Elements of Civil Engineering – 21CIV14/24

MODULE – 1

What is Engineering?
Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural
sciences is gained by study, experience practice and is applied with judgement to develop
ways to utilize economically the materials and forces of nature, supporting the professional
and technical societies of their disciplines and for the service and benefit of mankind.

1.1 Introduction to Civil Engineering.

Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of the profession of engineering. Many of the
things in our lives that we take for granted are the product of civil Engineering. Civil
Engineering looks into the public needs to meet the necessary infrastructure demands of
the society by keeping our social and cultural heritage. It deals with improving the quality
of life standards.
Civil Engineering involves number of operations right from surveying, planning,
analysis, design, estimate, execution of work and maintain the structures for its life time.

Civil Engineering is a vast area. The first hut built with bamboos and leaves can be
taken as the first Civil Engineering construction carried out to satisfy the needs for shelter.
The scope of civil engineering is widening with the advent of new construction materials,
techniques, equipment’s, facilities, technical knowhow and practices.

Civil Engineering has created scope by providing great diversity within itself leading
to many specializations. Among them construction is the largest field involving building of
small home to high-rise building (skyscrapers), rural work to big industrial structures.
From village road to state and national highways, expressways, tramways, railways. From
small irrigation tanks to major dams and other structures like power houses (hydal,
thermal, nuclear) runways in air-ports, high towers, tunnels, bridges, bunkers, harbors,
cooling towers, recreational centres and other civil structures.

Construction industry exhibits all kinds of technologies from medieval period to

ultramodern periods. It involves many stages like production, supply and transport of all
kinds of construction materials. It has a perfect blend of labours, animals, heavy

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machines, well controlled by computers for a wide variety of work. Civil Engineering helps
to elevate the standard of living and adds to the comforts of life.

Civil engineering gives scope for irrigation by constructing barrages, dams, canals,
distributaries. This helps to control the flood. It gives scope for rehabilitation by providing
mass housing and job opportunities. It provides water supply and sanitary works for clean
environment. The other fields involved in civil engineering are structural engineering,
construction technology, geotechnical engineering, water resource engineering, waste
water and solid waste management, environmental hazards and mitigation measures,
transportation engineering, computer application to civil engineering, earthquake studies,
reliability of structures, surveying, Remote Sensing and GIS and GPS etc.

1.2 The following are the different fields in Civil Engg.

1. Surveying
2. Building materials
3. Construction technology
4. Geotechnical Engineering
5. Structural Engineering
6. Hydraulics
7. Water resources and Irrigation Engineering
8. Transportation Engineering
9. Environmental Engineering
10. Architecture and Town Planning.

SCOPE OF DIFFERENT FIELDS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. SURVEYING
Surveying is a science and art of determining the relative positions of points on,
above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of measurement of distance, direction
and elevation either directly or indirectly.
Surveying includes levelling, in which it is possible to find the elevations or levels or
height of the points with respect to a given or assumed datum. Levelling is essentially a
process of determining the positions of points in a vertical plane.

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Scope of Surveying and Levelling.

1. To prepare the plan or map. The results of the surveys when plotted and drawn on
paper will constitute a plan. The scale of plan is large and the scale of map is small,
as map of Karnataka, India.
2. To determine the dimensions and contours of any part of the earth's surface.
3. To establish boundaries of land.
4. To measure the area and volume of land.
5. To select suitable site for an engineering project.
6. To conduct engineering survey, topographic survey, military survey, mine survey,
geological survey, archaeological survey, photogrammetric survey, hydrographic
survey, aerials survey, astronomical survey, environmental survey, global
positioning survey (GPS) geodetic survey etc.
7. To provide modern method of surveying for building and construction,
transportation, communication, mapping and decide the boundary for land
ownership.
8. To gather information about the physical earth, environment, ground systems,
position of points in 3D space.
9. Advent of Electronic devices has simplified the method of surveying even of
inaccessible points.

The knowledge of surveying is essential in many phases. For every engineering

project such as buildings, roadways, railways, tramways, transmission line, dams,
bridges, tunnels, harbours, mines, water supply and sanitation, pipeline laying, airports,
etc. surveying is essential.

Classification of surveying
Surveying is classified into two broad categories:
1. Plane surveying.
2. Geodetic surveying.

1. Plane surveying
In this type of surveying, the effect of curvature of the surface of earth is not taken
into account. The surface of earth is taken to be a plane surface. The extent of area up to
which this assumption of plane surface holds good is 260 sq.km. Therefore, plane

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surveying is adopted for small areas. The degree of accuracy of plane survey is relatively
low.
2. Geodetic surveying
In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth’s surface is taken into account.
Geodetic surveys are carried out for large distances and areas with a high degree of
precision. In India, Survey of India, a Government department, undertakes the work of
geodetic surveying.

The principles of surveying are

1. Location of a point by measurement from two fixed points of reference already
known and to fix the third point on paper.
2. To work from whole to part to prevent the accumulation of errors.

