3.

BOILERS

3.1 Steam Generator Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion
of fuel is transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired
temperature and pressure. The steam produced is used for: (i) Producing mechanical work by expanding
it in steam engine or steam turbine. (ii) Heating the residential and industrial buildings (iii) Performing
certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries. Boiler is a closed vessel in which
water is converted into steam by the application of heat. Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.

TYPES OF BOILERS The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria. According to flow of
water and hot gases. 1. Water tube.

2. Fire tube. In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion
flow over these tubes.

In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion pass through the tubes, which are surrounded, by
water. Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more likely to
explosion, water volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change in
steam demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger than the shell of
water-tube boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to
explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can response quickly to change in steam
demand. Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers and due to
smaller size of drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser floor space.
The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.

Water tube boilers are classified as follows. 1. Horizontal straight tube boilers

(a) Longitudinal drum (b) Cross-drum.

2. Bent tube boilers

(a) Two drum (b) Three drum (c) Low head three drum (d) Four drum.

3. Cyclone fired boilers

Various advantages of water tube boilers are as follows.

(i) High pressure of the order of 140 kg/cm2 can be obtained.

(ii) Heating surface is large. Therefore steam can be generated easily.

(iii) Large heating surface can be obtained by use of large number of tubes.
(iv) Because of high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat transfer becomes
large resulting into a greater efficiency.

Fire tube boilers are classified as follows. l. External furnace:

(i) Horizontal return tubular

(ii) Short fire box

(iii) Compact.

2. Internal furnace:

(i) Horizontal tubular

(a) Short firebox (b) Locomotive (c) Compact (d) Scotch

(ii) Vertical tubular.

(a) Straight vertical shell, vertical tube (b) Cochran (vertical shell) horizontal tube.

Various advantages of fire tube boilers are as follows. (i) Low cost

(ii)Fluctuations of steam demand can be met easily

(iii) It is compact in size.

According to position of furnace.

(i) Internally fired (ii) Externally fired

In internally fired boilers the grate combustion chamber are enclosed within the boiler
shell whereas in case of extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are separated from
the boiler shell.
 3.2 Cochran Boiler
Cochran Boiler is a multi-tubular vertical fire tube boiler having a number of horizontal fire
tubes. It is the modification of a simple vertical boiler where the heating surface has been
increased by means of a number of fire tubes. The efficiency of this boiler is much better than the
simple vertical boiler.

Parts of Cochran Boiler:

A Cochran Boiler is consisted of following parts:

1. Shell
2. Grate
3. Combustion Chamber
4. Fire tubes
5. Fire hole
6. Firebox (Furnace)
7. Chimney
8. Man Hole
9. Flue pipe
10. Fire Brick Lining
11. Feed Check Valve
12. Blow Off Valve
13. Ash Pit
14. Smoke Box Door
15. Anti Priming Pipe
16. Crown
17. Pressure Gauge
18. Safety Valve
19. Water Level Indicator
20. Water Level Gauge
21. Fusible Plug
22. Stop Valve
1 Shell:
The main body of the boiler is known as a shell. It is hemispherical on the top, where space is provided
for steam.

This hemispherical top gives a higher volume to area ratio which increases the steam capacity.

#2 Grate:
In the grate section, solid fuel is stored, it is designed so well that air can easily flow through it, and also
the ashes fall from the grate quite easily. In this section, the fire is placed.

#3 Combustion Chamber:
It is lined with fire bricks on the side of the shell to prevent overheating of the boiler. Hot gases enter the
fire tubes from the flue pipe through the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber is connected to
the furnace.

#4 Fire Tubes:
There are various fire tubes whose one end is connected to the furnace and other to the chimney. Sevaral
horizontal fire tubes are provided to increased the heating surface.

#5 Fire Hole:
The small hole is provided at the bottom of the combustion chamber to place fuel is known as a fire hole.

#6 Fire Box (Furnace):

It works as a mediator of fire tubes and combustion chamber.

It is also dome-shaped like the shell so that the gases can be deflected back till they are passed out
through the flue pipe to the combustion chamber.
#7 Chimney:
It is provided for the exit of flue gases to the atmosphere from the smokebox.

#8 Man Hole:
It is provided for the inspection and repair of the interior of the boiler shell.

#9 Flue Pipe:
It is a short passage connecting the firebox with the combustion chamber.

#10 Fire Brick Lining:

It is a special type of brick ling use in Cochran Boiler to reduce the convection of heat from the outer
surface of the boiler. Fire Brick is generally made of fire clay.

