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Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

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Design Research Society
DRS Digital Library

DRS Biennial Conference Series DRS2022: Bilbao

Jun 25th, 9:00 AM

Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

Petra Salaric
Loughborough University, United Kingdom

Rebecca Cain
Loughborough University, United Kingdom

Emilene Zitkus
Loughborough University, United Kingdom

Valentijn Visch
Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands

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Citation
Salaric, P., Cain, R., Zitkus, E., and Visch, V. (2022) Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating
applications, in Lockton, D., Lloyd, P., Lenzi, S. (eds.), DRS2022: Bilbao, 25 June - 3 July, Bilbao, Spain.
https://doi.org/10.21606/drs.2022.543

This Research Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the DRS Conference Proceedings at DRS Digital
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Tinder and heartbeats: wellbeing in the use of dating
applications
Petra Salarica, Rebecca Caina, Emilene Zitkusa, Valentijn Vischb
a
School of Design and Creative Arts, Loughborough University, UK
b
Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands
*Corresponding e-mail: p.salaric@lboro.ac.uk
doi.org/10.21606/drs.2022.543

Abstract: Currently, there are more than 1500 dating applications, allowing people to
connect with a single swipe. However, there is a rising concern about the behaviour
encouraged by these digital forms of interactions in relation to negative effects on user
wellbeing. Using an evocative autoethnographic approach combined with literature
review, this study aimed to explore potential connections between the interaction
design, user interactions, and user experiences within dating applications by following
weekly experiences over four dating applications. The experiences were recorded with
a journal, then explored using emotion capture cards, and visualised in emotionally
mapped timelines. It was found that even within the first forty-five minutes of using
the dating applications, significant negative emotions were experienced by the
researcher. This study calls for more efforts and research from the design perspective
to create interactions that are mindful and that nourish the wellbeing of users and
support healthy and steady relationship developments.

Keywords: dating applications; romantic relationships; wellbeing; interaction design

1. Introduction
Dating applications allow people to connect with others with a single swipe. The applications
show an image of a person, their name and age, and a text description of the person. The
choice of communication is often based on a swiping technique - if the user wishes to
connect with the presented person they swipe to the right, and if not they swipe to the left.
There is also an option to ‘super like’ the other user and express great interest by swiping
upwards. In case both users swiped right (liked one another), they will match, and only then
are they allowed to connect.
Today there are over 1500 dating apps and sites (Lin n.d.). Dating applications, dating sites,
and the internet in general have greatly replaced other traditional sources of meeting a
partner, such as through friends, family, work, or church (Rosenfeld, Thomas, and Hausen
2019; McKenna, Green, and Gleason 2002; Jiang, Bazarova, and Hancock 2011; Cacioppo et
al. 2013; Bargh and McKenna 2004). Despite the great pool of romantic opportunities that

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0

International Licence.
Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

the internet offers, a recent survey of US adults in 2019 found that 75% of the respondents
found it very/somewhat difficult to find partners to date in the previous year. Moreover,
almost half of the respondents (47%) found dating to be harder than it was ten years ago
(Brown 2020). Another survey conducted with US adults shows that 42% of users of dating
sites and apps had negative experiences (M. Anderson, Vogels, and Turner 2020). These
findings raise a concern about the negative impact that the dating applications have on
health and wellbeing of their users, whilst questioning how successful the dating
applications are in achieving their aim.
Usage of dating applications such as Tinder was reported to induce anxiety, cause distress,
lower self-image and confidence (Her and Timmermans 2020; Hobbs, Owen, and Gerber
2017; Strubel and Petrie 2017). A recent cross-sectional online survey with 437 participants
has reported higher levels of depression, anxiety and distress with those who use swipe-
based dating applications (SBDA) daily or for more than a year as to those who do not
(Holtzhausen et al. 2020). According to some findings, dating applications can lead to
superficial connections and tend to mostly focus on one’s physical appearance due to their
greater space of imagery (Ryan 2016; Sykes 2014). Furthermore, these platforms often
include general poor behaviour such as bullying and body shaming (Thompson 2018), thus
creating a general issue of trust within the online dating environments (Finkel et al. 2012;
Miguel 2018).
The importance of these findings increases as people are more turning to dating applications
to create relationships. However, they do not seem to be successful in attaining and creating
relationships (Finkel et al., 2012; Timmermans & Courtois, 2018). The way that dating
applications are impacting and changing the initiation of relationships’ raises questions
about whether they even allow formation of deeper and steady romantic connections
(Lovink 2019; Singer 2020; Sprecher, Wenzel, and Harvey 2008; Turkle 2012; 2016).
As romantic relationships are important for overall health (Finkel et al. 2012; van Lankveld et
al. 2018; Waldinger and Schulz 2010; Waring 1985; Wilson and Oswald 2005), the lack of
steady, strong relationships is detrimental to one’s health, so much so that it can even lead
to premature death (Grant, Hamer, and Steptoe 2009; Hawkley and Cacioppo 2010; Holt-
Lunstad, Smith, and Layton 2010; Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015; Pressman et al. 2005).
Therefore, the way the applications are built and the way they influence behaviour and
foster communication can be crucial, not just for romantic formation, but for overall health
and wellbeing of its users.
Even though it has been shown that dating interventions are capable of changing user
behaviour (Finkel et al. 2012), it is not clear what causes this change in behaviour and to
what extent the design of the digital interaction influences behaviour. More research is
needed from the design perspective to understand the user experience interactions within
dating apps and their impact on user wellbeing. The aim of this autoethnographic study was
thus to understand how the user interaction occurs in the early stages of setting up and
interacting within dating applications, and the relationship of this experience to the design

