the subcutaneous region of the
body. The fat deposition plays an important role in the migration of birds. Birds, those
migrate a long distance, reserve enough fat which provides energy in their arduous jour-
ney and helps the birds to reach its destination, following a particular route. After fat
deposition, restlessness (Zugunruhe) is seen among birds for migration.

Inherited instinct:
Birds that take part in migration or follow a more or less definite goal, evidently possess
an inherited instinct. Both the direction and the goal must have been implanted in the
bird’s genetic code when a population can adjust to a particular location or
environment.

Experienced Lead the Flock:

The theory is sometimes advanced that old and experienced birds lead the way and
thereby lead the whole route and show the whole route the younger generation. This
theory may be applicable to some birds like swans, geese and cranes because they fly in
flocks but not applicable in all species where old and youngs migrate at different times
and mainly youngs start ahead of the adult.

Werner Ruppell of Germany, a leading experimenter on avian migration, found that

Starlings of Berlin find their way back to their nestling places from about 2000 km
away. A sea bird named Manx shearwater collected from the western coast of England
after being flown by plane to Boston was found back in its nest in England within 12
days.

The shearwater had flown its own way about 4940 km across the unknown Atlantic
Ocean! The golden plover of North America migrates from its winter home in the
Hawaiian islands to its breeding place in northern Canada.

This bird lacks webbed feet and it is quite natural that it must fly for several weeks over
thousands of kilometers of ocean to reach its destination. The birds have wonderful
power of navigation and orientation to find their destination even under odd conditions.

There are many theories regarding the phenomenon of migration in birds.

Various theorists propose that birds are guided by a number of agencies:

a. Earth’s magnetic field—as the guiding factor:
Some ornithologists believed about the existence of a “magnetic sense” as the important
factor in the power of “geographical orientation”. The theory was conceived as early as
1885 but conducted by Yeagley in 1947 and 1951. Yeagley suggested that birds are
sensitive and guided by the earth’s magnetic field.

The Coriolis force arising from rotation of the earth plays the guiding role in migration
of birds. The basic question of the theory may be asked — “can birds detect such
minute differences in the earth’s magnetic field and can these forces affect
bird’s behaviour?”
Attempts to demonstrate by experimental evidences have not supported Yeagley’s
experiment. Experiments, in which the earth’s magnetic field was changed, had no effect
on the direction which the birds undertook.
b. Sun—the guiding agent in diurnal migration:
The concept that birds are guided by the position of the sun was advanced by Gustav
Kramer in Germany and G. V. T. Matthews in England. They have shown by intensive
experimentations those homing pigeons and many wild birds use the sun as the
compass and that they possess a ‘time sense’ or ‘internal clock’ which allows them to
take account of motion of the sun across the sky.

Kramer (1949, 1957, 1961) performed experiments on Starlings (diurnal migrants) and
showed that these birds use the sun for setting their migratory course. When the sky
remains clear, the Starlings succeed in taking the right direction.

If the sky remains overcast they become bewildered and fail to orient themselves.
Mechanical placement of a mirror which deflects rays of the sun result into considerable
deviation of orientation to a predictable extent. The experiments of Kramer and others
failed to explain the navigation and orientation of night migrants. This aspect was exten-
sively worked out by E.G.F. Sauer (1958).

c. Stars—the guiding agent in nocturnal migration:

The warblers and many other birds orient themselves during navigation by the sun
during daytime. But the warblers as well as many other birds navigate mainly at night.
What sorts of system do these birds use to the pathways during navigation at night?

Sauer performed experiments on white throat warblers to give an insight to the prob-
lem. Sauer put the birds in a cage placed in a planetarium having an artificial replica of
natural sky. When the light of the planetarium was poorly illuminated, i.e., when the
stars were not visible, the warbelers failed to orient themselves.

When the illumination was better and the planetarium sky matched with the natural
night sky, the birds followed up the proper direction. It has also been shown by Sauer
that a warbler which has spent its life in a cage (i.e., never navigated in natural sky) has
an inborn ability to follow the stars to navigate along the usual route the members of the
species follow.

Sauer has suggested that the warblers possess hereditary mechanism to orient
themselves by the stars during nocturnal migration. The warbler can adjust the direc-
tion perfectly at the latitude.
Suggestions have been advanced by many workers that the configuration of the coastline
possibly helps in navigation, but Sauer has disproved the idea and advocated that the
birds are exclusively guided by the stars during night.

d. The ‘compass’ and the ‘internal clock’ in bird migration:

It is a known fact that millions of birds fly to their winter ‘home’ in every autumn. In
doing so they cover often thousands of kilometers from their native ‘home’. In the
following spring they again return to their breeding grounds. This is a regular biological
phenomenon in avian life.

It has been established that the young birds caught during migration, when released
afterwards, follow exactly the original route their undisturbed fellows followed. This
phenomenon suggested the presence of a sort of ‘compass’ the birds use during
navigation.

But Kramer’s experiment gave a clue to the problem. The position of the sun is vital in
controlling the navigation pathways. During the day the position of the sun in the sky is
changed from east to west via the south. Despite such changes birds tried to navigate in
the same direction. This means they have the inherent ability to make appropriate
allowance for the time of day.

How do the birds know the time of day? They have possibly a built-in timekeeping
mechanism (internal clock) which is synchronized with the earth’s rotation. The
‘internal clock’ can be made to synchronize with external happenings.

Existence of biological clocks is a property of living organisms. It is not confined to

animals, it is found in plants and even in simple cells too. It is a common experience
that if we are in the habit of getting up every day at a particular time, we frequently wake
up at the same time. Besides, many of our bodily functions have a rhythm of their own.
These are possibly controlled by an ‘internal clock’ of which we are normally unaware.

Telemetry means methods of tracking of the movement of birds or other migratory ani-
mals by using radio. This is the most promising method that has been applied to trace
the route of bird’s migration. The method consists of attaching a small radio
transmitter, weighing about 2-3 gm. that sends periodic signals or “beeps”.
The miniature transmitter can be placed on birds and it does not interfere flight and the
signals can be detected by means of a receiving set mounted on vehicles or aero planes
that can detect the routes of migratory birds.

Though there are some limitations of telemetry but this technology gives encouraging
results. More recently researchers are engaged largely to track the routes of the
migratory birds with the aid of satellites and radar tracking instruments.

5. Disadvantages of Bird Migration:

i. Many youngs are not, able to reach the destination because they die during the course
of the continuous and tiresome journey.

ii. Sudden changes in the climate such as storms and hurricanes, strong current of wind,
fog are the causes for the death of a sizeable number of migrants.

iii. Sometimes man-made high tours and light houses cause the death of migratory
birds.

iv. Man themselves are responsible for the death of the migrants. They shoot at these
poor birds just for their own leisure and amusement.
Important Characteristics of
Cephalochordata
Important Characteristics of Cephalochordata are given below:

1) Cephals = head, chorda = chord

2) Chordates are animals which are either vertebrates or one of several closely related
invertebrates.
3) They are united by having, for at least some period of their life cycle, a notochord, a hollow
dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, an endostyle, and a post-anal tail.

4) Cephalochordates have a notochord and a nerve cord and a very simple circulatory system.

5) Attempts to work out the evolutionary relationships of the chordates have produced several
hypotheses.

6) All of the earliest chordate fossils have been found in the Early Cambrian Changing fauna,
and include two species that are regarded as fish.

7) There is famous shale called Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia, which has
yielded pikaia fossils.

8) The segmental arrangement of the mooneyes facilitates the lateral movements used during
swimming.

9) A characteristics “wheel organ” is present to direct microscopic food particles.

10) Sexes separate.

Important Characteristics of Chordates
Important Characteristics of Chordates are given below:

1) Possesses a Notochord, a hollow nerve cord and a post anal tail.

2) Body has more than two cell layers and includes tissues and organs.

3) Has a U shaped gut.

4) Body has no coelomic body cavity.

5) Body wholly enclosed in a ‘tunic’ of secreted protein and cellulose-like material.

6) Are hermaphroditic, normally with only one ovary and testis.

7) Has a nervous system composed of an anterior ganglion from which individual nerves issue.

8) Has no excretory organs. Has a distinct larval stage.

9) Developments includes free swimming larva stage with advanced characters metamorphosis
retrogressive.
AMMOCOETES LARVA
AMMOCOETES LARVAE-MATAMORPHOSIS

In the life history of Petromyzon a larval form is seen. It is called Ammocoetes larva.

1) Ammocoetes larva is transparent and 1 cm., in length.

2) Ammocoetes larva lives in U shaped burrows of mud.

3) Ammocoetes larva comes out of the burrow at night only to change its feeding ground, then it buries again.

4) Ammocoetes larva has an eel like body and it differs from the adult In several characters.

5) It has no buccal funnel.

6) Around the mouth a semi circular oral hood is present

7) Below the mouth short transverse lower lip is present and it has no teeth.