#11 Feed Check Valve:

It is used to control the flow of water inside the boiler, it also helps to restrict the backflow of water.

#12 Blow Off Valve:

It is used to blow off the settle down impurities, mud, and sediments present in the boiler water.

#13 Ash Pit:

It is a chamber inside a boiler where ashes are stored.

#14 Smoke Box Door:

It is used to clean the smoke box deposits materials.

#15 Anti Priming Pipe:

Sometimes water droplets come out with the steam, so to prevent the droplets from carried out by the
steam the Anti Priming Pipe is used.

#16 Crown:
It is hemispherical dome-shaped section of a boiler, where burning of fuel happens.

#17 Pressure Gauge:

It measures the pressure of steam inside the boiler.

#18 Safety Valve:

 It blows off the extra steam when the steam pressure inside the boiler reaches above safety level.

#19 Water Level Indicator:

The position of the water level in the Cochran boiler is indicated by the water level indicator.

#20 Water Level Gauge:

It glass tube fitted out side of the boiler to check the water level inside the boiler.

#21 Fusible Plug:

It is one type of safety measure. If the inside temperature of the boiler cross the limit, then for safety
purpose this Fusible Plug melts and the water comes into the boiler furnace and extinguish the fire.

#22 Stop Valve:

 Stop valve is used to transfer steam to the desired location when it is required. Otherwise, it stops the
steam in the boiler.

Working Principle of Cochran Boiler:

The Cochran boiler works as same as other fire tube boiler.

First, The coal is placed at the grate through the fire hole.

Then the air is entering into the combustion chamber through the atmosphere and fuel is sparked through
fire hole.

Then flue gases start flowing into the hemispherical dome-shaped combustion chamber. This flue gases
further moves into the fire pipes.

Heat is exchanged from flue gases to the water into the fire tubes.

The steam produce collected into the upper side of the shell and taken out by when the required pressure
generated.

The flue gases now send to the chimney through a firebox where it leaves into the atmosphere.

Now, this process repeats and runs continuously. The steam generates used into the small industrial
processed.

Applications of Cochran Boiler:

The application of Cochran boiler are:

 Variety of process applications industries.

 Chemical processing divisions.
 Pulp and Paper manufacturing plants.
 Refining units.
Besides, they are frequently employed in power generation plants where large quantities of steam
(ranging up to 500 kg/s) having high pressures i.e. approximately 16 megapascals (160 bar) and high
temperatures reaching up to 550 °C are generally required.

Features of Cochran boiler:

These are some features of Cochran Boiler:

 In the Cochran boiler, any type of fuel can be used.

 It is best suitable for small capacity requirements.
 It gives about 70% thermal efficiency with coal firing and about 75% thermal efficiency with oil firing.
 The ratio of the grate area to the heating surface area varies from 10: 1 to 25:1.

Advantages of Cochran Boiler:

The advantages of Cochran Boiler are following:
 Low floor area required.
 Low initialization cost.
 It is easy to operate.
 Transport from one place to another is very easy.
 It has a higher volume to area ratio.

Disadvantages of Cochran Boiler:

There are some disadvantages of Cochran Boiler and those are:

 Low steam generation rate.

 Limited pressure handles capacity.
 It is difficult to inspect and maintain.

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler Parts:

A Babcock and Willcox Boiler Parts or Construction consists of:

 Drum
 Water Tubes
 Uptake and Downtake header
 Grate
 furnace
 Baffles
 Superheater
 Mud box
 Inspection Door
 Water Level Indicator
 Pressure Gauge
Drum:
This is a horizontal axis drum which contains water and steam.

Water tubes:
Water tubes are placed between the drum and furnace in an inclined position (at an angle of 10 to 15
degrees) to promote water circulation.

Uptake and Downtake Header:

This is present at the front end of the boiler and connected to the front end of the drum. It transports the
steam from the water tubes to the drum. and

This is present at the rear end of the boiler and connects the water tubes to the rear end of the drum.

It receives water from the drum.

Grate:
Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door.

Furnace:
The furnace is kept below the uptake-header.

Baffles:
The fire-brick baffles, two in number, are provided to deflect the hot flue gases.

Superheater:
It increases the temperature of saturated steam to the required temperature before discharging it from the
steam stop valve.

Mud Box:
This is used to collect the mud present in the water.
 Mud box is provided at the bottom end of the down-take header.

Inspection Door:
Inspection doors are provided for cleaning and inspection of the boiler.

Water Level Indicator:

The water level indicator shows the level of water within the drum.

Pressure Gauge:
The pressure gauge is used to check the pressure of steam within the boiler drum.