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

of the applications, and user wellbeing. The study found how the construct of the dating
applications can influence the connections a user makes with others, influences the view of
the user on themselves, and finally has a strong influence on the emotional state of the user.
These insights are presented through a series of vignettes that consist of extracts from the
diary of the first researcher and are supported with the visuals of the investigated dating
applications. Finally, the paper aimed to call for more research and efforts to be made both
in the area of design for relation making and within the construct of the dating applications
to ensure better and more mindful interactions for the wellbeing of its users.

2. Method
Autoethnography is a qualitative research method that aims to examine and/or critique an
experience. In autoethnography, the researcher is the object of research (auto) and with
their reflexive writing (grapho) they aim to analyse a particular aspect of culture or practice
(ethno) (Lucero 2018; Ellis and Bochner 2000). The narratives are usually written in the first
person, and the forms can vary from poetry, short stories, journals, letters, to essays (White
and Seibold 2008; Ellis and Bochner 2000).
Evocative autoethnography aims to portray the underwent experience and research by
portraying the researcher’s introspection through conveyed feelings and emotions (Méndez
2014; Ellis and Bochner 2000). Therefore, evocative autoethnography was chosen to address
the following two research objectives:
1. To understand the experiences and interactions within the dating applications
(from the perspective of the user)
2. To evaluate the design of the interaction within the applications (from the
perspective of the designer researcher)
The autoethnography was conducted through the eyes of the first author, who is referred to
as ‘the researcher’ throughout the rest of this paper. The researcher’s experiences are
reported in the first person through a series of 13 vignettes and figures, which are then
reflected on. Vignettes are used to enhance contextual richness and reflexivity of the
research (Humphreys 2005; Miles and Huberman 1994) and support interpretation of
findings by engaging the reader into the experience (Denzin and Lincoln 2005; Ellis 1997).
The study follows weekly experiences over four online dating applications -Tinder, Bumble,
Badoo, and OkCupid (Figure 1).

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

Figure 1. Logos of the 4 investigated dating App brands: Tinder, Bumble, Badoo, and OkCupid.

These mobile dating applications were chosen for the following criteria: they are the most
popular dating applications (Rusell 2021; Tanovska 2021), they offer different experiences
(Tinder being recognised as a ‘hook-up’ app, while OkCupid as a more serious app as it offers
matching based on quiz-tests) (Rusell 2021; Silva et al. 2019), and they were available to the
researcher on the mobile phone within country restrictions. The mobile applications were
downloaded individually and not at the same time to have individual experiences without
comparison.
Each experience was recorded through a personal narrative (Holman Jones, Adams, and Ellis
2016; Oswald et al. 2020; White and Seibold 2008). For the purposes of ensuring reliability, a
journal in Microsoft Word was used (Heewon Chang 2008). The journal included notation of
time, of the underlying emotion, and the trail of thoughts. With a deeper questioning of the
‘why’ feelings occurred, the connection was drawn between the emotions experienced and
the interaction design of the application.
The narrative was analysed with Emotion Capture Cards (Figure 2) which are a two-stage
method tool often used by two researchers to shadow their participants to understand the
emotions experienced during interactions, and the fundamental needs that drive the
interaction (Ozkaramanli et al. 2013). Here the use of the capture cards was adapted by the
first author to separate the narratives into detailed experiences and label them with the
emotions that were triggered by the experience. The capture cards were used as the
researcher was familiar with the method and it provided an effective way of aligning the
experiences with the emotions. The capture cards were then clustered into two categories
and the aligning subcategories that were formed based on literature and findings (Table 1).
The categories separated the experiences into those that were influenced by the overall
experience (category 1), such as communication with other users, the transfer to other
channels (Instagram or Whatsapp), and to those experiences that were influenced by the
design (category 2), such as the set-up of the account, the interaction design within the
application or the swiping.