8) Paired eyes are covered by thick skin.

9) Behind the buccal tentacles, a velum with a pair of cup-shaped muscular flaps are seen.

10) Surrounding the mouth buccal tentacles are present.

11) The pharynx is associated with seven pairs of gill pouches.

12) The pharynx is continued into the oesophagus posterioily.

13) The endostyle is present on the ventral side of the pharynx.

14) The mucus secreted by the endostyle passes into the peripharyngeal grooves of the pharynx.

15) Food particles like unicellular algage, bacteria which enter with the incurrent of water and entangled with
the mucous. Thus the food associated with mucous carried into the oesophagus from the pharynx. Because of
muscular movement of velum and pharynx, the ammocoetes larvae feeds.

METAMORPHOSIS OF AMMOCOETES LARVA

1) After a long period of larval life, the Ammocoetes larva metamorphoses into the adult.’

2) The endostyle modifies into the thyroid gland.

3) The oral hood changes into the buccal funnel with horny teeth,tongue and a round mouth.

4) Paired eyes are developed completely.

5) The velum degenerates by leaving a rudiment.

6) The continuous dorsal fin breaks into dorsal and a single caudal fin.

7) The young lamprey migrates to the open sea from rives and becomes carnivorous adult animals.

The ammocoetes larva exhibits striking similarities with Amphioxus. it is a very primitive and generalised
vertebrate. It may be regarded as the connection link between Amphioxus and cyclostomes.

Agnatha are jawless fish that are the oldest known vertebrates. Lampreys and hagfish belong to

this class. Agnatha are jawless fish that are the oldest known vertebrates.

Lampreys and hagfish belong to this class.

 Characteristics of Class Agnatha
• Phylum: Chordata

• Subphylum: Vertebrata
• Digestive system: do not have an identifiable stomach
• Body: jaws are absent, paired fins are generally absent. Lampreys and hagfish do have a tail and a caudal
fin. Both have slimy skin without scales or plates. Some extinct agnathans had thick body plates. They have
a cyclostomic (circular) toothed mouth (Figure 8), which helps them bore into the side of a fish and suck
the blood of their victim
• Skeleton: the internal skeleton of the Agnatha is not bony but rather cartilaginous.The embryonic notochord
persists in the adult.
• Respiratory system: seven or more paired gill pouches are present
• Reproduction: unisexual (lamprey) as well as hermaphroditic (hagfish)

Table showing difference between Lamprey and Hagfish

Features Lamprey Hagfish

Scientific name Petromyzon (Figure 9) Myxine (Figure 10)

Stout, size may reach up to 1 meter, presence of Feeble, smaller in size, no or single fin
Body two dorsal fins, not very slimy present, slimy so called “slimy eel”

Habitat Mostly marine; a few fresh water forms Exclusively marine

Habit Both parasitic and non-parasitic species Only parasitic species

Eyes Functional Degenerate

Mouth Ventral Terminal

Salivary gland Present and secrete an anticoagulant Absent

Gills Seven pairs of external gill slits One pair of external gill slits

Not well developed; eight pairs of cranial

Brain Well developed; has ten pairs of cranial nerve nerve

Primarily scavenger and feeds mostly upon

Nutrition Sucks out blood of host fishes in feeding dead fishes in feeding

Unisexual; breeds marine form migrates to fresh Hermaphrodite; breeds as well as spawning on
Reproduction water river and stream for spawning (anadromous) sea floor

Indirect with ammocoete (larva), metamorphosis

Development present Direct without larva, metamorphosis absent
Figure 9: A Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus)

Figure 10. A Hagfish protuding from a sponge (Source: NOAA)In older classifications, both lamprey
and hagfish were grouped together as Cyclostomata due to the presence of round/circular
mouth.

Later, it was found that lampreys have more similarities with jawed forms (gnathostomes), such

as, presence of lateral eyes, regulation of heartbeat etc.

Dipnoi: Distribution, Morphology and
Affinities | Bony Fishes
In this article we will discuss about Dipnoi:-
1. Structure of Dipnoi
2. Distribution of Dipnoi
3. Morphology
4. Affinities.

Structure of Dipnoi:
Dipnoi (Gr. di-two, pnoe-breathing) is a small order of fresh water bony fishes. They
respire by gills and lungs. Dipnoi evolved during Devonian period. They are
characterized by short jaws, crushing plate from teeth, internal nares, reduced exo- and
endo- skeleton, and diphycercal tail. The air bladder i.e., so called ‘lungs’ are one or two.
They are functional with related changes in the circulatory system and in the heart.

Distribution of Dipnoi:
Fossil evidence support to the view that once dipnoans enjoyed cosmopolitan
(worldwide) distribution. Two fossil forms are Dipterus from Devonian period and
Ceratodus from triassic period. But the modern lung fishes show discont inuous
distribution. The three surviving genera of lung fishes are Neoceratodus
(=Epiceratodus) Protopterus and Lepidosiren. All they are inhabitants of river. But
Protopterus lives in large lakes too. They all breath air. Neoceratodus is found only in
the Burnett and Mary rivers of Queens-land in Australia, so commonly called as ‘Burnett
Salmon’ or Australian lungfish.

Neoceratodus is the only living genus of the family Ceratodont idae, the other being
extinct Ceratodus. Protopterus lives in large lakes and rivers of tropical Africa. It is
commonly called as Nile lungfish’ or African lung fish. Lepidosiren is found in river
Amazon and Paraguay basin in South America. It is commonly called as ‘Amazon
lungfish’ or South American lungfish.

Morphology of Dipnoi:
1. Neoceratodus forsteri:
The body of Dipnoi is elongated and compressed measuring about 90 to 150 cms. The
body surface including the head and paired fins is covered with thin, bony, overlapping
cycloid scales which are not regarded as denticles. Paired fins are lobe like paddles,
enabling the fish to crawl over the bottom. But these are weak to support the fish outside
water. The fish has a diphycercal tail with symmetrical tail fin. Tail fin rays are un-
jointed and fibrous. External nostrils lie enclosed within the upper lip. Internal nostrils
(choanae) are present.

Branchial arches are four in number and bi-segmented, Hyobranchial cleft is open and
associated with pseudo-branches. The first four branchial arches carry holobranches.
Gills are covered with bony opercula. It respire exclusively by gills, and uses it’s single
lung (Monopneumona) only under stress. A lateral line is present. Lower jaw is with a
small toothless dentary on each side. Dental plates are oval crescentic or triangular
terminating in a smooth or feebly denticulated biting margins.

Neoceratodus is inactive and sluggish in habit, usually lying motionless on the bottom.
It is carnivorous and feeds on fresh water crustaceans, worms and molluscs.

2. Protopterus has four species. The body is elongaed, cylinderical and more or less eel-
like and grows to a length of about 200 cms. Body is covered over by over-lapping
cycloid scales. The dorsal anal and tail fins are continuous and are supported by
partially calcified fibre-like rays called camptotricha.

The pectoral and pelvic fins are represented as limbs. They are long, thin and
filamentous and help in walking along the bottom. The caudal fin and its supporting
fleshy lobe taper to a posterior point i.e. it is isocercal or protocercal. The mouth is
small.

Inside the mouth margin internal nostrils are present. The fleshy lips extend back on the
sides of the head. The eyes are small. Six branchial arches and five gill slits are covered
by operculum. The opercular opening is limited to a slit just in front of the pectoral fin.

Gills are weakly developed and will die if prevented from reaching surface of water to
use their paired lungs (Dipneumona). The lateral line system is well developed and is
indicated on the head grooves or lines of openings. The cloacal opening lies ventrally at
the root of the tail and close to it are two abdominal pores.

Protopterus is a carnivorus and voracious feeder. It feeds on worms, crustaceans,

insects, frogs and many other small animals. During un-favourable seasons it undergoes
summer sleep or aestivation and burrow into the soil to a depth of about 60 cms for
atleast 6 months in waterproofed “cocoon” made of clay and mucus.

3. Lepidosiren paradoxa:
Body is elongated, cylinderical and more or less eel-like. It grows to the length of about
125 cms. The skin covering the body contains very small cycloid scales. Gill slits are 5
pairs covered with operculum. Gills are weakly developed, respiration is supplemented
with two lungs (Dipneumona). Paired fins are thin and filamentous. Dorsal and caudal
fins are united.
Pelvic fin have vascular filamentous in male during breeding season. Eyes are moderate
and well developed like Neoceratodus. External (cutaneous) gills are absent in adult but
present in larva. Like Protopterus, they survive drought by secreting mucous cocoons in
mud. During aestivation the air bladder is used as lungs.

Lepidosiren is not exclusively carnivorous, food mainly comprises fresh snails and mass
of algae.

Affinities of Dipnoi:
Dipnoi form an interesting group of fishes. Presence of the lungs lead to the view that
they are the ancestors of amphibia. Other-words, they were considered as the
connecting link between Pisces and Amphibia. This view is no more supported. Present
view is to treat them as a specialized or degenerate descendants of the more primitive
lobe-finned fishes to which they closely resemble.

