Human Physiology & Pathophysiology

UNIT I : The Human Body

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

• Define anatomy and Physiology
• Classify by organ system all organs discussed

1.1Introduction
Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures. Some of these structures are very small and
can only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope. Other larger structures can readily
be seen, manipulated, measured, and weighed. The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means
“to cut apart.” Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of the body and observing the
wounds of soldiers and other injuries. Later, physicians were allowed to dissect bodies of the dead to
augment their knowledge. When a body is dissected, its structures are cut apart in order to observe their
physical attributes and their relationships to one another. Dissection is still used in medical schools,
anatomy courses, and in pathology labs. In order to observe structures in living people, however, a number
of imaging techniques have been developed. These techniques allow clinicians to visualize structures inside
the living body such as a cancerous tumor or a fractured bone.

Like most scientific disciplines, anatomy has areas of specialization. Gross anatomy is the study of the
larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification . Macro– means “large,” thus,
gross anatomy is also referred to as macroscopic anatomy. In contrast, micro– means “small,”
and microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope
or other magnification devices . Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells and histology,
the study of tissues. As the technology of microscopes has advanced, anatomists have been able to observe
smaller and smaller structures of the body, from slices of large structures like the heart, to the three-
dimensional structures of large molecules in the body.

Anatomists take two general approaches to the study of the body’s structures: regional and
systemic. Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body
region, such as the abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships of body
structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures work together to serve a
particular body region. In contrast, systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete
body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function. For
example, a systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of
the body.

1.2 Topics/Discussions
1.2.1 Human Organism
Anatomy
- the study of structure and shape of the body and body parts and their relationship to one another
- Ana: apart ; tomy: to cut
- Greek “cutting up or taking apart”
- Latin “dissecare”
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Gross Anatomy - studying large, easily observable structures

Microscopic anatomy – microscopic or magnifying instrument is used to see very small structures in the
body

Types of Study:
Systematic anatomy
→ Anatomy of the systems of the body; an approach to anatomic study organized by organ
systems
Regional anatomy
→ An approach to anatomic study based on regions, parts, or divisions of the body,
emphasizing the relationship of various systemic structures within the area
Surface anatomy
→ The study of the structural relationship of the external features of the body to the internal
organ and parts

Physiology
- is the study of how the body and its parts work or function
- physio = nature ; ology = study of

Relationship of Anatomy and Physiology

- The parts of our body form a well organized unit, and each of those parts has a job to do to make
the body operate as a whole.
- Structure determines what functions can take place.

Figure 1. Level of Structural Organization

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-Study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building blocks of matter:
subatomic particles, atoms and molecules. All matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique
pure substances called elements, familiar examples of which are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
calcium, and iron. The smallest unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an atom. Atoms are made
up of subatomic particles such as the proton, electron and neutron. Two or more atoms combine to form a
molecule, such as the water molecules, proteins, and sugars found in living things. Molecules are the
chemical building blocks of all body structures.

A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even bacteria, which are
extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a cellular structure. Each bacterium is a single cell.
All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are
performed in cells or are initiated by cells.

A human cell typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water-based cellular fluid
together with a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles. In humans, as in all organisms, cells
perform all functions of life. A tissue is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a
few related types) that work together to perform a specific function. An organ is an anatomically distinct
structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types. Each organ performs one or more specific
physiological functions. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major
functions or meet physiological needs of the body.

1.2.2 Organ System Overview

1. Integumentary System
- Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of
skin, hair, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

2. Skeletal System
- Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and
adipose tissue. Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments and joints.

3. Muscular System
- Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to
the skeleton by tendons

4. Lymphatic System
- Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance,
and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other
lymphatic organs.

5. Respiratory System
- Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. Consists of the
lungs and respiratory passages

6. Digestive system
- Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of
wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.

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7. Nervous System
- A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and
intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.

8. Endocrine System
- A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions.
Consists of endocrine glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones

9. Cardiovascular System
- Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the
immune response and the regulation of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

10. Urinary System

- Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists
of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ureters.