2. BUILDING MATERIALS
The construction of any engineering structure requires wide range of materials
called engineering materials or building materials. Building materials play an important
role in modern technology. Building material industry is an important contributor in our
national economy, as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction
work.
The choice of the building materials is wide open with the rapid advancement of
constructional methods, mechanical tools and plants and variety of materials. But the
materials chosen should have such properties that they are safe, economical, eco-friendly
and serviceable for the purpose for which they are used.
The building industry economists should have working knowledge of building
materials, their optimum application based on their principal properties and their
manufacturing techniques, in order that the buildings and installations may have
optimum engineering, economic performance and efficiency.

The building materials can be broadly divided into following categories.

1. Traditional materials: like stones, timber, bricks, lime, cement, concrete, tar,
bitumen, mortar, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, ceramic materials.
2. Alternative building materials: like mud blocks, concrete blocks, plastics, glass,
aluminium, paints, flyash, etc.

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3. Composite materials: like R.C.C., Fibre-reinforced concrete, ferro-cement,
composite laminate doors, plastic laminates, asbestos sheets, fibre reinforced glass
etc.
4. Smart materials or Intelligent materials: Exhibiting unique properties which are
highly sensitive to deformation and very precise, when subjected to external force
acting as actuators and sensors. e.g. Optic fibre, piezoelectric material,
electrostrictive and magnetostrictive materials etc.

3. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Building Construction is a traditional science which deals with the modern methods
of construction, Incorporating appropriate use of materials, sufficient strength and
performance. maximum utility, good proportion and grace. The construction industry is
becoming complex day by day due to rapid accumulation of scientific techniques, new
types of construction materials, sophisticated and heavy equipment’s and management
techniques to complete the projects within the stipulated time.
We should be in a position to utilize fully our technology advancement along with
the talents, skills, man-power, experience and technical know-how of the people and social
sphere.
Here comes the role of management. The technology deals with material things and
resources whereas management deals both with material things as well as human beings.
Management increases the productivity through technological innovation, taking into
consideration the human factor, involved in these advances.

4. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Geotechnical Engineering is one of the youngest and specialty of Civil Engineering,
which deals with the study of the properties, behavior and use of earth materials (soils
and rocks) in Engineering works. It involves the application of principles of soil mechanics,
rock mechanics, foundation engineering and engineering geology to engineering problems
involving soils and rocks.
The successful practice of geotechnical engineering requires integration of
knowledge of several fields such as geology, material science and testing, mechanics and
hydraulics.

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Scope of Geotechnical Engineering.

It refers in total all the engineering problems involving soil and/or rock as foundation
material and construction material.
1. It is concerned with the properties of earth materials.
2. To investigate the soil and bedrock below the structure and study the soil-structure
interaction.
3. To select the type of foundation earth works for a particular structure.
4. To design foundation for buildings, dams retaining walls, bridge, road pavement,
railway line, harbours, offshore structure, etc.
5. To design foundation for underground structure like tunnels, conduits, power
houses etc.
6. To design foundation for machines such as turbines, compressors etc., to transmit
vibrations to foundation soil.
7. To study the effect of soil as a medium for blasts during mining, earthquake,
landslides and nuclear explosions.
8. For ground improvement by using latest techniques such as geosynthetics,
geotextiles, ground compaction by blasting, grouting etc.
9. To study about compaction of soil, permeability, seepage, consolidation, stability
drainage and bearing capacity of soil, to determine the type of foundation for the
structure.
10. They include various types of foundations like shallow foundation, deep
foundations, pile foundation, well foundations, machine foundations and anchored
soil structure.

5. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
The structural engineering is a branch of Civil engineering, having a wide variety
of structural systems like buildings, bridges, dams, transportation systems, water and
sewage treatment and distribution facilities, power generating stations, storage tanks,
and many other types of constructed facilities, that must have adequate strength to
resist safely the many loadings that act on it during its life time.

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Scope of Structural Engineering.
1. The structural engineer plays vital role in planning, designing and building the
structure.
2. The structural analysis and structural design are the components of structural
engineering.
3. The structural engineer is responsible for creation of structural system in
accordance with the needs of the client and architect.
4. The structural engineer plays important role to build industrial production and
manufacturing units.
5. The structural engineer is the key man for total planning and designing of nuclear
power plants also to take care about environmental safety, including radiation
protection and thermal pollution.
6. The structural engineers are involved in analyse and design and other activities
such as research and development, which is a vital force in improving the structures
of tomorrow.
7. The structural engineer should take the responsibility about the safety and
serviceability of the structure for its life time.
8. The structural engineer should introduce new techniques, technologies, materials,
equipments, computational tools for safe, efficient and economical construction of
the project.
9. The structural engineer should be prepared to accept the natural calamities like
earthquake, wind, landslide etc. and provide remedial measures.
10. The advent, of electronic digital computer has completely revolutionized the
planning, analysis, design and drawing in structural engineering using software
like Autocad, Staad pro, Struds, Nisa etc.

6. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
Hydraulic is one of the oldest branch of science applying the fundamental principles
of the behavior of fluid at rest or in motion. Hydraulics mainly deals with the practical
problems of flow of water. This is an applied science which is based on the results obtained
from the experiments, which result into the formation of empirical formula, and have very
limited use.
The concepts of fluid pressure, fluid static, flow pattern helps engineers to design
the structures like dams, reservoirs, bridges, culverts, sewage system etc. This concept is

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also used for Now through pipes, pumps, propellers, turbines, jets pumps, hydropower,
river channel behavior, spillway capacity, hydraulic machines etc.
Although the empirical formulae developed have found useful application in serveral
problems, but it is applicable only to flow of water.

7. WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

Water is very important natural resource for development of a country. It is
necessary to make the proper, efficient and economical use of this natural resource
through technology to serve the mankind.
Water resource engineering is the proper conservation and use of water and its
associated land resources, to obtain Optimum development with the most economical
expenditure of the funds and resources". Water resource engineering involves the
conception, planning, designing. construction and operation of facilities to control and
utilize water, with a national objective of improving the quality of the life of the people.

Scope of Water Resources Engineering.

1. It facilitates to control, regulate and utilize water to serve wide variety of purposes.
2. It is the concern of economists, politicians, scientists, geologists, chemists,
biologists, electrical and mechanical engineers and other specialists.
3. Flood mitigation, land drainage, sewerage and highway culvert designs get scope
from water resource engineering to the control of water. So that it will not cause
excessive damage to property or inconvenience to the public or loss of life.
4. It gives scope for utilization of water in beneficial purpose by providing water supply,
irrigation, hydro-electric power development and navigational improvement.
5. Water quality management or pollution control is the important phase of water
resource engineering.
6. Preservation of natural beauty flora and fauna is the scope of water-resource
engineering.
7. Scope for recreational use of water resource.
8. To protect fish and wild life.
The main elements in the water resource development in relation to their physical,
economic and social relation to each other are
a. Flood control
b. Irrigation

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c. Hydroelectric power
d. Navigation or Water Transport
e. Domestic and industrial water supply
f. Water shed management
g. Fish and wild life flora and fauna
h. Pollution abatement
i. Drainage
j. Sediment control
k. Salinity
l. Recreation
m. Soil conservation
n. Scenic preservation.

IRRIGATION
Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to the soil for raising the
crops by artificial means. Irrigation of land for agriculture represents one of oldest and
most important uses of water, next to water provided for drinking and domestic purpose.
It is a planned and designed science to fit the natural conditions, most suitably. Irrigation
is not just limited to application of water to soil but also watershed and agricultural farm.
It deals with the design and construction of all works, such as dams, weirs, head
regulators etc.
Scope of Irrigation Engineering.
1. Storage of water by constructing dam as reservoir.
2. Diversion of stored water to canals for distribution.
3. Lifting of water by digging wells and fed to small channels
4. Conveyance of water to agricultural fields by some suitable distribution system like
flooding, forrow, subsoil irrigation, sprinkler and drip irrigation.
5. Drainage and relieving the water logging, to maintain high productivity of canal.
6. Development of hydroelectric power.
7. Distribution of water uniformly and periodically to maintain proper depths of water
for crops.
8. Capacities of different soils for irrigation water.
9. Reclamation of waste and alkaline lands.

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8. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Transportation means the movement of the men and goods from one point to
another. It is as old as civilization. It contributes to the economic, industrial, social and
cultural development of the country.
There are three major modes of transportation.
1. Land ways
a. Roadways or Highways
b. Railways
c. Tramways
2. Waterways
3. Airways

Scope of Transportation Engineering.

1. It contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any
country.
2. For economic development of any region. Because every commodity whether it is
food, clothing, industrial products, water, gas or medicine needs transport system
for its distribution.
3. Urbanization and industrialization attracts the surplus labor force from rural areas.
Thereby increasing number of trips, (Originating and terminating) called trip
generation based on location, characteristics and intensity of land under
consideration.
4. Various purpose of trip is studied and trip distribution among all possible
destination zone, with trip assignment based on speed volume function is
conducted.
5. To promote the public transport and mass transport.
6. Provide co-ordination amongst various modes of transportation, which improve
service level and quality.
7. To optimize the transportation cost, maintenance and administrative overheads.
8. Planning the transport process with respect to survey and analysis of existing
condition and forecasting the future condition. Evaluating the alternatives using
cost/benefit ratio techniques
9. Provide continuing study for program adoption and implementation with citizen
participation and updating of the plan.

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10. It involves geometric or shape and size design, material study, formation design,
construction and maintenance. It involves accident study for safe and comfort
transport system.
11. For traffic performance and control.

9. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Environmental Engineering is a multidisciplinary science involving the application
of engineering principles, the protection and enhancement of the quality of environment
and to the enhancement and protection of public health and welfare.

Scope of Environmental Engineering.

1. The importance of protection and conservation of our environment.
2. The need to restrain human activities, which lead to indiscriminate release of
pollutants into the environment.
3. The provision of safe, palatable and ample public water supply with water treatment
facility.
4. Solution of problems of environmental sanitation with waste water treatment.
5. The proper disposal of or recycle of waste water and solid wastes.
6. Adequate drainage of urban, rural and recreational areas.
7. Control of water, soil and atmospheric pollution, and the social and environmental
impact of these solutions.
8. Engineering problems in field of public health, such as control of water borne
diseases.
9. Elimination of industrial health hazards.
10. The study of environmental impact assessment and mitigation. measures.
11. Control of noise pollution.
12. Control of air-pollution.
13. Hazardous waste management and risk management with the mitigation
measures.
14. To study environmental chemistry and biology, environmental hydrology &
hydraulics, environmental quality modelling.
15. Recognize an ecosystem (inter-reaction between the living and non-living things in
nature) and make scientific study of the interaction between the living and non-
living components.