Working Principle of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

The working of Babcock and Wilcox boiler is first the water starts to come in the water tubes from the
drum through down take header with the help of a boiler feed pump which continues to feed the water
against the drum pressure.

The water present in the inclined water tubes gets heated up by the hot flue gases produced by the
burning of coal on the fire grate.

These fuel gases are uniformly heated the water tube with the help of a baffle plate which works deflect
the flues gas uniform throughout the tubes which absorbed the heating maximum from the flue gases.

As the hot flue gases come in contact with water tubes, It exchanges the heat with heater and converts
into the steam.

Continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and water tubes to the drum is thus
maintained.

The circulation of water is maintained by convective current and it’s known as Natural Circulation.

The Steam generated is moved upward, due to density difference and through the up-take header, it gets
collected at the upper side in the boiler drum.

Anti-priming pipe inside the drum which works separates the moisture from the steam and sends it’s to
the superheater.

The superheater receives the water-free steam from an anti-priming pipe. It increases the temperature of
the steam to the desired level and transfers it to the main steam stop valve of the boiler.

The superheated steam stop valve is either collected in a steam drum or send it’s inside the steam turbine
for electricity generation.

Applications Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

The main application Babcock and Wilcox boiler to produce high-pressure steam in power generation
industries.

Advantages of Babcock and Wilcox:

The advantages of Babcock and Wilcox boiler are:

 The overall efficiency of this boiler is high.

 The steam generation rate is higher about 20 ton per hour at pressure 10 to 20 bars.
 The tubes can be replaced easily.
 The boiler can expand and contract freely.
 It is easy to repair maintenance and cleaning.

Disadvantages of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

These are some disadvantages of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

 It is less suitable for impure and sedimentary water, as a small deposit of scale may cause the
overheating and bursting of tubes. Hence, water treatment is very essential for water tube boilers.
 Failure in feed water supply even for a short period is liable to make the boiler overheated. Hence the
water level must be watched very carefully during the operation of a water tube boiler.
 The maintenance cost is high.

3.3Boiler Mountings
These are the fittings, which are necessarily mounted on the boiler itself and mandatorily
required for the safe and proper operation of boiler. Various boiler mountings are being
discussed here one by one. 
1 Water level indicator
Function
Water level indicator is fitted outside the boiler shell to indicate the water level in the boiler through a
glass tube. In any type of boiler, water should remain at the designed level. If the water falls below the
level due to change of phase into steam and simultaneously fresh water does not fill in by some reason,
the hot surface may expose to steam only and overheat. This is because the heat transfers co-efficient of
steam is very less as compared to water. Due to overheat, damage of tube surface may occur. To avoid
this situation, level of water in the boiler needs to be constantly monitored & maintained by boiler
operator by keeping watch on water level indicator.

Construction
As shown in the , two horizontal tubes made of gun metal extend from the boiler shell in such a way
that top one is connected to steam space and bottom one is connected to water space of the boiler.
These are connected at the other end by a vertical glass tube contained in a hollow casting in such a
way that water and steam come out in the glass tube and their interface is visible through it. Each gun
metal tube is also provided with a cock to control the flow of water/steam to the glass tube. One drain
cock is fitted at the bottom for cleaning purpose. The horizontal metal tubes also contain one metal ball
each which normally rests on a hemispherical groove in the tubes. In case the water/steam rush with
high speed as may be if glass tube breaks by accident, this ball lifts up from its normal position and
block a hole which connects the metal tube with glass tube and stops the flow.
  Working
Working of water level indicator or water gauge is very simple. When the cocks are opened, boiling
water and steam from the boiler shell flow into the hard glass tube and maintain the same level as in the
boiler which is visible to operator. When the water level falls down beyond a safe limit, operator may
switch on the feed pump to fill more water in the boiler shell. In the water and steam passages in the
gun metal tubes, a metal ball rest in the cavity made in the passage. In case of breakage of glass tubes
by accident, water and steam contained at high pressure in the boiler rush with high speed towards
broken glass tube due to large pressure difference between inside and outside of boiler. Due to this, the
ball resting in the cavity made in the passage lifts and rushes towards the end of gun metal tube and
blocks the passage of steam or water flow. Then immediately the cock can be closed and glass tube can
be replaced safely.   
2 Pressure Gauge
  Function
A pressure gauge is used to indicate the pressure of steam in the boiler. It is generally mounted on the
front top of the boiler. Pressure gauge is of two types as (i) Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge (ii) Diaphragm
type pressure gauge. Both these gauges have a dial in which a needle moves over a circular scale under
the influence of pressure. At atmospheric pressure it gives zero reading. Some gauges indicate only the
positive pressure but some are compound and indicate negative pressure or vacuum also. Looking at the
gauge, boiler operator can check the safe working pressure of the boiler and can take necessary steps to
keep the pressure within safe limits. If pressure increases and crosses the safe limit due to any reason,
the boiler shell material may fail and it can burst causing damage to life and property. Thus it is very
important to constantly monitor pressure in a boiler with the help of pressure gauge.