The affinities of Dipnoi can be studied under following heads:

1. Affinities with fishes:
Dipnoi: Distribution, Morphology and
Affinities | Bony Fishes
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In this article we will discuss about Dipnoi:- 1. Structure of Dipnoi

2. Distribution of Dipnoi 3. Morphology 4. Affinities.
Structure of Dipnoi:
Dipnoi (Gr. di-two, pnoe-breathing) is a small order of fresh water bony fishes. They
respire by gills and lungs. Dipnoi evolved during Devonian period. They are
characterized by short jaws, crushing plate from teeth, internal nares, reduced exo- and
endo- skeleton, and diphycercal tail. The air bladder i.e., so called ‘lungs’ are one or two.
They are functional with related changes in the circulatory system and in the heart.

Distribution of Dipnoi:
Fossil evidence support to the view that once dipnoans enjoyed cosmopolitan
(worldwide) distribution. Two fossil forms are Dipterus from Devonian period and
Ceratodus from triassic period. But the modern lung fishes show discont inuous
distribution.

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The three surviving genera of lung fishes are Neoceratodus (=Epiceratodus) Protopterus
and Lepidosiren. All they are inhabitants of river. But Protopterus lives in large lakes
too. They all breath air. Neoceratodus is found only in the Burnett and Mary rivers of
Queens-land in Australia, so commonly called as ‘Burnett Salmon’ or Australian
lungfish.

Neoceratodus is the only living genus of the family Ceratodont idae, the other being
extinct Ceratodus. Protopterus lives in large lakes and rivers of tropical Africa. It is
commonly called as Nile lungfish’ or African lung fish. Lepidosiren is found in river
Amazon and Paraguay basin in South America. It is commonly called as ‘Amazon
lungfish’ or South American lungfish.

Morphology of Dipnoi:
1. Neoceratodus forsteri:
The body of Dipnoi is elongated and compressed measuring about 90 to 150 cms. The
body surface including the head and paired fins is covered with thin, bony, overlapping
cycloid scales which are not regarded as denticles.

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Paired fins are lobe like paddles, enabling the fish to crawl over the bottom. But these
are weak to support the fish outside water. The fish has a diphycercal tail with
symmetrical tail fin. Tail fin rays are un-jointed and fibrous. External nostrils lie
enclosed within the upper lip. Internal nostrils (choanae) are present.

Branchial arches are four in number and bi-segmented, Hyobranchial cleft is open and
associated with pseudo-branches. The first four branchial arches carry holobranches.
Gills are covered with bony opercula. It respire exclusively by gills, and uses it’s single
lung (Monopneumona) only under stress. A lateral line is present. Lower jaw is with a
small toothless dentary on each side. Dental plates are oval crescentic or triangular
terminating in a smooth or feebly denticulated biting margins.

Neoceratodus is inactive and sluggish in habit, usually lying motionless on the bottom.
It is carnivorous and feeds on fresh water crustaceans, worms and molluscs.

2. Protopterus has four species. The body is elongaed, cylinderical and more or less eel-
like and grows to a length of about 200 cms. Body is covered over by over-lapping
cycloid scales. The dorsal anal and tail fins are continuous and are supported by
partially calcified fibre-like rays called camptotricha.
The pectoral and pelvic fins are represented as limbs. They are long, thin and
filamentous and help in walking along the bottom. The caudal fin and its supporting
fleshy lobe taper to a posterior point i.e. it is isocercal or protocercal. The mouth is
small.

Inside the mouth margin internal nostrils are present. The fleshy lips extend back on the
sides of the head. The eyes are small. Six branchial arches and five gill slits are covered
by operculum. The opercular opening is limited to a slit just in front of the pectoral fin.

Gills are weakly developed and will die if prevented from reaching surface of water to
use their paired lungs (Dipneumona). The lateral line system is well developed and is
indicated on the head grooves or lines of openings. The cloacal opening lies ventrally at
the root of the tail and close to it are two abdominal pores.

Protopterus is a carnivorus and voracious feeder. It feeds on worms, crustaceans,

insects, frogs and many other small animals. During un-favourable seasons it undergoes
summer sleep or aestivation and burrow into the soil to a depth of about 60 cms for
atleast 6 months in waterproofed “cocoon” made of clay and mucus.

3. Lepidosiren paradoxa:
Body is elongated, cylinderical and more or less eel-like. It grows to the length of about
125 cms. The skin covering the body contains very small cycloid scales. Gill slits are 5
pairs covered with operculum. Gills are weakly developed, respiration is supplemented
with two lungs (Dipneumona). Paired fins are thin and filamentous. Dorsal and caudal
fins are united.

Pelvic fin have vascular filamentous in male during breeding season. Eyes are moderate
and well developed like Neoceratodus. External (cutaneous) gills are absent in adult but
present in larva. Like Protopterus, they survive drought by secreting mucous cocoons in
mud. During aestivation the air bladder is used as lungs.

Lepidosiren is not exclusively carnivorous, food mainly comprises fresh snails and mass
of algae.

Affinities of Dipnoi:
Dipnoi form an interesting group of fishes. Presence of the lungs lead to the view that
they are the ancestors of amphibia. Other-words, they were considered as the
connecting link between Pisces and Amphibia. This view is no more supported. Present
view is to treat them as a specialized or degenerate descendants of the more primitive
lobe-finned fishes to which they closely resemble.

The affinities of Dipnoi can be studied under following heads:

1. Affinities with fishes:
(a) In general

(b) with elasmobranchi

(c) with Holocephali

(d) with Act inopterygii, and

e) with Crossopterygii.

2. Affinities and disimilarities with Amphibia

3. Primitive characters of Dipnoi

4. Spccilized characters of Dipnoi

5. Conclusion.
1. Affinities with fishes:
Lung fishes are undoubtedly true fishes.

(a) Affinities with fishes in general:

1. Spindle-shaped, eel-like body.

2. Body covered with scales (Cycloid).

3. Presence of paired fins.

4. Diphycercal caudal fins.

5. Persistent notochord.

6. Skull with little ossification.

7. Paired gill-slits.

8. Branchial respiration.

9. Lateral line sense organs.

(b) Affinities with Elasmobranchii:

1. Endoskeleton mostly cartilaginous.

2. Intestine with spiral valves.

3. Conus arteriosus with valves.

4. Presence of sinus venosus.

5. Each gill with two efferent arteries.

6. Absence of nephrostome in uriniferous tubules.

7. Small diencephalon with vascular roots.

8. Similar female reproductive organs.

(c) Affinities with Holocephali:
1. Excurrent nostrils opening into mouth cavity.

2. Autostylic jaw suspensorium.

3. Gills covered with operculum.

4. No distinct stomach.

5. Intestine with a spiral valve.

6. Teeth fused to form dental plates.

7. Identical cranial muscles.

8. Identical kidneys, gonads and gonoducts.

9. Two efferent arteries in each gill.

(d) Affinities with Actinopterygii:

1. Blunt snout with ventral nostril.

2. Presence of cycloid scales.

3. Strong palate and splenial teeth.

4. Presence of operculum covering gills.

5. Presence of swim bladder.

6. Paired inferior jugular veins.

(e) Affinities with Crossopterygii:

1. Diphycercal caudal fin.

2. Powerful leg-like lobate fins.

3. Identical skull bones.

4. Vertebral column upto the tip of caudal fin.

5. Air bladder for pulmonary respiration.

6. Internal nostrils.

7. Presence of contractile conus arteriosus.

8. Larva with cutaneous gill.

2. Affinities and Disimilarities with Amphibins:

(a) Affinities:
1. Semiaquatic habitat.

2. Internal nostrils

3. Vomerine teeth.

4. Autostylic jaw suspensorium.

5. Multicellular cutaneous glands.

6. Cutaneous gill in larva.

7. Pulmonary respiration.

8. Dermal scales as in Apoda.

9. Auricle and sinus venosus partially divided.

10. Ventral aorta short or absent

11. Presence of anterior abdominal vein, posterior vena cava, pulmonary artery and
veins.

12. Thin walled pericardium.

13. Long and narrow cerebral hemispheres.

14. Similar structure of egg and development

(b) Dissimilarities:
1. Paired lobate-fins

2. Maxillae and premaxillae are absent.

3. Peculiar crushing tooth plates.

4. Few anterior vertebrae fused with skull.

5. Cartilagenous skull.

6. Lungs lie dorsal to gut.

7. Urinary bladder from dorsal wall of cloaca.

3. Primitive Characters:
1. Unconstricted notochord.

2. Presence of cloaca.

3. Spiral valves in intestine.

4. Valves in the conus.

4. Specialized characters:
1. Premaxillae and maxillae absent

2. Anterior dorsal fin reduced or absent

3. Dental plate in jaws.

4. Cartilagenous cranium without ossification.

5. Reduction in number of dermal bones of skull.

6. Thin cycloid scales by modification of thick cosmoid scale.

7. Fusion of anterior vertebrae with skull.

8. Functional dorsally placed air bladder.

5. Conclusion:
The above affinities indicate that dipnoans are not most advanced pisces from which
amphibians could evolve. They are degenerate descendants of Crossopterygii. According
to Jarvik (1968) dipnoans are more specialized than crossopterygian. According to latest
view, both dipnoans and amphibians have originated from some crossopterygian like
ancestor.