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10. Architecture and Town Planning.
The art and science of ordering the use of land and siting of buildings and
communication routes so as to secure the maximum practicable degree of economy,
convenience, and beauty.
Planning is a process of helping a community, identify its problems and its central
values, formulating goals and alternative approaches to achieving community
objectives, and avoiding undesired consequences of change. This process of planning
results in frame works for coping with change. Some are physical elements such as
streets, roads, and sewer lines. Some are concepts that serve as guides to action, such
as the goal of becoming a major distribution center or of encouraging investment in
the core of the city. Some are regulatory, reflecting the desires of the community to
encourage good development and discourage bad development.

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1.3 INFRASTRUCTURE
The economic development of a country depends on the growth and production rate
of industries and agricultural fields. This in turn depends upon the facilities such as
transportation, energy, communication, science and technology, irrigation facilities,
equipment and machinery. These facilities are referred to as infrastructural facilities.

1.3.1 TYPES OF INFRASTRUCTURE

Infrastructure may be divided into economic infrastructure and social
infrastructure.
ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE
This includes the progressive growth of a country and its economic condition in
generating revenue.
Following are the basic economic infrastructures.
1. Construction Industry: It is the basic necessity for the development and progress
of a country. Construction acts as a medium for transforming the aspirations for
social and economic wellbeing of a country into reality by providing infrastructure
like housing in rural and urban areas, high rise building, streets, roads, highways,
bridges, airports, airways, public transit tunnels, water supply and waste water
treatment resources of water and hazardous waste management.
2. Transportation Facilities: Transportation facilities play a crucial role in the,
economic. social and commercial progress of a country, acting as a life-line for flow
of men and materials connecting the origin and destination.
The facilities may be through
a. Roadways, Highways or expressways and their proper interlinking to ensure
smooth and uninterrupted movement of men and materials, having maximum
flexibility with regards to route, direction, time and speed of travel.
b. Railways connecting every corner of a country, because no region can ever
develop if it lacks adequate facilities.
c. Airways, where enormous time can be saved in transportation.
d. Water ways/navigation: This means of transport is particularly helpful for import
and export by transporting huge consignments like ores, petroleum products,
large containers, food grains, it also helps in inland navigation, port and harbor
development.

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3. Water supply and Drainage Systems: A good and assured water supply scheme
for drinking industries, agriculture and other purposes is provided and also an
efficient drainage system by collecting the waste treating it properly and final
disposal, in form of liquid.
4. Power Supply: It is an essential factor for the development and progress of country.
It includes power stations (Hydal, Thermal and Nuclear), Solar energy, Wind energy,
biogas, transmission towers, conductors etc.
5. Communication Facilities: Lack of communication hinders the development of a
country. It includes facilities like transmission line, towers, internet etc.
6. Irrigation Facilities: India largely depends upon its agricultural products and
irrigation helps for boosting the agriculture products. Irrigation includes construct
of Dams, barrages, canals and distributaries, regulators etc. for storing,
distribution, power generation, flood control and recreational purpose.
7. Other Amenities: Providing well planned towns and cities with all basic amenities.
New township schemes, Land development by providing plots and landscaping,
pollution control, solid waste management, hazardous waste management, remote
sensing and GIS and GPS.

SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE:
1. Health care Centre’s: Hospitals with sophisticated instruments and super
specialist doctors for wellbeing a human society and veterinary hospitals for animal
health.
2. Educational Facilities: It includes providing education at primary, higher college
and professional courses, technical courses with interdisciplinary education as new
concept.
3. Employment Centre’s.
4. Other Facilities: Wild life conservation, agriculture, industries, communication,
commerce and cultural activities, recreational Centre’s, Fire station, Police stations
for emergency and safety purpose.

Thus civil engineers play a vital role in contributing to society's need through the
investments on the infrastructure and formulate a comprehensive policy for generating
the revenue from the same for the further development of the infrastructure, leading to
the overall development of country.

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1.3.2 ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEER IN THE INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT

A Civil Engineer has to play a very important role by looking into the public needs
through shelter, water supply for drinking and irrigation of crops, sewerage,
transportation. energy and disaster protection, which forms the basic infrastructural
demands of the society but keeping our social and cultural heritage.

The various jobs to be performed by a Civil Engineer are

1. He takes up the construction sector job.
2. He should be competent in the various fields of surveying, planning, analysing.
designing, estimating, scheduling, execution, inspection and maintenance of work.
3. He plans the buildings, towns, cities, recreational centres.
4. He builds the structures like building, dam, bridges, reserviors, tunnels, railways,
harbours etc.
5. He builds the water purifying units and distributes water for drinking purpose.
6. He distributes the water for agricultural fields.
7. He provides proper drainage treatments system and keep environment clean.
8. He provides transport network through road, railways, harbours, port and docks,
airports, tunnels, subways, overlays etc.
9. He improves the ground water by providing rain water harvesting and water
management techniques.
10. He sets the standards, design facilities and assess their conditions.
11. He helps in maintaining the infrastructure at least practical cost.
12. He can assist the policy makers to bring in society's interest to the changing
technology and development.
13. The construction of Dams and Power Stations, that provide electricity we uSe every
day requires Civil Engineers.
14. A Civil Engineer can work all over the world, either as consultants with their own
companies or as employees of large international companies; or as volunteers in
developing countries.
15. Civil Engineer plays vital role in the disaster management and rehabilitation.
16. Civil Engineer helps to preserve our environment by assisting in cleaning up of
existing pollution and planning ways to reduce future pollution of our air, land and
water as managing and mitigation measures.