Construction & working

A bourdon tube pressure gauge is normally used, the construction of which is shown in the 

The bourdon tube is an elliptical spring material tube made with special quality bronze. One end of tube
is connected to gauge connector and other end is closed and free to move. A needle is attached to the
free end of tube through a small gear mechanism. With the movement of tube under pressure, needle
rotates on the circular scale. The movement of tube & hence needle is proportionate to the rise in
pressure and so calibrated with scale.

The pressure gauge connector is attached to the boiler shell through a U-tube siphon and three way
cocks. In the U-tube, condensate remains filled and so live steam does not come in direct content of
bourdon tube but it push or exert pressure on the condensate which further stretch bourdon tube.
Steam is not allowed a direct contact with the gauge due to high temperature effect on the pressure
recording. The three way cock is used to give an entire connection for inspector�s pressure gauge.

3  Spring loaded safety valve

  Function
Spring loaded safety valve is a safely mounting fitted on the boiler shell and is essentially required on the
boiler shell to safeguard the boiler against high pressure. It is a vital part of boiler and always be in good
working condition to protect the boiler from bursting under high pressure and so to save life and
property.
  Construction
As shown in fig it consists of two openings or valve seats which are closed by two valves attached to a
single lever. The lever is pivoted at one end and attached to a spring at the middle. The spring is fixed at
the bottom end with the overall body of valve. Due to spring force, the liver and hence valves remain
seated on the valve seats and do not allow the steam to escape. When the pressure force of steam
exceeds the spring pulling force, valve & lever are lifted and steam escape thus decreasing the pressure
below the safe limit. On decreasing the pressure valves sit again on their seats and thus stop the steam
flow from the boiler. Sometimes, the lever may also be lifted manually to release steam if required.

4  Fusible plug
  Function
The function of fusible plug is to protect the boiler from damage due to overheating of boiler tubes by
low water level.

  Construction
As shown in Fig., it is simply a hollow gun metal plug screwed into the fire box crown. This hollow gun
metal plug is separated from the main metal plug by an annulus fusible material. This material is
protected from fire side by means of a flange.
  Working
When the water in the boiler is at its normal level, fusible plug remains submerged in water and its
temperature does not exceed its melting temperature, because its heat is transferred to water easily. If
under some unwanted condition, water level comes down to unsafe limit; fusible plug is exposed to
steam in place of water. On the other side it is exposed to fire. So its temperature exceeds its melting
point due to very low heat transfer to steam and it melts down. Immediately steam and water under
high pressure rush to the fire box and extinguish the fire.

5  Blow-off-cock
  Function
It is a controllable valve opening at the bottom of water space in the boiler and is used to blow off some
water from the bottom which carries mud or other sediments settled during the operation of boiler. It is
also used to completely empty the water when the boiler is shut off for cleaning purpose or for
inspection and repair.
  Construction and working
The construction is as shown in fig. It has a casing having a passage with one side flange to connect with
boiler shell. The passage is blocked by a cone shape plug having a cross rectangular hole. Sealing is made
with a top and bottom asbestos packing filled in grooves on plug. The shank of the plug passes through a
gland and stuffing box in the cover. On the top portion of the shank a box spanner can be fitted to rotate
the shank and plug by 90 0 to either open or close the blow-off-cock. The working is also clearly visible on
playing the animation. 
6  Feed-check-valve
  Function
The feed check valve is fitted in the feed water line of the boiler after the feed pump. Its function is to
allow the water to flow in the boiler when the discharge pressure of feed pump is more than the inside
steam pressure of boiler and prevent the back flow in case the feed pump pressure is less than boiler
pressure. Feed check valve is fitted slightly below the normal water level in the boiler.

  Construction
The construction of feed check valve is as shown in fig 25.6 In the casing of valve there is a check valve
which can move up or down on its seat under the pressure of water. When supply pressure of feed
water acting at the bottom of check valve is more, valve lifts up and allows the water to fill in the boiler.
When supply pressure drops by stopping of feed pump, the boiler pressure acts on the top of valve and
it sits on its gun metal seat and stops back flow of the boiler water out of the boiler shell.