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

Figure 2. An example Image of a capture card.

Table 1. Categories and subcategories for the clustering of capture cards.

Categories 1.Experience 2.Design

Subcategories Interaction with others Set-up of the account
Profiles Interaction design
Feeling of intimacy Swiping
Transferring to other channels Time
Overall interaction

The process of clustering capture cards provided an overview of the impact of each
application on the experience within different categories. The cards were then further
analysed and interpreted in a form of timelines where experiences were emotionally
mapped and measured by duration and emotional valence.

2.1. Ethics
The study would not have been possible without connecting and communicating with other
users. Connecting with others was relevant to investigate elements of design and interaction
such as the abilities to share different information (through voice, photograph, GIF), or to
investigate how the applications convey information to their users (such as likes, potential
matches, superlikes, and similar); however, the perspectives of other users were not
included as it was found to be irrelevant for this research. Each user was informed of the
research purpose through the dating profile of the researcher prior to the matching, and

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

consent was requested within the chat window before entering into further discussion. The
study was approved by the Loughborough University Ethics Committee.

3. Findings and discussion

The following reflections are reported as a series of vignettes, written in the first person
from the perspective of the researcher. Firstly, the researcher begins with positioning her
perception on the use of dating applications and the overall effect of this study on her
emotional wellbeing (Vignette 1). The findings suggest the overall experiences of usage of
dating applications as well as how the design has influenced the experience.

Vignette 1. The overall effect of the experience of using dating applications on the researcher.

The findings in the next sections begin with a description of the experiential timelines from
the perspective of the researcher. Then follows a series of vignettes using the accompanying
scripts from the journal and extracts from the timelines. The findings are structured
according to how the dating applications influenced the connections the researcher made
with others, how they influenced the view the researcher had on herself, and finally, how the
applications influenced the emotional state of the researcher. Literature is used critically to
place the researcher’s experiences in a wider context (Figure 3-7).

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

3.1. Comparisons of interaction experiences over time

The findings show a great difference in the interactions between the applications and the
outcome emotions (Vignette 2). The emotional mapping presented here shows (i) a timeline
of the setup of each application and the first hour of interactions (Figures 3-6), and (ii) a
comparative timeline that compares an emotion timeline within each application (Figure 7).
The timelines can be found in their full size in the Appendix 1.

Figures 3 – 7. Timeline of interactions for the dating applications (Tinder, Bumble, Badoo, OkCupid)
and a comparative timeline of emotions between the applications.

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

Vignette 2. The differences in experiences between the applications.

3.2 Experience findings

How the dating applications influenced the emotional state of the researcher
The experience over the dating applications consisted of many oscillations in emotions.
Holtzhausen (2020) shows that with the extended usage of swipe-based dating applications,
one’s mental state gets negatively affected. In this study, the time of usage of dating
applications had a dual effect – with extended usage, the hopes for positive interactions
diminished (Vignette 3) as well as image of the self, which confirms the negative impact
dating applications have in case of not feeling successful on the app, or in case the user
doesn’t receive the desired attention (Marston et al. 2020; Strubel and Petrie 2017). In the
end of the process, the usage decreased (Vignette 4), and with that the emotional state and
self-image of the researcher started repairing.

8
 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

Vignette 3. The diminishing of hope and wish for disengagement in the initiation phase on Tinder.

Vignette 4. The anger due to the number of notifications on the phone while using Badoo.

9
Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

It was found that on different applications the emotions were induced by different aspects
of the application, concluding that the experience can be controlled by the design. For
example, the design of Tinder was very simplistic, therefore the focus was more on the
interaction with others. On Badoo, the greatest number of emotions were created by the
feedback design. The experience on Badoo was an extremely negative one that the
researcher has swiped the least, as she tended to avoid the application for her emotional
wellbeing (Vignette 5). This shows that the higher increase of notifications or information
could result in disengagement.

Vignette 5. The distress caused by the number of notifications while using Badoo.