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17. He should make use of his best experience in providing the optimum benefit to the
public and government, which helps in further development of the infrastructure
of the nation.
1.3.3 EFFECT OF THE INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES ON SOCIOECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY.
Infrastructural development has the following major impacts on a country.
1. Increase in food production
2. Protection from famine
3. Safe, domestic and industrial water supply
4. Improvement in communication and transportation
5. Generation of hydroelectric power
6. Addition to the wealth of the country
7. Increase in prosperity of people
8. Overall development of the country.

1.4 ROADS
Roads provide transportation facilities from one place to another. Roads are
considered the most important infrastructure required for the development of a region.
Figure 1.1 shows the cross section of a two-line highway in cutting and Figure 1.2 shows
the cross section of a two-line highway in embankment.

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1.4.1 TYPES OF ROADS
The types of roads constructed are:
1. Low cost roads (earth roads, kankar roads, gravel roads, mourum roads, water-
bound Macadam roads)
2. Bituminous roads (flexible pavements)
3. Cement-concrete roads (rigid pavements).

1. Low cost roads

The term low cost road is used to mean the road whose initial as well as maintenance
costs are low. India is a country of villages and it is necessary to provide the facility of a
linking road to every village. The low cost roads are meant for low intensity of traffic.
2. Bituminous roads
The bitumen, or bituminous materials in the form of tar or asphalt, is one of the
major highway construction materials.
The useful qualities of bitumen are:
a. It is an excellent binding material
b. It gives an impermeable surface
c. It softens when heated.
The consistency of bituminous materials ranges from semi-solid to liquid and these
materials are made commercially available to suit the requirements of specifications for
various types of bituminous roads.
A bituminous road is defined as a road in which bitumen is used in one from or the
other as a binder to keep together the coarse aggregates and road metal. Such a road is
also sometimes referred to black-top road because it exhibits a black appearance due to
the presence of bitumen.

The advantages of bituminous roads are:

1. Bituminous materials increase the strength of pavement.
2. Development of the cracks on the surface of the bitumen is very less.
3. Maintenance costs of bituminous roads are less.
4. Bituminous materials provide waterproof surface.
5. The surface of bituminous roads is non-slippery.
6. Bituminous materials can effectively resist the adverse effect of rain, changes in
temperature and wind.

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7. When the bituminous layer is provided on the top of an existing low cost road, it
eliminates the dust nuisance.
8. Bituminous materials provide smooth, durable and comfortable surface for traffic.

The disadvantages of bituminous roads are:

1. The construction cost is very high.
2. The viscosity of the bitumen aggregate mixtures plays an important role in
determining the performance of bituminous roads. So it is necessary to have control
on the proper viscosity of the bitumen aggregate mixtures during mixing and
compaction operations while constructing the road.

3. Cement-concrete roads
The cement-concrete roads are in the form of monolithic slabs of cement concrete,
which serve two functions simultaneously, namely;
(i) As the load carrying base
(ii) As the wearing surface.
The cement-concrete roads are becoming popular because of the fact that concrete
of desired quality can be prepared by modern techniques of cement-concrete construction.

The advantages of a cement-concrete road are:

1. It does not develop corrugations and hence provides a noiseless surface.
2. It can be designed for more accurate load distribution.
The disadvantages are:
1. It is difficult to repair and needs expert supervision.
2. It is liable to crack, warp and twist.

1.4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS BY NAGPUR ROAD PLAN

The classification based on location and function is a more acceptable classification.
According to Nagpur plan, five different categories of roads are as follows:
1. National Highways (NHs): National highways are the main highways running
through the length and breadth of the country, connecting major ports, foreign
highways, capitals of large states and large industrial and tourist centres including
roads required for strategic movements of troops.
2. State Highways (SHs): State highways are the arterial roads of a state, connecting
with the national highways, capitals of adjacent states, district headquarters and
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important cities within the state. A state highway serves as a connecting link for
traffic to and from district roads.
3. Major District Roads (MDRs): Major district roads are the important roads within
a district, serving areas of production and market and connecting them with each
other or with main highways of a district.
4. Other District Roads (ODRs): Other district roads are the roads serving the rural
areas of production and providing them with an outlet to market centres, Taluka
headquarters.
5. Village Roads (VRs): Village roads are the roads connecting villages or the groups
of villages with each other to the nearest road of higher category.