There must have been a common ancestor for Dipnoi, Crossopterygii and
Labyrinthodont amphibia. So most probably, dipnoans are not the “fathers of the
amphibia”, but “uncles of the amphibian”. However, Jarvik (1980) considers that the
Dipnoi may be related to elasmorbranchs than any other animals.
 INTEGUMENT
There is nothing more conspicuous about an organism than its skin. It is our primary means of
identifying the organism, and is what defines the boundary of its body. Skin is also the primary
means through which an organism interacts with its environment.

Because of its importance as the primary interface between an organism and its environment, the skin
is designed to perform many functions. These functions include:

· support and protect soft tissues against abrasion, microbes

· reception and transduction of external stimuli - i.e. heat, chemical, tactile
· transport of materials involved in excretion, secretion, resorption, dehydration,
rehydration
· heat regulation
· respiration
· nutrition/nutrient storage - i.e. storage of vitamins, synthesis of Vitamin D
· locomotion
· coloration - cryptic or display

Different vertebrate taxa have very diverse ways of performing these functions and have evolved
many different structures derived from the integument.

· Basic structure of the integument:

The integument consists primarily of the skin and its derivatives. Skin is a functional unit composed
layers of fairly distincy epidermis (derived from ectoderm) and dermis (derived from the dermatome
of somites) that are separated by the basement membrane.

· Epidermis
- is relatively thin in most animals
- the upper layer composed of mostly dead, differentiated cells (stratum corneum) with a lot of
keratin which helps the skin maintain some protection against water loss and bacteria
- continually produced by the most basal layer of the epidermis (stratum germinativum) and
consists of cuboidal cells that are generalized and move toward the upper layer as they differentiate
- as the cells move outward, most synthesize keratin, a water-insoluble protein, the cells become
flattened, die, and are sloughed off. Other epidermal cells form multicellular glands or isolated
glandular cells.

· Dermis
- is more of a connective tissue than protective
- irregularly-shaped connective tissue cells that produce the extracellular matrix, including collagen
and elastic fibers
- the upper layer (stratum laxum) lies directly below the basement membrane and is mostly
loosely-packed cells
- the stratum compactum lies below and contains more tightly-packed cells
- the presence of elastin in the dermis is a synapomorphy of Gnathostomata - in part, the dermis
anchors the skin to the underlying musculature
 - also includes dermal scales, blood vessels, nerves, pigment cells, the bases of feathers and hairs,
and their associated erector muscles.

Integument of the vertebrate classes

If we again tour through the different taxa that we discussed previously, we find many different forms
of integument, based on the different environment that each organism inhabits.

Amphioxus has an epidermis with a single layer of cells. A synapomorphy of Craniata is the presence
of a stratified (multilayered) epidermis. The horny teeth of lampreys are keratin - most other fishes
have little or no keratin in the skin.

There are three major types of hard tissue associated with skin:

Enamel
- the hardest tissue in the body
- made of hydroxyapatite and has no cells or tubules within it; only about 3% of it is
organic
- ectodermal in origin and is produced by accretion of layers
- generally it is the most superficial of hard tissues and is found on teeth and the outer
layers of denticles, scales and dermal armor - one type of enamel is ganoine
Dentine
- is softer than enamel and has about 25% organic fibers
- usually contains tubules occupied by the processes of the mesodermal cells
- found on the same structures as enamel, but is always deep to the enamel layer
- some types of dentine are osteodentine, orthodentine, and cosmine, the last of these has
characteristic types of canals
Bone
- has about the same level of organic component as dentine
- may have osteons (Haversian systems) as does osteodentine, or may be deposited in
layers like orthodentine
- unlike enamel and dentine, bone may undergo drastic reorganization

v Agnathans
The skin of living agnathans lacks dermal bone or scales, but the earliest craniate fossils
(Ostracoderms) are known from tiny scales of dermal bone found in the Cambrian period. These
scales had
1. a deepest, thin layer of lamellar bone,
2. a thick layer of spongy (vascular) bone,
3. another layer called dentine, and
4. a surface coat of enamel-like material, often called ganoine.
There was a pore-canal system that likely functioned in electroreception

Chondrichthyes
The skin is covered with denticles or placoid scales with layers of dense lamellar bone, dentine, and
enamel
Teeth are modified placoid scales

v Bony fishes
Integument of fish is characterized by structures that help the organism maintain its water
balance
generally characterized by thin epidermis, with little or no keratinized cells at the stratum
corneum
 v mucus secreted from fishs skin which seals out water and also prevents invasion by
ectoparasites and fungus

v glands are unicellular - derived from a single epidermal cell

Structures associated most with the fishes are scales:

v composed of three basic compounds: bone, dentine and enamel (moving from inside to
outside); the outside layer, enamel, is the hardest tissue in the body, and therefore can be
very protective

v because they contain compounds that are similar to those in teeth, scales are often compared
to teeth

v basal types of scales include :

cycloid scale - thin bony scale having a smooth surface and rounded margins
ctenoid scale - thin bony scale having comblike processes on its outer part and a serrate
margin
placoid scale - scaly outgrowth of the skin, that is thicker and more embedded in the skin
cosmoid scale - thick bony plates that are embedded into the skin, that act more like a bony
armor
v perform a more protective function, although the protectiveness of the scale is determined by
the thickness of the bone

Amphibians
The earliest tetrapods had dermal scales, which probably functioned as armor. Among living
amphibians, caecilians have tiny dermal scales called osteoderms. Their homology with dermal armor
is not clear.
Amphibians mark the transition between the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Skin remains similar
to its aquatic roots and resembles the skin of the fish; however, scales are not present.
To prevent water loss, amphibians utilize mucus, which is a similar mechanism that fish use to prevent
taking on additional water. However, the mucus in amphibians is secreted by multicellular glands
rather than the unicellular glands in fish.
Because the integument of amphibians makes them somewhat vulnerable, many amphibians also
secrete toxins that prevent them from being eaten by other organisms. The primary gland responsible
for the secretion is the parotid gland, located behind the ear of amphibians.

Reptiles
Reptiles show more advanced integumental adaptations to the terrestrial environment because they
are more far-removed from the water. In contrast, the cells are more highly keratinized.
The integument is modified into horny scales in snakes and lizards. In snakes, the scales on the
ventral surface can be further modified into scutes, which can be used in locomotion. In turtles the
epidermis is strongly modified into plates that cover the shell, and because they increase in diameter
each year, they can be used to age the animals.

Birds
The integument of birds reflects some reptilian ancestry and some new developments of the class.
Scales are present on the legs and feet of most birds, and the bill is covered in a tough skin that is
highly keratinized. The remaining skin is relatively thin.
The defining characteristic of bird integument is feathers:
 - derived originally from scales, so that scales and feathers are homologous
- function in flight (flight feathers) as well as temperature regulation (contour feathers)
- basic structure of feather calamus, rachis and vane, which are derived from a feather follicle
.The vane is composed of barbs that help to hold the shape of the feather and can be put back
into place during preening.

Birds are not always completely covered in feathers - instead, feathers usually grow along tracts called
pterylae, and bare spots are called aptera
Some feathers are modified to perform different functions
- down feathers are softer feathers because they lack all the barbs of flight feathers
- bristles and filoplumes are specially modified feathers that are used in catching prey (e.g., bristles
around the bill of swallows and flycatchers) and display (filoplumes of grouse)

Mammals
Mammals generally have skin that conforms to the basic structure described previously, with the
epidermal layers of the skin being especially thick in areas such as the soles and the palms of the feet,
where proection is needed.
Hair is the distinctive characteristic of mammals, and it provides insulation as well as some additional
protection to the animal
- grow in folllicles derived from the stratum germinativum of the epidermus but are rooted in the
dermis .
- hair growth continues until the mitosis in the root stops - individuals in which mitosis completely
stops at the hair root are usually the ones that go bald.
The fine structure of an individual hair consists of three layers: medulla, cortex and cuticular scale
(which contain a lot of keratin). Softer hairs (such as our fine body hairs) lack a medulla, whereas
our scalp hair contains a medulla and is usually very strong.
Modifications of hair include guard hairs (that protect the undercoat hair), quills (such as in hedgehogs
and porcupines) and vibrissae (the tactile whiskers on the snouts of mammals).
Other modifications of mammalian skin includes blubber, which is found in many cetaceans and
marine mammals. Blubber is a highly thickened subcutaneous fat layer that adds to the insulation of
marine mammals and also acts as a food source for the body.