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

Comparatively, it was felt that Bumble had control and brought support to the user (e.g. by
providing information on wellbeing, the safety of the app, and controlling the covid
preferences). The choice of colour yellow felt inviting and warm which created a feeling of
calm while using the application as well (Vignette 6).

Vignette 6. The influence of the yellow colour and the opening screen in the design of Bumble.

In comparison, the colour black on OkCupid felt as a very strange choice of colour and not as
inviting (Vignette 7). It even created a sense of distrust towards the app.

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

Vignette 7. The experience of distrust towards OkCupid due to the black colour of the background.

However, even in the most positive of experiences, such as the one on Bumble, the
recording of the usage of dating applications decreased with time and recording of negative
emotions increased (Vignette 8). This confirms the finding that with the extended usage of
dating applications, one’s wellbeing and mental state deteriorates (Holtzhausen et al. 2020).

Vignette 8. With extended usage the negative emotions occurred also while using Bumble.

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

How the dating applications influenced how the researcher felt about herself
In this study, the researcher has experienced lowering of self-image, sadness and
desperation over time. The lack of success in achieving the desired connections resulted in
questioning of the standards for interaction, in feeling insecure, lonely and sad (Vignette 9).
These results confirm the existing findings of the frequent comparison, lower self-image and
self-esteem, feelings of shame, and distress present within the dating applications (Strubel
and Petrie 2017; Holland and Tiggemann 2016), especially if the users feel they haven’t
received the desired attention (Marston et al. 2020) or felt unsuccessful on the app (Her and
Timmermans 2020).

Vignette 9. The experience of negative emotions due to not creating connections on Tinder.

While using Tinder, there was an experience which the researcher termed a ‘red-dot
moment’. With the hope of receiving a new match, the researcher was sad when she saw
that it was only an unopened message. The initial excitement turned into a feeling of
embarrassment for feeling excited and resulted in the self-repair moment with an attempt
of justification for the experienced emotion (Vignette 10).

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

Vignette 10. The experience of disappointment and repair within the red-dot moment.

How the dating applications influenced how the researcher interacted with
others
As it has already been found, the researcher has experienced the lack of trust on certain
applications (Miguel 2018; Finkel et al. 2012; Hallam, De Backer, and Walrave 2019; Cobb
and Kohno 2017; Holtzhausen et al. 2020; Silva et al. 2019). While the lack of trust could be
subjective and dependent on the user and their belief or intent (Chan 2017; Bargh and

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

McKenna 2004) or the reputation of the application (Silva et al. 2019), this study found how
certain aspects of design can be implemented to control and support higher trust in users.
Tinder portrays a big image of the person, and users tend to write a small paragraph to
introduce themselves. The first portrayal of a user is with the name and the age, and only by
swiping to the next image is the employment status or education shown. Even within the
set- up of the account, the images used for verification insinuate that the purpose of the app
is for hook-ups or flirtation rather than a long-term relationship or a deeper connection
(Vignette 11).

Vignette 11. The confusion while using the application due to the objectification created through the
design. (sourcese : own visual; allscalie; © 2021 DatingAdda.com).

Bumble created a greater sense of trust by requiring more information within the setup of
the account, and thus inadvertently suggesting who to interact with or what interaction to
expect. In the instances when encountering a profile that had little information such as the

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

ones on Tinder, it appeared that the person purposefully retained information or has not put
in the effort (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Capture from the timeline of Bumble on the hateful comments and little info in potential
match’s profiles.

Swiping became an automatic behaviour after a certain time, and therefore brought greater
disengagement (Vignette 12). It was found that disengagement could be circumvented, and
a better experience could be created with design, such as in case of Bumble. Here, a profile
is presented with a combination of images and text which has brough to a more human
feeling and better connection, hence more time was given to each user (Figure 9).

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

Vignette 12. The swiping element within the design brings disengagement on Tinder.

Figure 9. Capture from the timeline of Bumble with the example of profiles.

The main reason for a negative experience within OkCupid was the feeling of distrust
towards the app that was caused by the initial marketing of OkCupid that promises better
dates. It was experienced that the setup of OkCupid is not in line with their initial promises
and did not differ from the other applications. After the initial main registration questions, it
was requested to upload photographs, and only later were the questions posed that would
offer matching. However, answering those questions were up to the user if they wish to fill

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

them out. Therefore, the initial promises of the interaction brought high expectations, but
ended up with disappointment. This led the researcher to bring the same criticality to the
design of communication. In the window chat, there was no option for sharing content,
which felt puzzling, as the first thought for such an interaction would mean OkCupid was not
a safe space, which again contradicted the initial promise (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Capture from the timeline of OkCupid with distrust caused by the promises and the sharing
abilities in the window chat.