1.4.5 COMPONENTS OF ROADS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Just like other structures, the highway or the road structure is also required to be
designed carefully for the traffic load to be carried, physical and geological features, and
climatic conditions of the locality and various other factors which would affect the stability
and utility of the highway. For the purpose of design, the road structure may be considered
to consist essentially of the following four component parts as shown in Figure 1.3.
1. Subsoil
2. Subgrade
3. Base
4. Surfacing.

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Subsoil: This is the natural or prepared soil on which the road has to be formed. It
should be stable and strong to carry safely the traffic load and weight of roadway
construction.
Subgrade: The subgrade or the formation functions as a support to the road surface
and its foundation. The life of the road primarily depends on stable and dry subgrade. Its
level may be same or above or below the natural ground level. The support given to the
road structure by the subgrade is an important factor and hence, considerable attention
should be paid to the proper preparation of subgrade before the road structure is laid on
it.
Base: The base or foundation may consist of two layers, the bottom layer being
known as sub-base or soling or bottoming. The sub-base should be stable and it should
be capable of resisting distortion under traffic loads to a great extent. The function of a
road base is to transmit the load from the surfacing to the subgrade. It should possess
structural stability and should be of sufficient thickness to develop a good bond with the
surfacing.
Surfacing: The topmost layer on which the traffic directly travels is known as road
surfacing or wearing layer or wearing course. The main function of road surfacing is to
provide a smooth and stable running surfacing which is suitable for the type and intensity
of traffic anticipated on the road. The surfacing should be impervious and should protect
the base and the subgrade from the action of weather and rain water. The desirable
qualities of surfacing are durability, stability, non-slipperiness, economical and
dustlessness. It should also be able to resist displacement by traffic and should therefore
must be well keyed on to the base. The governing factors which would affect the design of
the the above components of road structure are initial cost, availability of local materials,
volume and class of traffic, climatic conditions of the locality, etc.

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1.4.6 COMPARISION OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS

Sl.No FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS RIGID PAVEMENTS

1 Deformation in the sub grade is Deformation in the subgrade is not

transferred to the upper layers. transferred to subsequent t layers.

2 Design is based on load distribution Design is based on flexural strength or

characteristics of the component slab action.
layers.

3 Have low flexural strength. Have high flexural strength.

4 Load is transferred by grain to grain No such phenomenon of grain to grain

contact. load transfer exists

5 Have high initial cost and low repair Have low initial cost but minimum or
cost no maintenance cost.

6 Have low life span. Life span is more as compare to flexible

7 Surfacing cannot be laid directly on Surfacing can be directly laid on the

the sub grade but a sub base is subgrade.
needed.

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1.5 BRIDGES
INTRODUCTION
Bridges are an integral part of the infrastructure for the economic growth of the
country and therefore they cannot remain static in relation to a growing economy. With
the increase in population and growth in industrial and agricultural output, bridges along
with railways have to keep pace with the developments through provision of transport
facilities in areas where these have been lacking and increased facilities where these are
inadequate to meet the demands of the travelling public as well as those of the industrial
and agricultural sectors. The continuous improvement in bridge systems is an important
indication of the current scientific and technological revolution which has a direct bearing
on the progress of productive forces.

Bridges play a vital role in shaping the history of a country as the existence or
otherwise of these bridges very much affect the movement of troops during the hostilities
and consequently these bridge points are required to defend ourselves from the onslaught
of the invaders. No road system is considered complete in itself without the provision of
such cross drainage works in the form of bridges, so that there is no hindrance to the free
flow of traffic, especially during the rains.
Many types of bridges have been constructed from the times of olden days ranging
from the timber bridges to modern steel and pre-stressed concrete bridges. The modern
bridges are usually constructed of steel, being durable and easy to fabricate. The high
tensile steel used has minimum tensile strength of 55 kg/mm. The bolts and nuts used
in the bridge are of mild steel having tensile strength of not less than 44 kg/mm. The type
of steel bridge to be used depends on the span.

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1.5.1 TYPES OF BRIDGES

1. Cable stayed bridge
a. Wooden bridge
b. Floating bridge
c. Moveable bridge
2. Suspension bridge
3. Cantilever bridge
4. Truss bridge
5. Arch bridge
6. Composite bridge.

1. Cable stayed bridges

Cable stayed bridges are usually constructed over gorges in hilly countries where
the water flow in the stream below is very fast. Cable stayed bridges are constructed
with boulders where piers cannot be easily constructed. These bridges have a span of
150 metres and are usually meant for pedestrian traffic. The deck is supported by long
cables carried over tall towers provided at their ends. Figure 1.6 shows a general view
of a cable stayed bridge.

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a. TIMBER BRIDGES
Timber bridges are temporary constructions to cross streams and obstacles,
specially built in forest areas where timber is available in abundance, and also where
speedy erection is required as in times of war. When the materials for constructing
permanent bridges are not available or the same are available at long distances entailing
huge cost of construction, these wooden bridges are suitable and cheaper.
Timber bridges have a life-span of about 15 years and may require replacement
thereafter. They are likely to be destroyed by fire and fungus growth if not properly
maintained. They are suitable for small spans of 5 metres or so. The state Jammu and
Kashmir has several such wooden bridges constructed many years ago. Bridges
constructed purely of timber may have either timber arch construction or be of strutted
beam type.

b. FLOATING BRIDGES
Floating bridges, also known as pontoon bridges, are temporary structures
constructed over rivers in times of emergency during wars where the time is of
fundamental importance. The advantage of these floating bridges is that they can be
erected very quickly as the component parts of the bridge are of pre-fabricated types as
per the dimensions approved by the Indian Road Congress and hence can also be
dismantled in a very short time. The materials used for the parts are strong, durable
and non-corrosive. A typical view of a floating bridge is shown in Figure 1.8.

