Biology Notes

Chapter 4 Cells and Tissue

4.2 Cellular Structures and Functions

Cell Wall:
 Non-living, strong component of cell.
 Located outside plasma membrane.
 Provides shape, support, strength and protection to the inner
living matter (protoplasm) of the cell.
 Composed of many different types of chemicals.
 Outer layer, called ‘Primary Wall’, is composed of cellulose.
 Layer beneath Primary wall is called ‘Secondary wall’. Secondary
wall is composed of lignin and other chemicals. (Cells like Xylem
cells have it).
 Adjacent cells have pores, which connects their cytoplasm, called
Plasmodesmata.
 Fungi cell wall is composed of Chitin.
 Prokaryotes have cell wall composed of Peptidoglycan which is a
complex of amino acids and sugars.

Cell Membrane:
 Present in all Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 Thin and elastic.
 Covers the cytoplasm.
 Acts as a semi-permeable barrier, allowing few chemicals while
fencing the majority inside hence, maintaining cell’s composition.
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  Senses chemical messages and identifies cells.
 Composed of protein, lipids, carbohydrates (small amount).
 Eukaryotic cells have organelles bounded to cell membrane.
 Fluid mosaic model shows that cell membrane has a lipid bilayer;

- Lipid bilayer embeds protein molecules.

- Gives the elasticity and fluidity to membrane
- Contains little amount of carbohydrates joined with protein and
lipids.
- Eukaryotic cells have cholesterol in the lipid bilayer.

Cytoplasm:
 Semi-viscous and semi-transparent substance.
 Located between plasma membrane (cell membrane) and nuclear
envelope.
 Contains water in which organic molecules (lipids, proteins,
carbohydrates) and inorganic salts are partially or completely
dissolved.
 Provides space for biochemical (metabolic) reactions. (e.g.,
glycolysis, breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration, occurs
in cytoplasm.
 Provides space for proper functioning of organelles.

Cytoskeleton:
 Network of microtubules and microfilaments.
 Microtubules:
- Composed of tubulin protein.
- Help cells in holding their shape.

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 - Major component of cilia and flagella.

 Microfilaments:
- Thinner.
- Composed of actin protein.
- Help cells in changing their shape.

4.5.2 Plant Tissues

Simple Tissues:
 Made up of single types of cell.
 Two Types; i) Meristematic Tissue ii) Permanent Tissue.

A. Meristematic Tissues
 Have the ability to divide.
 Thin walled.
 Large nucleus.
 Small or no vacuole.
 Do not have inter-cellular spaces among them.
 Two types:
- Apical Meristems are located on the apices (tips) of roots
and shoots. When they divide they cause an increase in the
growth of length of the plant. Such growth in known as
Primary growth.
- Lateral Meristems are located on the lateral sides of roots
and shoots. When they divide they cause an increase in the
growth of parts of the plant. Such growth is called

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 Secondary Growth. There are two types; Vascular
Cambium, Cork Cambium.

B. Permanent Tissues
 Originate from meristematic tissues.
 Do not have the ability to divide.
 Divided into types:
1. Epidermal Tissue
2. Ground Tissue
3. Support Tissue

1. Epidermal Tissue
 Made up of single layers of cell.
 Cover the plant body.
 Makes a barrier between environment and internal plant tissues.
 In roots they help in the absorption of water and minerals.
 In stem and leaves they secrete cutin which prevents
evaporation.
 Specialized structures perform specific functions; e.g. root hairs
and stomata.

2. Ground Tissue
 Simple tissues made up of Parenchyma cells.
 Parenchyma cells:
- Most abundant cells in plants.
- Overall spherical, flat at point of contact.
- Thin primary cell wall.

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 - Large vacuole for storage of food.
- In leaves, they are called ‘mesophyll’ and are the site of
photosynthesis.
- In other parts they are the site for respiration and protein
synthesis.
- Have the ability to divide and differentiate between other
types of cell and they do so in the process of repairing
injury.