Glands of the skin: Glands associated with the skin that help to protect the skin and its associatedd
structures, aid in heat regulation, and give off scent. Include:
- sebaceous glands which lubricate and waterproof hairs - special case in birds the uropygial gland
located at the base of the tail which secretes a waxy substance that is used to waterproof and clean
feathers.
- two types of sweat glands in mammals aid in heat regulation: eccrine and apocrine sweat glands
- eccrine sweat glands secrete a watery solution that assists in evaporative cooling on the entire
body
- apocrine sweat glands have thicker secretions that contain more odor, and are sometimes
modified into scent glands in some species to use for scent marking (dogs) or defense (skunks); also
the wax gland, which secretes the wax in mammalian ears.
- the mammary gland (related to sebaceous glands) which contain fatty tissue in addition to
secretory cells that produce milk; usually only become active under hormonal influences, such as the
secretion of prolactin by the body that occurs in females during pregnancy and lactation.

Nails, claws, hoofs, horns and antlers: all are integumental derivatives.
- nails grow from the nail bed located in the epidermis at the distal part of the phalanges; the nail
is higly cornified in ungulates whereas in clawed animals the nail is elongated and thickened for
defense or predation
- horns are supported by a bony structure growing out from the skull; surrounding the bony core is
a highly keratinized layer of the epidermis which is generally permanent
- antlers are not present throughout the year, and are shed during the non-breeding season;
develop under a protective covering of skin (velvet), which is lost as the antlers mature
- rhinoceros horns are simply hairlike keratin fibers that are woven together without a bony core -
similar to baleen in whales that is used for feeding
Integument coloration - Pigment cells
Pigment cells (chromatophores) are derived from neural crest cells that break off from the ectoderm
during neural tube formation and are usually found in the dermis
- in the epidermis of mammals and birds, the pigment cells are usually melanophores which contain
the pigment melanin. Melanin is red or blackish brown. Melanophores in the epidermis are usually
responsible for slow color change, such as that related to aging or seasonal changes.
- in groups other than mammals and birds the chromatophores are mostly in the dermis:
- melanophores are like those of the epidermis
iridophores have organelles that contain platelets of guanine pigment, which reflects or scatters
light
- xanthophores and erythrophores have yellowish pteridine pigments and reddish carotenoid
pigments
- dermal chromatophores are responsible for rapid, physiological color change.
Coloration can be of many types, including cryptic (providing blend into the environment)
and aposematic (warning coloriation, that occurs in some snakes)

Definitions:

Aposematic coloration - a form of coloration that serves to advertise the presence of dangerous,
venomous or distasteful species.

Chromatophore - a vertebrate cell of neural crest origin that carries pigment or reflective granules.

Cosmoid scale - thick bony plates that are embedded into the skin, that act more like a bony armor.

Ctenoid scale - thin bony scale having comblike processes on its outer part and a serrate margin.

Cycloid scale - thin bony scale having a smooth surface and rounded margins
Erythrophores - pigment cells that contain red pigments.

Fibroblast - irregularly-shaped connective tissue cell that produces the extracellular matrix, including
collagen fibers.

Iridophores - pigment cells that confer a silvery appearance.

Keratin - a horny protein synthesized by the epidermal cells of many vertebrates.

Macrophages - large cells that phagacytose, or ingest, foreign material.

Placoid scale - scaly outgrowth of the skin, that is thicker and more embedded in the skin.

Sebaceous gland - branched alveolar gland that produces oily and waxy secretions.
Uropygial gland - an oil-secreting gland of birds located dorsal to the tail base.

Vibrissae - long tactile whiskers found on the snouts of mammals.

Xanthophores - pigment cells that contain yellowish pigments.

THE INTEGUMENT AND

ITS DERIVATIVES

v : Epidermis

v : Dermis

EPIDERMIS AND ITS

DERIVATIVES

The epidermis, derived from somatic ectoderm, is the exterior-most covering of the chordate body.

It provides protection against the invasion of microorganisms, provides flexibility in motion, and seals
in moisture.

As will be seen, it also gives rise to a variety of differentiated structures such as feathers, hair, horns,
claws, nails and glands.

Begin by looking at a cross-section of Amphioxus (Branchiostoma) integument.

Amphioxus possesses the simplest possible form of epidermis - a single layer of columnar epithelium
covered by a thin film of cuticle.
All true vertebrates, however, have developed a multi-layered epithelium.

Note the simple, multicellular, epithelium of the lamprey, which has no scales.

Fishes and amphibians have a mucus layer for bacterial and mechanical protection and to prevent
drying on land.

See frog skin.Terrestrial vertebrates have replaced the cuticle with keratin. See the snake skin.

Epidermal Derivatives of the Integument

Keratin Structures

New epidermal cells are formed continuously in the lower layers of the epidermis.

In terrestrial vertebrates, new epidermal cells push more superficial ones to the stratum
corneum, the outer-most epithelial layer.

In the process of self-destruction, these exterior epidermal cells accumulate protein products called
keratin.

Keratinized or cornified skin serves to prevent water escape and to protect against friction and direct
mechanical stimulation (e.g. calluses in humans).

The production of all of the following structures involves keratinization:

Epidermal Scales:

a continuous layer of repetitious thickenings of the stratum corneum; you

cannot dissect an individual epidermal scale out of the skin.

These scales may be shed entirely (moulting) or in small flakes. Examine preserved specimen of
snake skin and dried specimens of bird legs and feet.

Claws and Talons: curved, laterally compressed keratinized projections from the tips of digits. See
dried specimen of cat claws and bird talons.
Hooves: enlarged keratinized plates found on the ends of ungulate digits. Examine the hooves of pig
and horse.

Nails: keratinized epithelial cells are produced at the nail base and push the existing nail forward.

They provide protection from mechanical injury and stabilize skin for better grasping. Found only in
primates.

Horns: a tough, cornified layer of the integument covers horns. Their core, however, is bone, which is
of dermal origin.

Horns are found in bovines (cattle, antelope, sheep, goats, bison, wildebeest). They are retained year-
round and grow throughout the animal’s lifetime.

Baleen:

It is a filter feeding habit in fishes. found in some whales, baleen is a series of keratinized plates

that arise from oral epithelium.

These sheets hang from the palate along its length and act as a sieve. See the display.

Beaks: epidermal structures, jaws are covered by keratinized sheaths in birds and turtles.
Feathers: are believed to have evolved from reptilian scales. Columns of epidermal cells project into
the skin initially to form an invagination called the feather follicle.

Later growth results in a projection out of the skin of a keratinized epidermal sheath with an inner
feather shaft.

These columns then separate and develop into barbs. Feather growth is initiated by dermal papillae,
which die in the grown feather to form feather pulp.

The quill (calamus), which attaches to the body and extends as a rachis. From the rachis project
many veins with barbs and barbules to hold them together.

Hair: just as in feathers, there is an initial ingrowth of epidermal cells to form the hair follicle,
followed by an outward growth of keratinized cells to form the hair shaft.

Dermal papillae cells of the outer edge die and form the core substance of hair follicles.

The similarities between hair and feathers both in development and in general anatomy.

They both possess dermal papillae, shafts, an inner pulp and columns of specialized keratinized cells.
Hair is characteristic of mammals.

Gland

Specialized to secrete specific products (oil, sweat, milk, etc.), these structures are derived by an
infolding of the epidermis. In many cases they retain a connection to the stratum corneum whereby
their secretions can be released at the skin surface.

• THE DERMIS AND ITS

DERIVATIVES

The dermis is generally much thicker than the epidermis and lies more deeply.

It is made of a fibrous mass of connective tissue (collagen) and is of mesodermal origin.

 It may directly produce dermal (membrane) bone. The dermis is important in defence against injury
and in the maintenance of body heat.

Deeper regions of the dermis often contain fatty deposits, smooth muscle, blood vessels and
nerves. Chromatophore cells are sometimes epidermal, but usually dermal in origin.

They secrete melanin, which can be passed to the stratum corneum of skin and to hair shafts to
produce colour and block harmful sunlight.

Dermal Bone

Once present in some extinct fish - Ostracoderms had a complete head shield,
while Placoderms had a broken head shield and body armour.

Now dermal bone is present in turtle dermal bone, antlers, and in the dermal armour of armadillo.

In antlers the velvet is epidermal in origin and shapes and provides blood to the dermal bone. Once
grown, the velvet is shed and only the bone remains. Antlers are found in deer, elk, moose and their
relatives, often only in males. They are shed annually.

In most modern vertebrates, dermal bone (membrane bone) is formed from embryonic mesenchyme
by intramembranous ossification, and contributes to the skull and skeleton, rather than being
manifested externally. An exception is teeth, which are partly derived from dermal bone.

Fish Scales

Fish scales are also called dermal scales since they are derived mainly from the dermis.