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c. MOVABLE BRIDGES
As stated before, bridges are also classified according to the method of giving
clearance to navigation. Under that classification, movable bridges are of the following
four types, namely
i. Swing bridges
ii. Bascule bridges
iii. Lift bridges
iv. Transporter bridges
i. Swing bridges: In case of swing bridges there is a disc bearing placed over the
central pier on which two pans of continuous trusses are provided (Figure 1.9). By
an arrangement of rotating gear, the whole truss rotates horizontally through 90°
when its axis becomes parallel to the direction of flow of water and at that position
pedestrians or other vehicles cannot move.

ii. Bascule bridges: A rough idea of the working of a bascule bridge can be had from
the common toll tax barrier arrangement in India where a full span pole can be
lowered and raised with the help of a counterweight placed at one end. In a bascule
bridge, instead of the pole, there is provided a hinged truss which can be raised or
lowered in a vertical plane with the help of a counterweight or rack and pinion
arrangement or by cables. A general view of single and double bascule bridges is
shown in Figure 1.10.

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iii. Lift bridges: For wide channels the bascule bridges are not economical. In such
cases the vertical lift bridges are recommended to give clearance to navigation. A
vertical lift consists of a roadway truss which is lifted up by means of cables passing
over pulleys attached to each of the two tall towers erected at either ends. These
cables are connected to counterweights at the other end. A general view of a vertical
bridge is shown in Figure 1.11.

iv. Transporter bridges: In case of transporter bridges, a moving cage is suspended

from an overhead truss with the help of a cable or wire ropes. The overhead truss
rests on two towers and it contains rails for the cage to roll. The cage is loaded with
persons or goods and it is then allowed to move from one end to the other end of
river. This type of bridge is used within a harbor area to provide an arrangement for

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shifting of men and materials across a channel. A general view of a transporter
bridge is shown in Figure 1.12.

2. SUSPENSION BRIDGES
Suspension bridges are long-span bridges involving creative works and great skill
on the part of the bridge engineer. For the stability of such long-span bridges of 600 m
and above, considerations for the control of aerodynamic movement, the local angle
changes in the deck and vertical oscillations caused by serve winds are of vital
importance, failing which a failure of the bridge may result. Figure 1.13 gives the idea
of this type of bridge.

3. CANTILEVER BRIDGES
Cantilever bridges, due to their heavier weights and labour involved in construction
compared to the cable stayed bridges for the same spans, are no longer popular. It is so
called as in a single span there are cantilever arms from each pier to the ends where
the freely supported suspended span rests. Then there are anchor arms at either end

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between the abutment and the pier. Some views of cantilever bridges are shown in
Figure 1.14.

4. TRUSS BRIDGES
For rail-road or long railway bridges of spans 100 to 200 meters, truss bridges
(Figure 1.15) are found suitable and expedient due to relative lightness of its component
parts. There are various types of truss bridges like the Warren truss bridge, Pratt truss
and N-truss, but the most common form is the Warren truss type.

5. ARCH BRIDGES
In case of arch bridges, the abutments must be strong enough to carry the thrust
exerted by the ribs. In such cases heavy expensive abutments will be required, unless
there is a gorge with rocky banks which might be strong enough to bear the load exerted
by the ribs; and it is in such situations where arch bridges are most recommended.
Arch bridges may be made of masonry or steel. Masonry arch bridges are not
recommended for spans exceeding 6 metres, especially in seismic zones. For long spans,
steel arch bridges are generally used. The arch bridges may be rigid, of two hinge or
three hinge type. See Figure 1.16.

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6. COMPOSITE BRIDGES
Composite bridges, where steel girders are used compositely with a concrete
deck slab, can be preferred over steel or concrete bridges due several reasons. They are
less expensive and require less maintenance than orthotropic steel decks and they are
lighter than concrete girders. They often require less temporary structures for execution
and by using prefabricated elements fast erection can be achieved. Composite bridges
are often chosen for span ranges that are in between the typical span ranges of concrete
and steel bridges.
Composite bridge decks are often applied in cable stayed bridges, since the
concrete slab has good abilities to resist the high compression induced by the inclined
cable stays particularly near the towers. Examples of recent composite cable stay
bridges are Busan Bridges (Korea 2014, main span 475 m) and New NY Bridge (New
York, under construction, main span 366 m) where bolted wide flange steel girders were
used in combination with a concrete slab and Sungai Johor Bridge (Malaysia 2013,
main span 500 m) where an open box section was applied.
Composite bridge decks are often used in combination with all steel or all concrete
decks to balance the weight when for example the main span is very large compared to
the back spans such as for the Stonecutters bridge (Hong Kong, 2009, Main Span
1018m).