In the experience with Badoo, where the notifications were distressing, the researcher did
not interact with others as much as in other applications. Moreover, the negative
experiences with other users within Badoo made the researcher disengage even further,
thus inhibiting possible positive connections (Vignette 13). This shows that a better focus
from the design of the app on the feedback design could assure involvement of the user.

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

Vignette 13. The amount of feedback created disengagement and prevented creation of possible
connections on Badoo.

3.4. Overall reflections

This evocative autoethnographic study confirms existing findings on the negative impact of
dating applications on wellbeing. The main contribution is the suggestion that the structure
of the application has an influence on the behaviour and the experiences of users. Even
within the initial forty-five minutes of interaction within the application, the researcher has
experienced a great amount of negative emotions. The design of an application was found to
influence and guide the use of the application, the communication and interaction user has
with others, the way users feel about themselves, and can influence and regulate one’s
emotional state.
A worrisome aspect is that dating applications have been compared to the way games
operate, as the addictive characteristics of the gaming industry has put games on the radar
by the World Health Organisation in 2018 (Wakefield 2018). In the documentary Swiped, the
co-founder of Tinder, Jonathan Badeen, has compared Tinder and their elements of
gamification with a slot machine (Sales 2018). The features of instant gratification, the high
ups and downs, and the interaction of swiping make these designs almost questionable on
the basis of ethics, and whether finding one’s partner in a form of a catalogue is the way to
go. This issue brings even more concern when we ask what is next? The current climate
created by COVID-19 pandemic has brought 2020 to be the record year in usage of dating
applications (Tinder 2020b; 2020a; Shaw 2020). Therefore, the way the dating applications
are designed and how people interact may be an even more important topic of discourse if
these forms of connections become a steady mean of forming romantic relationships.
To retrieve the insights of the inner experiences within such a sensitive and vulnerable topic,
a method of autoethnography seemed as a rich fitting. The issue of ethics over exposing one
does of others is a persisting concern when using autoethnography (Turner 2013; Ellis 2007;
Wall 2008). While the other users’ insights were not included for evaluation, the study still
involved disclosing within the sensitive landscape of online dating. The study also required
the vulnerability from the researcher to disclose honestly the underwent experiences
(Méndez 2014). ‘Embracing the vulnerability with purpose’ (Holman Jones, Adams, and Ellis
2016, p.22) was, however, done with the aim to provide insights into the emotional

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

rollercoaster dating applications can create for its users and to highlight the need for a
change and a more ethical approach.
With new technologies and opportunities of interaction, there is responsibility in designers
to think wisely over how we create them (Lenz et al., 2014). This study is a starting indication
of certain influences and elements of design such as choice of colour(such as in the case of
Bumble and OkCupid), presentation of profiles (Bumble in comparison to Tinder), and the
influence of the notifications on (dis)engagement (such as in Badoo). Furthermore, the study
also showed the connection a user makes with the system and its influence on connection
with other users – such as with the section of wellbeing in Bumble and trust-building, to the
influence of marketing of OkCupid and distrust. These initial findings required further
investigation and have prompted for studies that can provide clearer guidelines in designing
online communication to support relationship formation (Salaric et al., 2022).
There is a possibility to use the power of design for the better. Research from as far back as
2012 show that the dating sites and applications are not the best in creating durable
connections and have a negative impact on the wellbeing of their users. Therefore, more
efforts and research is required from the design perspective to create interactions that are
mindful and that nourish the wellbeing of users and support healthy and steady relationship
developments.

3.5. Limitations
Autoethnography is a form of self-reflexive ethnography (Ellis and Bochner 2000) where the
action of self-reflection is a way for the researcher to make sense of one’s own experience,
critique an experience, and to provide findings to the reader (Adams, Ellis, and Jones 2017;
Holman Jones, Adams, and Ellis 2016; L. Anderson 2006).
However, it is important to bear in mind that the presented experiences are subjective and
single experiences of the researcher that may not reflect many different motives to use a
dating application (Timmermans and De Caluwé 2017), nor the range of feelings and
emotions that different individuals may experience when using the apps. The experiences –
a positive or a negative emotion – were based on the own evaluation of the researcher and
without a specific metric. It must be taken into the account while reviewing the findings that
the experience might have been heightened due to a strong focus on the design. The
analysis of actions therefore could have been higher in criticality or more importance might
have been given to certain elements of interaction, some that otherwise might have gone
unnoticed. Furthermore, the experiences over the dating apps have been experienced one
after another and mutually compared which could have influenced the experience over
certain apps as well. Even so, many of the researchers’ experiences were also supported by
findings reported in the literature.
Beyond the limitations of the method, the study covers the experiences in using the free
versions of dating applications. Different experiences may occur in the paid versions which

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 Tinder and heartbeats: Wellbeing in the use of dating applications

provide more autonomy to users. As well, since the conduction of the study, some
applications have made changes to their UI.