1. Cosmoid Scales: Found in Placoderms (extinct) as plates, and also typical of the Lobe Finned
Fishes or Sarcopterygii, (Choanichthyes). Extinct fish had scales of enamel, cosmine and bone with
pulp cavities. Modern ones, like Coelocanth and the lung fish have calcified fibers so this type of scale
is almost extinct. No specimens available.

2. Ganoid Scales: See bioplastic mounts, slides, the plates of sturgeon, called scutes, and the scales
of the gar pike on display. Made of multi-layered enamel called ganoin over lamellar bone. Primitive
(now extinct) species also had a cosmine layer and vascular bone with pulp, but these were lost in
modern day examples.

3. Placoid Scales: See bioplastic mounts and dogfish slides. Made of enamel (epidermal) and the
dermal derivatives, dentine and bone with a pulp core. They are typical of cartilaginous fishes. Placoid
scales are responsible for the rough feeling of dogfish skin.

4) Teleost (bony fish) scales

These are thin scales of dermal bone. They have a thin covering of epidermal tissue over them. It is
derived by reduction (loss) of parts of a ganoid scale. There are two types depending on their shape.

4 a) Cycloid Scales: See bioplastic mounts and slides. A round ended scale.

4 b) Ctenoid Scales: See bioplastic mounts and slides. A comb shaped end is characteristic of this
scale type.

Referring to the bioplastic mount and slides, make a sketch of the placoid, ganoid, cycloid and
ctenoid scales. This sketch is for your own reference so do not copy the drawings but draw what you
see under the microscope.

TEETH
Teeth are composed of three main parts. Enamel, the hardest substance in the body, covers the tooth
surface. It is epidermal in origin. Ganoin is a form of enamel. Dentin is similar to bone in structure
but is harder. It is located beneath the enamel and forms the walls of the third component of teeth,
the pulp cavity. These are of dermal origin. Cosmine is a form of dentin. Dermal bone
called cementum is also present in mammalian teeth.

Teeth are used to catch and hold prey, to crush hard shells and, in some higher vertebrates, to carry
out mechanical digestion of food in the mouth.

Teeth of higher vertebrates are thought to have evolved from bony dermal scales similar to dogfish

placoid scales. They have a complex embryonic origin involving both the epidermis and the dermis.

Interestingly, their development bears some resemblance to that of hair and feathers. Mesenchyme

cells collect in the dermis to form dermal papillae, which are instrumental in the production of dentin

and go on to form the pulp of the tooth. Enamel is produced by the epidermis. The tooth in mammals

is held in place by cement, which is a non-vascular.

JAW SUSPENSION IN VERTEBRATES

Jaw suspension means attachment of the lower jaw with the upper jaw or the skull for
efficient biting and chewing. There are different ways in which these attachments are
attained depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates.

AMPHISTYLIC

In primitive elasmobranchs there is no modification of visceral arches and they are

made of cartilage. Pterygoqadrate makes the upper jaw and meckel’s cartilage makes
lower jaw and they are highly flexible. Hyoid arch is also unchanged. Lower jaw is
attached to both pterygoqadrate and hyoid arch and hence it is called amphistylic.

AUTODIASTYLIC

Upper jaw is attached with the skull and lower jaw is directly attached to the upper jaw.
The second arch is a branchial arch and does not take part in jaw suspension.

HYOSTYLIC

In modern sharks, lower jaw is attached to pterygoquadrate which is in turn attached to

hyomandibular cartilage of the 2nd arch. It is the hyoid arch which braces the jaw by
ligament attachment and hence it is called hyostylic.
HYOSTYLIC (=METHYSTYLIC)

In bony fishes pterygoquadrate is broken into epipterygoid, metapterygoid and

quadrate, which become part of the skull. Meckel’s cartilage is modified as articular
bone of the lower jaw, through which the lower jaw articulates with quadrate and then
with symplectic bone of the hyoid arch to the skull. This is a modified hyostylic jaw
suspension that is more advanced.

AUTOSTYLIC (=AUTOSYSTYLIC)

Pterygoquadrate is modified to form epipterygoid and quadrate, the latter braces the
lower jaw with the skull. Hyomandibular of the second arch transforms into columella
bone of the middle ear cavity and hence not available for jaw suspension.

MONIMOSTYLIC

This type of suspension is a modification of autosystylic suspension in which quadrate

is immovable and not flexible as in amphibia and many reptiles. Hyomandibular is
modified as columella bone of the middle ear cavity.

STREPTOSTYLIC

This type is found in snakes, lizards and birds, in which quadrate bone is movable and
flexible at both ends making the jaw highly flexible. Columella is single bone in the
middle ear cavity and is sometimes called stapes.

HOLOSTYLIC type is found in lung fishes and Holocephali. Upper jaw is fused with
the skull and the lower jaw is attached directly with it. Hyoid arch does not participate
in jaw suspension and is a typical branchial arch. There is no columella bone.

AUTOSTYLIC (=CRANIOSTYLIC)

Found in mammals, in this type of jaw suspension, pterygoquadrate is transformed into

alisphenoid and incus, while meckel’s cartilage is changed into malleus and not
available for jaw suspension. Lower jaw is directly attached to the skull bone called
squamosal. Monotremes also possess this type of jaw suspension.

Classification of Chelonia mydas

 Domain: Life
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Cheloniidae
Genus: Chelonia
Species: Chelonia mydas

Kingdom - Animalia
Chelonia mydas is a member of the Animalia kingdom because it is
multicellular, heterotrophic, and possesses a digestive tract.

Phylum - Chordata
Members of the Phylum Chordata possess a notochord, nerve cord, and
visceral clefts and arches which Chelonia mydas contains and is therefore a
member of this phylum.

Class - Reptilia
Chelonia mydas is a member of the class Reptilia for multiple reasons such
as lacking an aquatic larval stage and lay eggs with an amniotic membrane
that allows the embryo to breathe on land.

Order - Testudines
Order Testudines contains Chelonia mydas because of its bony or
cartilaginous shell. This order contains all extant and extinct turtle species.

Family - Cheloniidae
The family Cheloniidae contains sea turtles.

Genus - Chelonia
Chelonia mydas is the only sea turtle species in the genus Chelonia.

Species - Chelonia mydas

Chelonia mydas was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Chelonia, from
Chelonia, is derived from the Greek word chelōnē which means
'tortoise.' Mydas is derived from the Greek word mydaus which means 'to be
damp.' When these two words are used together, they describe a tortoise
from water.

Habitat
Green turtles usually inhabit shallow areas with an abundance of algae and
sea grass such as inlets, reefs, and bays (U.S., 2013). They are known to
migrate long distances to their breeding grounds where they lay their eggs.
These eggs then hatch into juveniles that crawl to the ocean and float on
currents (Arkive, 2013).

Greens habitat encompass three different types: high energy beaches,

convergence zones in the pelagic habitat, and benthic feeding grounds in
relatively shallow, protected waters (Magnuson, 1990). After finding suitable
feeding areas, Chelonia mydas are known to sleep in the same location
every evening (Lemm, 2006).

They are found in tropical climates and inhabit both the Pacific and Atlantic
ocean along with the Indian ocean (Arkive, 2013). The water in the area
cannot fall below 20°C or they will look for other feeding grounds
(Marinebio, 2012). More specifically, green turtle's main habitats include
Galapagos Islands, Austrailia, and Hawaii (Safina, 2006). In the United
States, they inhabit the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and from Texas to
Massachusetts (Magnuson, 1990). In Florida, they inhabit rivers and bays
grazing for food. Some of these locations include the Indian River, Florida
Bay, Homossassa Bay, Crystal River, and Cedar Key (Magnuson, 1990).

Females looking for nesting grounds seek undisturbed and uninhabited

locations. Many of these nesting sites are located in the highly populated
beaches in Florida. As population increased, the light pollution from the
buildings near the beach caused havoc on the female turtles and their
young. These lights were found to disorientate hatchlings and residents
would find newly hatched turtles in their bushes on the roads where they
were killed by cars (Safina, 2006). As a result of this, twenty counties and
forty-six municipalities in the area have passed ordinances regulating light
usage at night from June through October (Safina, 2006).

Hatchlings and adult female turtles use photic cues on nesting areas to
orient themselves with their location and the ocean (Safina, 2006).
Green sea turtles are believed to be able to dive as deep as 400 feet and are
known to sometimes hibernate at the bottom for weeks at a time (Safina,
2006). They spend up to 95% of their time underwater, coming up
occasionally for a breath of air and then immediately submerge again
(Safina, 2006). In one breath, green sea turtles can exchange up to 80% of
the air in their lungs, while humans can only exchange up to 10% (Safina,
2006).