1.5.2 CULVERTS
Culvert is defined as a tunnel structure constructed under roadways or railways to
provide cross drainage or to take electrical or other cables from one side to other. It is
totally enclosed by soil or ground. Pipe culvert, box culvert and arch culvert are the
common types used under roadways and railways. The design of culvert is based on
hydraulic, water surface elevation, and roadway height and other conditions. These are
used for water flow in a controlled way.

Types of Culverts
Following are the types of culverts generally used in construction:
1. Pipe Culvert (Single or Multiple)
Pipe culverts are widely used culverts and rounded in shape. The culverts
may be of single in number or multiple. If single pipe culvert is used, then larger
diameter culvert is installed. If the width of channel is greater than we will go for

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multiple pipe culverts. They are suitable for larger flows very well. The diameter of
pipe culverts ranges from 1 meter to 6m. These are made of concrete or steel etc.

2. Pipe Arch Culvert (Single or Multiple)

Pipe arch culverts means nothing but they look like half circle shaped
culverts. Pipe arch culverts are suitable for larger water flows but the flow should
be stable. Because of arch shape fishes or sewage in the drainage easily carried to
the outlet without stocking at the inlet or bottom of channel. This type of culverts
can also be provided in multiple numbers based on the requirement. They also
enhance beautiful appearance.

3. Box culverts
Box culverts are in rectangular shape and generally constructed by concrete.
Reinforcement is also provided in the construction of box culvert. These are used to
dispose rain water. So, these are not useful in the dry period. They can also be used
as passages to cross the rail or roadway during dry periods for animals etc. Because
of sharp corners these are not suitable for larger velocity. Box culverts can also be
provided in multiple numbers.

4. Arch culverts
Arch culvert is similar to pipe arch culvert but in this case an artificial floor
is provided below the arch. For narrow passages it is widely used. The artificial floor
is made of concrete and arch also made of concrete. Steel arch culverts are also
available but very expensive.

5. Bridge Culvert
Bridge culverts are provided on canals or rivers and also used as road bridges
for vehicles. For this culverts a foundation is laid under the ground surface. A series
of culverts are laid and pavement surface is laid on top this series of culverts.
Generally, these are rectangular shaped culverts these can replace the box culverts
if artificial floor is not necessary.

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1.6. DAMS
A dam is an impervious hydraulic structure constructed across a river to store water
on the upstream side. It acts as a barrier to form a reservoir. Dams may be classified into
different categories depending upon the purpose they serve or on the basis of the material
used for construction.

1.6.1 Classification according to use

1. Storage dam: A storage dam is constructed to store water on its upstream side
during the period of excess supply and use it during the period of scarcity.
2. Diversion dam: A diversion dam raises the water level slightly in the river, and thus
water is diverted into a canal system. A diversion dam is always smaller in height
and no reservoir is formed on its upstream to store water.
3. Detention dam: A detention dam is constructed to store water during floods, in
order to be able to release water gradually at a safe rate when the flood recedes. By
the provision of a detention dam, damages downstream due to flood are reduced.

Classification according to material

1. Rigid dam: Rigid dams are those which are constructed of rigid material such as
masonry, concrete, steel or timber.
2. Non-rigid dam: Non-rigid dams are those which are constructed of non-rigid
materials such as earth and/or rock fill.

Classification according to flow condition

1. Overflow dam: If water is allowed to flow over the top of the dam, it is known as
overflow dam. Such dams are also known as spillways. Gates are normally provided
over spillways for allowing the water to pass downstream during floods and for extra
storage of water after the floods.
2. Non-overflow dams: If water is not allowed to flow over the top of the dam, it is
known as a non-overflow dam.
All the dams are generally a combination of overflow and non-overflow dams.

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GRAVITY DAMS (Rigid dams)
A gravity dam is one in which the external forces (such as water pressure, silt
pressure, wave pressure, etc.) are resisted by the self-weight of the dam. Thus the weight
of the dam or the gravity forces maintain the stability of the dam. A gravity dam may be
constructed either of masonry or concrete. Figure 1.4 shows a typical cross section of a
concrete gravity dam.

The different terms of importance are as follows:

1. Maximum water level or full reservoir level: The maximum level to which the
water rises during the worst flood is known as the maximum water level or full
reservoir level.
2. Minimum pool level: The lowest water surface elevation up to which the water in
the reservoir can be used is called the minimum pool level.
3. Normal pool level: It is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir water surface
will rise during normal operating conditions.
4. Useful and dead storage: The volume of water stored in the reservoir between the
minimum pool level and normal pool level is called useful storage. The volume of
water stored in the reservoir below the minimum pool level is known as dead storage.
5. Free board: The margin between the maximum water level and top of the dam is
known as free board. Free board must be provided to avoid the possibility of water
spilling over the top of the dam due to wave action.

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6. Drainage gallery: A gallery provided near the foundation to drain off the water
which seeps through the foundation and the body of dam is called the drainage
gallery.

EARTH DAMS AND ROCK FILL DAMS (Non-rigid dams)

Earth dams are constructed using the locally available soils and gravels; they can
be used up to moderate heights only. Figure 1.5 shows a typical section of an earth dam.

Earth dams may be classified into:

1. Homogeneous type dams
2. Zoned type dams
3. Diaphragm type dams.

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