11. Reproductive system

- Overall function of the reproductive system is production offspring.

1.2.3 Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions

Maintaining boundaries – every living organism must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its
“inside” remains distinct from its “outside”
• Movement – includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system
• Responsiveness – “irritability”; ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment & then react to
them
• Digestion – the process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can be absorbed
into the blood for delivery to all body cells by the cardiovascular system.
• Metabolism – all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
• Excretion – process of removing waste from our body
• Reproduction – production of offspring
• Growth – increase in size
• Nutrients – contain the chemical used for energy & cell building
• Oxygen – necessary for chemical reaction
• Water – accounts 60 to 80% of body weight
• Body temperature - 37˚C (98˚F)
• Atmospheric pressure – force exerted on the surface of the body

Homeostasis
• homeo = the same ; stasis = to stop
• Dynamic state of equilibrium
• The body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is
continually changing
• The body is in homeostasis when its needs are being adequately met and it is functioning smoothly

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Homeostatic & Control Mechanisms

3 COMPONENTS:
i. Receptor – it is some type of sensor that monitors & responds to changes in the environment
ii. Control center – determines the level (set point) at which variable is to be maintained,
analyzed the information it receives & then determines the appropriate responses or course
of action action
iii. Effector – provides the means for the control center’s response (output) to the stimulus

Homeostatic & Control Mechanisms

Negative Feedback Mechanism Positive Feedback Mechanism
-The net effect of the response to the stimulus is to -Occur when the initial stimulus further stimulate
shut off the original stimulus or reduce its intensity the response

Example : Maintenance of Body temperature -Deviation from the set point becomes even greater

Example: During bloss, Birth

Figure 2. Illustration of Negative

Feedback Mechanism

Figure 3. Illustration of Positive

Feedback Mechanism

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1.2.4 Language of Anatomy

Anatomical Position
- the body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms
hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward

Orientation and Directional Terms

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Illustrations of Body terms

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1.2.5 Basic Cells & Tissues

Cell – basic unit of life
• Basic living unit of all organisms
• Made up of four elements:
➢ Carbon
➢ Oxygen
➢ Hydrogen
➢ Nitrogen
• Much smaller amounts of several elements:
➢ Iron
➢ Sodium
➢ Potassium
➢ Others
- Each cell is a highly organized unit
Within cells:
➢ Organelles – perform specific functions
➢ Nucleus – organelle containing the cell’s genetic material
➢ Cytoplasm – living material surrounding the nucleus and contains many types of organelles
➢ Cell membrane – enclosed the cytoplasm

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Functions of the cell

1. Cell metabolism and energy use. The chemical reactions that occur within cells are collectively
called metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities.
2. Synthesis of molecules. Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids.
3. Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the
individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic information to the next
generation.

Cell Membrane
- Plasma membrane
- Outermost component of a cell
- Extracellular – substances outside of the cell
- Intracellular – substances inside the cell
- Supports the cell contents
- Acts as a selective barrier
- Plays a role in communication between cells
- Selectively permeable
- Primarily made up of 2 major types of molecules:
• Phospholipids
• Proteins
- Other molecules:
• Cholesterol
• Carbohydrates

Movement Through The Cell Membrane

- Passive membrane transport – does not require the cell to expend energy; mechanisms include:
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion

- Active membrane transport – require energy the cell to expend energy in the form of ATP;
mechanisms include: active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis

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Diffusion
• Is a process in which solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of higher
concentration of a solute to an area of lower concentration of that same solute in solution.
• A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent between two
points divided by the distance between two points.
• In the body, diffusion is an important means of transporting substances through the extracellular
and intracellular fluids.

Two classes of cell membrane channels:

• leak channels – allow ions to pass through
• gated channels – limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and closing

Osmosis
-Is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane, from a region of higher
water concentration to one of lower water concentration. Osmosis occurs when the cell membrane is less
permeable, selectively permeable, or not permeable to solutes and a concentration gradient for water exists
across the cell membrane.

• Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent the movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane. Thus, osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water to move by
osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane.
• A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell. Isotonic solution has the concentrations of solute and water

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equal on both sides of the cell membrane. Hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes
and a lower concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.

Note : Hypertonic → cell will shrink

Hypotonic → cell will burst
Isotonic → Balance/equal

Carrier Mediated Transporter Mechanism

-Many nutrient molecules, such as amino acids and glucose, cannot enter the cell by diffusion. Likewise,
many polar molecules produced in cells cannot leave the cell by diffusion. Carriers molecules, which are
proteins within the cell membrane, are involved in carrier-mediated transport mechanisms, which move
large, water-soluble molecules or electrically charged ions across the cell membrane. Carrier-mediated
transport mechanisms exhibit specificity; that is, only specific molecules are transported by the carriers.

3 kinds:
1. Facilitated Diffusion
- Moves substances across the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance. Because movement is with the concentration gradient, metabolic
energy in the form of ATP is not required.

2. Active Transport
- Moves substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration gradient.

3. Secondary Active transport

- Involves the transport of one substance, such as Na +, across the cell membrane, establishing a
concentration gradient.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

- Large water-soluble molecules that cannot be transported by carrier molecules, small pieces of
matter, and even whole cells can be transported across cell membranes in membrane-bound sacs
called vesicles. Because of the fluid nature of membranes, vesicles and cell membranes can fuse,
allowing the contents of the vesicles to cross the cell membranes.
- Endocytosis is the uptake of material through the cell membrane by the formation of a vesicle.
When a specific substance binds to the receptor molecule, endocytosis is triggered, and the
substance is transported into the cell. This process is called receptor-mediated endocytosis. The
term phagocytosis(cell-eating) is often used for endocytosis when solid particles are ingested.

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Pinocytosis(cell-drinking) is distinguished from phagocytosis in that much smaller vesicles are

formed, and they contain liquid rather than solid particles.
- In some cells, membrane-bound sacs called secretory vesicles accumulate materials for release from
the cell. The secretory vesicles move to the cell membrane, where the vesicle membrane fuses with
the cell membrane, and the material in the vesicle is released from the cell. This process is called
exocytosis.

1.2.6 Parts of the Cell

1. Nucleus
- “headquarter”
- Contains the DNA
- Bound by a nuclear envelope

2. Nuclear membrane
- Binds the nucleus
- Between the two membranes is a fluid-filled “moat”, or space
- At various points, the two layers of the nuclear membrane approach each other and fuse, and
nuclear pores penetrate through the fused regions
- Permeable
- The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm in which nucleoli and
chromatin are suspended

3.Chromatin
- When a cell is not dividing, its DNA is combined with protein and forms a loose network of bumpy
threads called chromatin
- When a cell dividing to form two daughter cells, the chromatin threads coil and condense to form
dense, rodlike bodies called chromosomes

4. Nucleoli
- The small, dark-staining, essentially round bodies contained in the nucleus
- Site where ribosome are assembled

5. Endoplasmic Reticulum
- “network within the cell”
- is a system of fluid-filled cisterns that coil and twist through the cytoplasm
Forms:
a. Rough ER – “membrane factory”
b. site for protein synthesis
c. Abundant in cells that export protein products
d. Smooth ER – is the continuation of the rough variety, plays no role in protein synthesis
e. functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of
drugs (lipid synthesis)

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6. Golgi apparatus
- Appears as a stack of flattened membranous sacs, associated with swarms of tiny vesicles
- “traffic director”
- Function: modify and package proteins

7. Secretory vesicles
- Membrane bound sacs that carry substances from the Golgi apparatus to the cell membrane, where
the vesicle contents are released

8. Lysosomes
- break down bodies”
- Membrane bags containing powerful digestive enzymes
- Abundant in white blood cells that engulf bacteria and other potentially harmful substances