Chelonia mydas has been listed as endangered by the International Union of

the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and it is also endangered in southern
California and Pacific Mexico by the United States Endangered Species Act
(Lemm, 2006). It is also listed in Appendix I of the Convention of
International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES), which protects the
species from international trade (Lemm, 2006). In Florida prior to the
Endangered Species act in the 1970s, there were thought to be only thirty-
two nesting sites left (Salfina, 2006).

Chelonia mydas is the primary source of the well-known "turtle soup" and
for a time had been almost fished to distinction (Pope, 1971). "Calipee" and
"calipash" are two important ingredients in this soup to obtain the gelatinous
consistency that it is famous for (Conant, 1975).

Throughout Southeast Asia, green turtle consumption is estimated at

approximately 100,000 per year (Safina, 2006). On the Indonesian island of
Bali, the world's largest sea turtle slaughter takes place with as many as
20,000 green sea turtles brought into market and sold annually (Safina,
2006). Eating turtle signifies wealth and prestige in these locations and is
engrained in their culture and religion (Safina, 2006).
Nutrition
Chelonia mydas is generally vegetarian except during its first year of life
when it is carnivorous (Bustard, 1972). Chelonia mydas will feed on jellyfish,
mollusks, crustaceans, and other invertebrates until they reach 20-25 cm in
length and 20-25 grams in mass (Lemm, 2006).

Once past the juvenile stage, their diet is consists of primarily angiosperms
and marine algae. They also take advantage of any animal food that is
readily available and have been known to eat jellyfish as adults (Bustard,
1972).

Due to their diet, Chelonia

mydas resides in shallow, warm areas where algae and other marine
vegetation are abundant (Bustard, 1972). The tongue of the green turtle is
firmly anchored to the bottom of its mouth (Alderton, 1988). Because of
this, Chelonia mydas depend greatly on their serrated jaw to latch onto
plants and other food sources, and pushing away the excess to tear pieces of
food (Alderton, 1988). Using their muscular tongue, green turtles direct the
food into the gullet. The food then travels into an elongated digestive tract
that can reach lengths seven times that of the length of the individuals'
carapace (Alderton, 1988). The tract is so long to accommodate the large
quantities of plant fibers being ingested by the individual (Alderton, 1988).

The sense of smell is extremely important to this species of sea

turtle. Chelonia mydas utilize both their nose as well as a structure called
Jacobsen's organ (Alderton, 1988). This organ is located in the roof of the
individual's mouth and is connected directly to the brain (Alderton, 1988).
Jacobsen's organ functions to detect scent particles within the air or water
(Alderton, 1988).
Reproduction
The sexual maturation of the green turtle is reached between 15-50 years
(Lemm, 2006).The average rate of growth for Green sea turtles has been
found to be 20 cm per year whereas maturity for females is said to be
reached at 88 cm in length (Pope, 1971). When green turtles find a mate,
they often migrate near nesting shores (Magnuson et al., 1990). During
copulation, the mating pair of green sea turtles float on the surface of the
ocean, oblivious to the potential dangers (Pope, 1971).

Females lay their eggs on the beaches of many islands where they dig holes
called nests during the night (Encyclopedia, 2013). The females look for
large beaches with little to no disturbances and a downward slope to the
ocean (U.S., 2013). Despite the effort put forth by the females, not all nests
survive nature. Many nests are destroyed due to the changes in tide. Nests
either become flooded with water, become uncovered by erosion, or both
(Magnuson et al., 1990).

Reproduction occurs every 2-4 years and females rarely produce more than
one clutch in consecutive years (U.S., 2013). A clutch is a nest of eggs and
on average a female will lay 9 clutches at 13 day intervals with around 75-
200 eggs per clutch (U.S., 2013). Eggs are 4.0-4.6 cm in diameter (Lemm,
2006). The process of laying eggs takes a female green turtle approximately
two hours (Magnuson et al., 1990). Time of incubation is variable from 45-
75 days depending on the temperature during this period (U.S., 2013).

Sex of the hatchlings depends on the temperature at which the eggs are
incubated (Magnuson et al., 1990). Due to the sex depending on
temperature at incubation, clutches tend to consist of one sex (Alderton,
1988). Composition of the sand where females lay their eggs can cause
variations in the incubation temperatures along with depth and humidity
(Alderton, 1988). Clay based sands tend to have a lower temperature and
therefore affect the sex of the hatchlings (Alderton, 1988). Differences in
humidity can have the same sex and female turtles are known to pee on the
clutch to raise the humidity which needs to be around 80% for proper
incubation (Alderton, 1988).

Nesting occurs at different times of the

year depending on the location. On a group of islands called Seychelles,
peak times of nesting is between March and May, where-as-in Borneo,
nesting peaks occur between May and September (Pope, 1971). In the
southeastern United States, the nesting occurs between the months of June
to October (Lemm, 2006). Once hatched, the young crawl into the ocean
and those that survive can live up to 80 years of age (Encyclopedia 2013).
At birth, they are 5 cm in length (Lemm, 2006). Newly hatched young are
black in color until six months of age when they become much paler
(Conant, 1975).

Urinogenital Systems in Various Vertebrates

Learn about the comparison of urinogenital systems in various vertebrates.
Comparison: Vertebrates # Bufo:
A. Urinary System – It consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a bilobed urinary
bladder rand a urinary opening.

1. The kidneys are flat, elongated, dark-red lobulated structures situated in the coelom,
dorsally on either side of the vertebral column. The adult kidney is mesonephric.

2. From the outer side of each kidney arises a white tube, the ureter. The ureter
gradually enlarges, runs backward and the two unite posteriorly to open into the cloacal
chamber on its dorsal surface. A thin-walled bilobed structure, the urinary bladder, in
which urine is stored, opens into the cloacal chamber. The cloaca opens to the exterior
through the cloacal aperture.

B. Genitals system (Fig. 34) – The individual is either male or female.

Male genital system – It consists of a pair of tests, vasa efferentia, two urinogential ducts
and their openings into the cloaca.

1. The testes are two, elongated, cream-white bodies attached to the ventral surface of
the kidnes by means of a membraneos fold, known as mesorchium.

2. Several fine ducts called vasa efferentia pass from the testis to the kidney and finally
open into the ureter.

3. The ureter and the urinary opening serve as genital duct and its opening.

4. The spermatozoa produced in the testes pass to the ureters through the vasa
efferentia and from there to the exterior through the common urinogenital opening and
the cloacal aperture.

Female genital system – It consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts with their
funnels, a pair of uteri and a genital opening.

1. The ovaries are attached to the ventral surface of the kidneys by means of a
membraneous fold, known as mesovarium. Ovaries are small and light brown in off
seasons but large and with small black and white rounded structures during breeding
season.

2. Very near the heart, on each side, is a funnel like structure, the infundibulum. It runs
posteriorly as a narrow, much-coiled tube, the oviduct (Mullerian duct). Unlike the
male, the genital duct is separate from the ureter. The oviduct dilates posteriorly and
forms the uterus. The two uteri unite posteriorly and opens dorsally into the cloaca.

3. The ova escape into the coelom by the rupture of the ovarian wall. The ova enter the
oviduct through the infundibulum and receive a coating of albumen while passing
downward. The eggs are discharged on water at the time of mating.
Comparison: Vertebrates # Calotes (Fig. 35. A,B):
A. Urinary system – It consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair ureter, a urinary bladder and
two urinary apertures.

1. The kidneys are flat, medium-sized, dark-red bodies with two lobes, situated in the
posterior region of the coelom on either side of the vertebral column. The posterior ends
of the kidneys are tapering and in close contact with each other. The adult kidney is
metanephric.

2. From the outer side of each kidney arises a white tube, the ureter. The two ureters run
backward and open dorsally into the cloaca by separate urinary apertures. A thin-walled
sac-like structure, the urinary bladder, in which urine is stored, opens into the cloaca on
its ventral surface. The colaca opens to the exterior by a cloacal aperture. In male, the
ureter joins the vas deferens posteriorly to form a urinogenital duct which opens into
the cloaca.

B. Genital system (Fig.35B) – The individual is either male or female.

Male genital system – Its consists of a pair of testes, two epididymis, two vasadeferentia,
two copulatory organs and two urinogenital openings.

1. The testes are two, oval, white bodies attached to the dorsal body wall by the
mesorchium. The right testis is slightly anteriorly placed.

2. From the inner side of each testis arises a narrow convoluted duct, the epididymis,
which runs backward.

3. The epididymis passes behind into a narrow convoluted duct, the vas deferens, which
opens into the terminal part of the corresponding ureter. The rest of the ureter serves as
a common urinogenital duct. A pair of copulatorysacs with bifid apex open into the
posterior part of the cloaca.

4. The spermatozoa produced in the testes pass through the epididymis, vasa deferentia,
urinogenital ducts and reach the cloaca. During mating, the spermatozoa come out
through the hemipenis which is in the form of a pair of eversible sacs.
Female genital system – It consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts with their
funnels, and a pair of female genital apertures

1. The ovaries are attached to the dorsal body wall in the posterior region of the coelom
by means of a membraneous fold, known as mesovarium. Ovaries are irregularly oval
bodies with surfaces raised up into rounded elevations.