3.6 . Further Recommendations

The method of autoethnography allowed the researcher to deeply interrogate and reflect
upon the interactions, but to also see the experiences through the critical lens of a designer.
This lens allowed the analysis of the interaction design of the applications and how they
influence behaviour, the emotions and the interactions over time. It also brought the data
and insights that in other methods may not be recorded.
This study is a part of an on-going research and further research has been planned for future
triangulation. More investigation is needed to have a greater overview of interactions that
appear within dating applications, to define the desired interactions from the users, and
formulate ways that the interactions within applications can be improved.
Cross-sectional and cross-cultural research over the ways different groups use platforms and
for what purpose could bring insights into how these interactions could be tailored to
support different needs and behaviours. Longitudinal studies would contribute by providing
such insights, as well as bring understanding over the long-term effects of these services.

4. Conclusion
This evocative autoethnographic study from the perspective of the first researcher confirms
the existing findings on the negative influences of dating applications on wellbeing (the
lower experienced trust on the dating applications, lowering of self-worth and image, higher
distress and anxiety, induce depression), even in the most positive interactions (such as that
on Bumble). The method allowed the researcher to compare the experiences over four
dating applications (Tinder, Bumble, Badoo, and OkCupid) and to connect them with the
interaction design. This study contributes to the knowledge on the negative impact of dating
applications on wellbeing by connecting the design of the applications to the outcome
emotions and behaviour. The study shows how the construct of the dating applications can
influence the connections a user makes with others, influences the view of the user on
himself/herself, and finally has a strong influence on the emotional state of the user. Even
within the initial forty-five minutes of the setup of the account and the first interactions, the
researcher has experienced a great deal of negative emotions. The research raises important
questions over the ethics of this big industry, and over the fact that the dating applications
are quickly overtaking other methods of creating romantic connections and what their
presence could mean for the future wellbeing of users. The design industry and the design
research community still lack the perspective of the influence design has on relationship
making as well as the impact the designed interactions have on health and wellbeing. This
paper highlights the need for more research from the design perspective to find interactions
that can nourish romantic behaviours and enable meaningful connections in online
environments while ensuring wellbeing of the users.

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Petra Salaric, Rebecca Cain, Emilene Zitkus, Valentijn Visch

Acknowledgements: This project is funded by a Loughborough University PhD

Studentship.

6. References
Adams, Tony E., Carolyn Ellis, and Stacy Holman Jones. 2017. “Autoethnography.” In The
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About the Authors:

Petra Salaric is a doctoral researcher at the School of Design and

Creative Arts at Loughborough University. Within the area of design
for wellbeing, she focuses on behaviour change and emotions, and
specialises in taboo topics.

Rebecca Cain is a Professor of Transdisciplinary Design and an

Associate Dean in the school of Design and Creative Arts at
Loughborough University. She is the Vice-Chair of the DRS Executive
Board and was the founding convenor of the DRS Special Interest
Group for Happiness, Health and Wellbeing (SIGWELL).

Emilene Zitkus is a Lecturer in Inclusive Design, UX, and User Centred

Design at Loughborough University. She is a member of the editorial
board of the Design for Health journal and visiting Lecturer at UNESP.
Her expertise in inclusive design has developed during the last 13 years
through projects developed within partners in industry, including Ford
and Jaguar-Land Rover and EPSRC projects, including her PhD at the
University of Cambridge. Current research focusses on User
Experience design to support health and wellbeing, especially among
the older population in developing countries.

Valentijn Visch is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Industrial

Design Engineering (IDE at TU Delft. His research is focused on Design
for Health Motivation. He coordinates Persuasive Game Design
research, chairs the IDE eHealth research lab, and is project leader of
several health-related interdisciplinary research projects including
subjects like storytelling, digital twins, eHealth & game design, health
literacy, obesity prevention, reaching people with low SEP and health
journeys.

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