9. Peroxisomes
- Are membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify
a number of harmful or poisonous substances
- “dis-arm free radicals”

10. Mitochondria
- Are usually depicted as tiny threadlike or sausage-shaped organelles, but in living cells they
squirm, lengthen, and change shape almost continuously
- “powerhouses” of the cell

11. Cytoskeleton
- An elaborate network of protein structures extends throughout the cytoplasm
- Cell’s “bones and muscles” by furnishing an internal framework that determines cell shape,
supports other organelles, and provide the machinery needed for intracellular transport and
various types of cellular movements

Intermediate filaments – strong, stable ropelike intermediate filaments help form desmosomes and
provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell
Microfilaments – involved in cell motility and in producing changes in cell shape
Microtubules – determine the overall cell shape of a cell and the distribution of organelles

12. Centrioles
- lie close to the nucleus
- Rod-shaped bodies that lie at the right angles to each other
- Internally they are made-up of fine microtubules
- During cell division, the centrioles direct the formation of the mitotic spindle

13. Microvilli
- (“little shaggy hairs”)

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- Are tiny fingerlike projections that greatly increased the cell surface area for absorption so that the
process occurs more quickly.
- They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function

14. Cilia
- Project from the surface of cells
- They vary in number from none to thousands per cell and are capable of moving. Cilia are
cylindrical structures that extend from the cell. Cilia are composed of microtubules, organized in a
pattern similar to that or centrioles, which are enclosed by cell membrane. Cilia are numerous on
surface cells that line the respiratory tract. Their coordinated movement transports mucus, in which
dust particles are embedded, upward and away from the lungs.

15. Flagella
- Have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and they usually occur only one per
cell. Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the sperm cell.

16. Cytoplasm
- Is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
- “factory area”

1.2.7 Cell Division

Cell division
- Is the formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell
- Mitosis: necessary for growth and tissue repair
- Meiosis: reproduction
- Cell: 46 chromosomes (diploid)and are organized to form 23 pairs of chromosomes. Of the 23, 1
pair is the sex chromosomes, which consist of 2 X chromosomes if the person is female or an X
chromosome and a Y chromosome if the person is a male. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes
are called autosomes.

Stages of Cell division

1. Prophase
- As cell division begins, the chromatin threads coil and shorten so that visible barlike bodies called
chromosomes appear

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2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase
- During anaphase, the centrioles that have held the chromatids together split, and the chromatids
(chromosomes again) begin to move slowly apart, toward opposite ends of the cell

4. Telophase
- The chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell uncoil to become threadlike chromatin again
- The spindle breaks down and disappears, a nuclear membrane forms around each chromatin mass,
and nucleoli appear in each of the daughter of the nuclei

1.2.8 Body Tissues

❑ Epithelium
❑ Connective
❑ Muscle
❑ Nervous

a.Epithelium tissue
• Epithe = laid on, covering
• Lining, covering and glandular tissue of the body
• Functions:
Protection
Absorption
Filtration
Secretion

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Simple epithelia
Simple Squamous Epithelium
- Is a single layer of thin squamous cells resting on a basement membrane
- Air sacs of the lungs
- Forms the walls of capillaries
- Forms the serous membranes

Simple cuboidal Epithelium

- One layer of cuboidal cells resting on a basement membrane
- Glands and their ducts
- Forms the walls of the kidney tubules
- Covers the surface of the ovaries

Simple columnar Epithelium

- Made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit closely together
- Goblet cells
- Lines the entire length of the digestive tract from the stomach to the anus
- mucosae

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

- Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium – lines most of the respiratory tract

Stratified epithelia
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
- Esophagus
- Mouth
- Outer portion of the skin

Transitional Epithelium
- A highly modified, stratified squamous epithelium
- Forms the lining:
• Urinary bladder
• Ureters
• Part of urethra

b. Connective Tissue
• Characteristics:
- Variations in blood supply
- Extracellular matrix
• Functions:
- Protecting
- Supporting
- Binding together