Fig.6 Feed check valve

7 Steam stop valve
Function
It is fitted over the boiler in between the steam space and steam supply line. Its function is to regulate
the steam supply from boiler to the steam line.

  Construction and working

The construction of steam stop valve is as shown in fig 25.7. Its casing has a L-shaped steam flow
passage. It consists of a valve and valve seat to stop or allow

the steam flow.

The valve is attached to a spindle and handle. Spindle passes through packing in the stuffing box to
prevent leakage. The spindle has external threads in the top portion and moves in the internal threats
of a fix nut. By rotating clockwise and anticlockwise the spindle and valve moves down and up thus
closing or opening the valves.

 Steam stop valve

 Boiler Accessories
Boiler accessories are the components which are attached to the boiler (Not mounted on it) and
are essentially for working of boiler and for increasing its efficiency. Various boiler accessories
are discussed as below
1  Feed pump
Feed pump is placed nearby the boiler and is used to feed water to boiler working at a high
pressure. The job of feed pump is not just put the water in the boiler but as boiler is working at
high pressure, discharge pressure of feed pump must be sufficiently higher than this to push the
water inside the boiler.
  Construction & working
The feed pump used in boiler is of two types (i) Reciprocating type (ii) Rotary type. Both these
types are positive displacement type to discharge against high pressure. The discharge pressure
of a single stage centrifugal pump is not high enough to overcome the high pressure of boiler so
multistage centrifugal pump is used as a boiler feed pump.
 
In stationary low pressure boiler used in processing industries, a multistage centrifugal pump run
by an electrical motor is more suitable. In multistage centrifugal pump, a number of centrifugal
casing are so attached to each other that the impeller of each is mounted on the same shaft run
by an electrical motor and discharge of 1 st stage goes to 2nd stage and of 2nd to 3rd stage and so on.
As shown in fig , in each stage the pressure of water goes on increasing and discharge pressure
of final stage is so high as to overcome the internal pressure of boiler. Theses pumps have
independent working and have smooth operation.

Fig. Multistage centrifugal pumps

2.  Economizer
Function
An economizer is a specially constructed heat exchanger for harnessing the heat energy of
outgoing flue gases and utilizing it in preheating of boiler feed water. It saves the heat energy
and so the fuel and decreases the operating cost of boiler by increasing its thermal efficiency.
  Construction & working
Economizers are of two types as (i) External type (ii) Internal type. The external type economizer
is constructed and installed apart from the boiler and the flue gases from the boiler are directed to
flow through it before escaping through chimney. A vertical tube external economizer is shown
in fig .
 Fig. External economizer
It is employed for boilers of medium pressure range. Here a number of vertical tubes made of
cast iron are connected to common headers at the bottom and top. Feed water flow into the
bottom header and then through the vertical tubes flow out from the top header. Hot flue gases
escaping from the boiler are directed to flow across the outside surface of tubes thus indirectly
heating the feed water flowing inside. To avoid deposit of soot over the tube surface, tubular
scrapers are fitted over the tubes. These are operated by chain and pulley system and while
moving up and down slowly scrap the soot over the wall of tubes and so increase the heat
transfer rate. An internal tube economizer is fitted inside the boiler and is an integral part of it.
Advantages of Economizer
1.   Stresses produced in the boiler material due to temperature difference of boiler material and
feed water are reduced because of increase in feed water temperature.
2.   Evaporative capacity of boiler increases as less heat will be required to generate steam if feed
water temperature is already high due to preheating.
3.   Overall efficiency of boiler increases because of more steam produced per kg of fuel burnt.
3.  Air Pre-heater
 Fig. Air Pre-heater (Tubular Type)
  Function
The function of air pre-heater is to further utilize the heat of flue gases after coming out of
economizer to preheat the air used in furnace or oil burner.
  Construction
It is a plate type or tubular type or storage heat exchanger, in which flue gases pass through the
tubes on one side of plate and air pass on other side. In storage type a rotor fitted with mesh or
matrix alternatively come in the passage of flue gases and air thus exchanging heat. A tubular
type air-heater is as shown in fig 25.10
4  Super heater
The function of super heater is to increase the temperature of steam beyond its saturation
temperature. It is a type of heat exchanger. Hot flue gases coming out of burner are first directed
through super heater before the boiler. The main advantage of superheating of steam comes in
power plants, where steam is expanded through a turbine. But in a processing industry
superheating is required only to avoid condensation in pipes. Thus super heater has less
advantage or use in a processing industry and many times not used but not always.