3. Support Tissue
Support tissue provides flexibility and strength to plants. There are
two types:
i) Collenchyma Tissue:
- Found in cortex of young stems.
- Found in the midribs of leaves
- Found in the petals of flowers.
- Elongated cells with unevenly thickened primary cell wall.
- Flexible.
- Function to support the organ in which they are found in.
ii) Sclerenchyma Tissue:
- Composed of cells with rigid secondary cell wall.
- Their cell walls are hardened and is made of lignin (lignin is
the main component of wood).
- Mature sclerenchyma cells cannot elongate and most of
them are dead.

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Compound (complex) Tissues:
 Tissues containing more than one type of cell is called a compound
or complex tissue.
 Two types (found in vascular plants):
i) Xylem Tissue.
ii) Phloem Tissue.

i) Xylem Tissue:
 Responsible for the transport of water and other dissolves
matter from the roots of the plant to the aerial parts.
 Contains lignin therefore, the cells have rigid secondary cell wall.
 Provides support to the plant body.
 Contains vessel elements/cells and Tracheid.
 Vessel elements:
- Thick secondary cell wall.
- Lack end walls.
- Join together to form long tubes.
 Tracheids:
- Slender cells.
- Overlapping ends.

ii) Phloem Tissue:

 Responsible for the conduction of dissolved organic material

(food) across the body.
 Contains Sieve Tube cells and Companion cells.
 Sieve Tube Cells:
- Long.
- Pores on the end walls.

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 - Join together to form long sieve tubes.

 Companion Cells:
- Makes protein for sieve tube cells.

4.5.1 Animal Tissues

i) Epithelial Tissue:

Structure Function Location

Squamous Epithelial
- Lungs
- Single layer of flat - Movement of
- Heart
cells. material.
- Blood Vessels
Cuboidal Epithelial
- Single layer of - Kidney tubes
- Make secretions.
cube-shaped cells. - Small glands
Columnar Epithelial
- Alimentary canal
- Elongated cells. - Make secretions.
- Gall bladder
Ciliated Columnar Epithelial
- Elongated cells with - Trachea
- Propels mucous.
cilia. - Bronchi
Stratified Squamous Epithelial

- Many layers of flat - Protective tissue. - Mouth – Skin

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 cells. - Oesophagus (lining)
ii) Connective Tissue:
 Serves a connecting function.
 Supports and binds other tissues.
 Scattered throughout extracellular matrix.
 Examples:
- Bones.
- Blood.
- Cartilage (found in ends of bones, external ear, nose, trachea).
- Adipose tissue (found around kidneys, under skin, in abdomen).

iii) Muscle Tissue:

 Contains bundles of long cells called muscle fiber.
 Most abundant tissue in animals.
 Ability to contract.
 Three kinds.

Location Structure Function

Skeleton Muscles/Striated Muscles

- Striated
- Attached to - Movement of
(striped)
Bones bones.
- Contains nuclei

Smooth Muscles
- Walls of - Smooth cells
alimentary canal - Non striated - Movement of
- Urinary bladder cells each with a substances.
- Blood vessels single nucleus.

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 Cardiac Muscles
- Striated
- Produces
- Walls of Heart - Single nucleus in
heartbeat.
each cell

iv) Nervous Tissue:

 Forms a communication system
 Transmits information among parts of body.
 Composed of nerve cells or neurons.
 Nerve cell or neurons conduct messages in the form of nerve
impulse.
 Found in brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

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 Biology Notes
Chapter 4 Cells and Tissue
4.2.6 Difference between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells

- Eukaryotic cells are complex. - Prokaryotic cells are simple.

Nucleus
- Prominent Nucleus (bounded - Not so Prominent Nucleus.
by nuclear envelope). - Chromosomes contain DNA
- Chromosomes contain DNA only and floats in the region
and protein. nucleoid.

Organelles
- Organelles are not membrane
- Membrane bounded organelles
bounded.
(mitochondria, ER, etc.).
- Ribosomes are smaller in size.
- Ribosomes are larger in size.

Size
- Ten times smaller than
- Large in size.
eukaryotic cells.

Cell Wall
- Cell wall is composed of - Cell wall is composed of
cellulose (in plants). peptidoglycan which is a
- Cell wall is composed of chitin complex of amino acids and
(in fungi). sugar.

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