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Types:

Bone
- Osseous tissue
- Composed of bone cells sitting in cavities called lacunae and surrounded by layers of a very hard
matrix that contains calcium salts in addition to larger amounts of collagen fibers

Cartilage
- Hyaline
• Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a rubbery matrix with a glassy, blue-white appearance
• Forms the supporting structure of the larynx, or voice box, attaches the ribs to the
breastbone, and covers the ends of bones where they form joints
- Elastic
- Fibrocartilage

Dense
- Has collagen fibers as its main matrix element
- Forms strong, ropelike such as:
• Tendons
• Ligaments
- Makes up lower layer of the skin (dermis)

Loose
- Softer and have more cells and fewer fibers than any other connective tissue type except blood

Blood
- Vascular tissue
- Considered a connective tissue because it consists of blood cells, surrounded by a non-living, fluid
matrix called blood plasma
- The fibers of blood are soluble protein molecules that become visible only during blood clotting

c. Muscle tissue

Skeletal Muscle

- Forms the flesh of the body

- The cells of skeletal muscles are long, cylindrical. And multinucleate
- Striated
- Voluntary type of muscle

Cardiac muscle

- Found only in the heart

- Involuntary muscle

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- Has striations but cardiac cells are unicleate, branching cells that fit tightly together at junctions
called intercalated disks

Smooth muscle

- Visceral muscle
- Involuntary muscle
- The individual cells have a single nucleus and are spindle-shaped
- Found in the walls of hollow organs:
• Stomach
• Bladder
• Uterus
• Blood vessels

d. Nervous tissue

1.3 Activity/Exercise
1. Find the body part or region indicated by each of the following terms and Draw them.
( 3 body part/ region per 1 short bond paper )
Abdominal (abdomen) Acromial (acromion)

Antebrachial (antebrachium) Antecubital (antecubitis)

Auricle (auris) Axillary (axilla)

Brachial (brachium) Buccal (bucca)

Carpal (carpus) Cephalic (cephalus)

Cervical (cervicis) Coxal (coxa)

Cranial (cranium) Crural (crus)

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Digital (digit) Dorsal (dorsa)

Facial (facies) Femoral (femur)

Frontal (frons) Gluteal (gluteus)

Inguinal (inguen) Lumbar (lumbus)

Mammary (mamma) Manual (manus)

Mental (mentis) Nasal (nasus)

Olecranal (olecranon) Oral (oris)

Ocular (oculus) Palmar (palma)

Patellar (patella) Pelvic (pelvis)

Plantar (planta) Popliteal (popliteus)

Pubic (pubis) Sacrum (sacral)

Sural (sura) Tarsal (tarsus)

Thoracic (thorax) Umbilical (umbilicus)

2.Fill in the blank with the appropriate directional term to complete the following sentences. More than
one answer may be correct.

1. The heart is to the lungs.

2. The knee is to the hip.

3. The wrist is to the hand.

4. The mouth is to the nose.

5. The thorax is to the abdomen.

6. The thumb is to the ring finger.

7. The sternum is to the heart.

8. The skull is to the scalp.

9. The ears are to the nose.

10. Dorsal refers to the of the human body, while ventral refers to the
of the human body.

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2. For each of the following organs, identify the organ system to which it belongs. There is one organ
which belongs to two organ systems; in that case, list them both.
1. Brain :
2. Cartilage:
3. Skin:
4. Heart
5. Lungs
6. Mammary glands
7. Thymus
8. Ovaries
9-10. Pancreas
11. Spleen
12. Kidneys
13. Testes
14. Gallbladder
15. Pituitary gland

1.4 References
• Widmaier, et.al., Vander’s Human Physiology, Mechanism of Body Function
• VanPutte, Cinnamon L., Seeley’s essentials of anatomy and physiology. McGraw Hill

1.5 Acknowledgement
The images, tables, figures, and information contained in this module were taken from the
references cited above.

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