2. Much anterior to the ovaries is a pair of flat thin-walled tubes, the oviducts. The
anterior end of each tube opens by a funnel-shaped structure, the infundibulum.
Posteriorly, each oviduct is differentiated into a middle portion known as uterus and a
terminal portion, the vagina, which opens into the posterior part of the cloacal chamber
by a separate aperture. The oviducts are attached to the body wall by ligaments.

3. The ova escape into the coelom by the rupture of the ovarian wall. The ova enter the
oviduct through the infundibulum and receive a coating of albumen while passing
downward. It further receives a coating of calcium carbonate after fertilization and the
eggs are laid on land.

Comparison: Vertebrates # Columba (Fig. 35 C,D):

A. Urinary system – It consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters and a pair of urinary
apertures.

1. The kidneys are flat, elongated, dark-red bodies with three lobes. They closely fit into
the follows of the pelvis. The adult kidney is metanephric.

2. From the ventral surface of each kidney arises a narrow duct, the ureter. The two
ureters run straight backward and open directly into the middle chamber or urodaeum
of the cloaca by separate urinary apertures.

B. Genital System (Fig. 35. C,D) – The individual is either male or female.

Male genital system – It consists a pair of testes, a pair of vasa deferentia, two vesiculae
seminalis and two male genital apertures.

1. The testes are ovoid, white bodies, attached to the ventral surface of the anterior ends
of the kidneys by the peritoneum.
2. From the inner border of each testis arises a narrow convoluted duct, the vas deferens
which runs backward, parallel to the ureter.

3. Posteriorly, the vas deferens enlarges slightly and forms the vesicular seminalis. It
opens into the urodaeum on the extremity of a small papilla.

4. The spermatozoa produced in the testes pass through the vasa deferentia and are
stored temporarily in the vesiculae seminalis. Finally the spermatozoa pass out through
the cloacal aperture during mating.

Female genital system – It consists of an ovary, an oviduct situated on the left side, the
right counterparts being atrophied, leaving a trace only, and a female genital opening.

1. The left ovary is attached to the dorsal body wall of the posterior region of the coelom
by means of a membraneous fold, known as mesovarium. The ovary is irregularly oval
with the surface raised up into rounded elevations due to the presence of follicles.

2. The left oviduct is along and convoluted tube, provided with a large funnel or
infundibulum at the anterior end near the ovary. The wall of the tube is muscular in its
middle region. The posterior portion is known as uterus, which is glandular and opens
into the urodaeum of the cloaca by the genital aperture. The right oviduct is atrophied
and a vestige persists.

3. The ova escape into the coelom by the rupture of the follicles and enter the oviduct
through the infundibulum. While passing downward, each ovum receives albumen.
After fertilization, it further receives a coating of double shell membrane and a
calcareous shell, and the eggs are laid in nests.

Comparison: Vertebrates # Cavia (Fig. 36):

A. Urinary system – It consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder
and urethra and a urinary aperture.

1. The kidneys are two, dark-red, bean-shaped bodies attached to the dorsal body wall by
the sides of the vertebral column. The right one is slightly anteriorly placed than the left.
Each kidney is composed of two parts, the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The adult
kidney is metanephric.
2. From the inner concave region or hilum of the kidney arises a narrow duct, the ureter
which runs backward and the two ureters open separately into the urinary bladder on
either lateral side. The urinary bladder is a thin-walled median sac, the neck of which is
drawn into a narrow tube, the urethra.

In the male, the urethra traverses the penis and opens to the exterior at its tip. In the
female, it is small and opens to the exterior by a small urinary aperture behind the
clitoris.

B. Genital system (Fig. 36). The individual is either male or female.

Male genital system – It consists of a pair of tests, two epididymis, two vasa deferentia,
two seminal vesicles, a penis, certain glands and the genital opening.

1. The testes are white ovoid bodies situated in the coelom in the off seasons, but
descends into the scrotum during breeding season.

2. From each testis arises a much convoluted tubule, the epididymis which remains
attached to the testis.

3. The edididymis runs as vas deferens and the two vasa deferentia open into the neck of
the urinary bladder by a common aperture on is dorsal surface. The penis is an
elongated, muscular, rounded structure, the tip of which is known as glans penis. The
junction of the urethra, spermiduct and ureter is surrounded by a large gland the
prostate gland. A paired diverticulum, the vesciculae seminalis are situated close to the
urinary bladder.

4. The spermatozoa produced in the testes pass through the epididymis and the vasa
deferentia and reach the seminal vesicle. During mating the spermatozoa pass to the
exterior through the common urinogenital opening at the tip of the penis.

Female genital system – It consists of a pair of ovaries, two infundibula, two oviducts, a
vagina, a vestibule and vulva.

1. The ovaries are small and attached to the dorsal body wall of the posterior part of the
abdomen, by the sides of the backbone by means of a membraneous fold, known as
mesovarium.
2. Very near each ovary is a funnel-shaped structure, the infundibulum, which is
connected posteriorly with the oviduct. The first part of the oviduct is very narrow,
coiled and known as fallopian tube. The middle part is wide and called uterus. The two
uteri unite posteriorly and is known as vagina. The posterior part of the vagina, the
vestibule, opens to the exterior through the female genital aperture or vulva. Two
prominent folds known as labia majora are situated by the side of the vulva. A small
muscular structure, the clitoris, homologous to the penis of the male is situated in front
of the urinary opening.

3. The ova escape into the coelom by the rupture of the ovarian wall and enter the
oviduct through the infundibulum and come to rest in the fallopian tube. During
mating, spermatozoa discharged into the vagina move forward and fertilize the ova. The
zygotes come to the uteri where development proceeds and nourishment is drawn
through the placenta. Young individuals are born directly.
Cetaceans: Whales, Dolphins, and
Porpoises

The word cetacean is used to describe all whales, dolphins, and porpoises in the order Cetacea. This word
comes from the Latin cetus meaning "a large sea animal," and the Greek word ketos, meaning "sea
monster."

There are about 89 species of cetaceans. The term "about" is used because as scientists learn more about
these fascinating animals, new species are discovered or populations are re-classified.

Cetaceans range in size from the tiniest dolphin, Hector's dolphin, which is just over 39 inches long, to the
largest whale, the blue whale, which can be over 100 feet long. Cetaceans live in all of the oceans and
many of the major rivers of the world.

Cetaceans are thought to have evolved from even-toed ungulates (a group that includes cows, camels, and
deer).

Types of Cetaceans

There are many types of cetaceans, which are divided largely according to how they feed.

The order Cetacea is divided into two sub-orders, the Mysticetes (baleen whales) and the Odontocetes
(toothed whales). The Odontocetes are more numerous, comprising 72 different species, compared to
14 baleen whale species.

The Mysticetes include species such as the blue whale, fin whale, right whale, and humpback whale.

Mysticetes have hundreds of comb-like plates of baleen hanging from their upper jaw. Baleen whales feed
by gulping large amounts of water containing hundreds or thousands of fish or plankton, then forcing the
water out in between the baleen plates, leaving the prey inside to be swallowed whole.

Odontocetes include the sperm whale, orca (killer whale), beluga and all of the dolphins and porpoises.
These animals have cone-shaped or spade-shaped teeth and usually capture one animal at a time and
swallow it whole. Odontocetes feed mostly on fish and squid, although some orcas prey on other marine
mammals.

Cetacean Characteristics

Cetaceans are mammals, which means they are endothermic (commonly called warm-blooded) and their
internal body temperature is about the same as a human's. They give birth to live young and breathe air
through lungs just like we do. They even have hair.

Unlike fish, which swim by moving their heads from side-to-side to swing their tail, cetaceans propel
themselves by moving their tail in a smooth, up-and-down motion. Some cetaceans, such as the Dall's
porpoise and the orca (killer whale) can swim faster than 30 miles per hour.
Breathing

When a cetacean wants to breathe, it has to rise to the water surface and exhale and inhale out of the
blowholes located on top of its head. When the cetacean comes to the surface and exhales, you can
sometimes see the spout, or blow, which is the result of the warm air in the whale's lungs condensing
upon reaching the cool air outside.

Insulation

Whales do not have a coat of fur to keep warm, so they have a thick layer of fat and connective tissue
called blubber underneath their skin. This blubber layer can be as much as 24 inches thick in some
whales.

Senses

Whales have a poor sense of smell, and depending on where they are, they may not be able to see well
underwater. However, they have excellent hearing. They do not have external ears but have tiny ear
openings behind each eye. They can also tell the direction of sound underwater.

Diving

Whales have collapsible rib cages and flexible skeletons, which allows them to compensate for high water
pressure when they dive. They can also tolerate higher levels of carbon dioxide in their blood, allowing
them to stay underwater for up to 1 to 2 hours for large whales.