SAINTJOSEPH COLLEGE OF SINDANGAN INCORPORATED

Poblacion, Sindangan, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines

Telefax (065) 224 – 2710 or Tel. No. (065) 224 – 2110
E-mail Address: stjoseph_68@yahoo.com

LEARNING MODULE
Science 10: 3 Grading rd

Living Things and Their

Environment

LEARNER’S INFORMATION
Name: ____________________________________________________________________________
Grade Level and Section: _____________________________________________________________
School Year/Semester: _______________________________________________________________
Science Teacher: ____________________________________________________________________
Class Adviser: ______________________________________________________________________
Module 1: LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Introduction and Focus Question

One characteristic of life is reproduction – the proliferation of species. When organisms

reproduce, they pass certain traits to their offspring. These traits are a product of millions of years of
evolution which can be traced back to the offspring’s early ancestors. In this quarter, you will take a
closer look at the human reproductive system, including its parts and functions which are coordinated by
the nervous and the endocrine systems. You will also discover how genetic formation is passed from
parents to offspring and how mutations occur. Aside from these, you will explore ideas on human
evolution and how it can most likely result in biodiversity. Lastly, you will find out how biodiversity
affects the stability of ecosystems and how humans can minimize their negative impact on an
ecosystem’s biodiversity.

Remember to search the answer of the question below.

How do the nervous, endocrine and reproductive systems perform coordinated functions?
How does mutation result to change in the structure and function of a protein?
How can Natural Selection contribute to biodiversity or extinction?
How do humans impact the diversity and stability of ecosystem?

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LESSONS AND COVERAGE:
In this module, you will examine this question when you take the following lesson.
Lesson 1: Coordinated Functions of the Reproductive, Endocrine, and Nervous Systems
Lesson 2: Heredity: Inheritance and Variation
Lesson 3: Biodiversity and Evolution
Lesson 4: Ecosystems
In this lesson, you will learn the following:

Lesson Competencies
(Topic)
 Identify the parts and functions of the nervous and endocrine system,
 Describe the parts of the reproductive system and their functions
 Explain the role of hormones involved in the female and male reproductive
systems
1  Describe the feedback mechanisms involved in regulating processes in the
female reproductive system (e.g., menstrual cycle)
 Describe how the nervous system coordinates and regulates these feedback
mechanisms to maintain homeostasis
 Explain how the endocrine system helps in maintaining homeostasis
 Identify the ways to prevent, detect and treat sexually transmitted diseases
 Create an advocacy against sexually transmitted diseases through poster ads.
 Describe the structure of the DNA,
 Explain how protein is made using information from DNA
2  Explain how mutations may cause changes in the structure and function of a
protein;
 Identify the different factors that cause evolution
 Explain how fossil records, comparative anatomy, and genetic information
3 provide evidence for evolution;
 Explain the occurrence of evolution;
 Explain the movement of energy in an ecosystem
 Differentiate the biogeochemical cycles in an ecosystem.
4  Explain how species diversity increases the probability of adaptation and
survival of organisms in changing environments;
 Explain the relationship between population growth and carrying capacity; and
 Suggest ways to minimize human impact on the environment.

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 CONCEPT MAP OF THE MODULE

Here’s a simple map of the above activities you will cover:

Coordinated Functions of the

Reproductive, Endocrine, and
Nervous Systems

Heredity: Inheritance and

Variation

Living Things and

Their Environment

Biodiversity and Evolution

Ecosystems

EXPECTED SKILLS:
To do well in this module, you need to remember and do the following:
1. Take time to pray before you start.
2. Read the instructions carefully.
3. Complete all the activities and answer sheets. Write your answers legibly and neatly.
4. Look for the meaning of words that you do not know.
5. You will frequently come across discussion questions as you go through different lessons. Keep
a notebook (or use the notepad) where you can write (and revise) your answers to these
questions. Use also a notebook to jot down short notes, draw diagrams, and summarize what you
have just read.
6. Allow time for relaxation and recreation when you are mentally tired. Make a time table
to schedule your study and recreation.
7. If you have questions in any part of the learning module, feel free to contact your subject teacher
or adviser. The contact information is available at the end of this module.
8. Have fun and enjoy learning.

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 SAINT JOSEPH COLLEGE OF SINDANGAN INCORPORATED
Poblacion, Sindangan, Zamboanga del Norte
Junior High School
S. Y. 2020 – 2021

PRE-ASSESSMENT
Quarter 3

NAME:___________________________________ DATE:_________________
GRADE-SECTION:_________________________ SCORE:________________

Let’s find out how much you already know about this quarter. Circle the letter that correspond the
correct answer. Please answer all items. After taking the short test, you will see your score. Take note
of the items that you were not able to correctly answer and look for the right answer as you go through
this module.

1. Which process refers to the union of an egg and a sperm cell?

A. Fertilization C. Menstrual Cycle
B. Menstruation D. Ovulation
2. The site of pregnancy is the __________.
A. Cervix C. Uterus
B. Fallopian Tube D. Vagina
3. Which is the correct pathway of the sperm?
A. epididymis seminiferous tubules vas deferens urethra
B. seminiferous tubules epididymis vas deferens urethra
C. urethra vas deferens epididymis seminiferous tubules
D. vas deferens urethra seminiferous tubules epididymis
4. What mechanism regulates the amount of a hormone in the blood?
A. Adaptation C. Negative feedback
B. Diffusion D. Secretion
5. Which of the following hormones have antagonistic effects?
A. FSH and LH C. Parathyroid and Calcitonin
B. Oxytocin and Prolactin D. Testosterone and Melatonin
6. Which is not a part of the central nervous system?
A. Cranial nerves C. Spinal cord
B. Hypothalamus D. Thalamus
7. Which of the following can conduct impulses away from the neuron cell body or toward it?
A. Axon C. Myelin sheath
B. Dendrite D. Synapse
8. Which controls the “fight-or-fight” response that we experience during a stressful situation?
A. Central Nervous System C. Somatic Nervous System
B. Parasympathetic Division D. Sympathetic Division
9. A base sequence of one strand AATTCG has the complementary base strand of ________.
A. AATTCG C. TTAAGC
B. TTAACG D. TTGGAC
10. RNA makes protein through_________.
A. Repair C. Transcription
B. Replication D. Translation
11. Which of the following statements about DNA and RNA is incorrect?
A. Both have cytosine as a base
B. Both are composed of a nitrogenous base
C. The DNA copies specific instruction from the RNA
D. DNA is a double-stranded helix while RNA is a single-stranded helix

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 12. Which type of RNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome?
A. Messenger RNA C. Ribosomal RNA
B. Mitochondrial RNA D. Transfer RNA
13. Which type of chromosome structure mutation results in an excess pair of chromosomes?
A. Deletion C. Inversion
B. Duplication D. Translocation
14. Which of the following is not used as evidence of evolution?
A. DNA C. Homologous Structures
B. Fossils D. Niche
15. Survival of the fittest is also known as_____________.
A. Isolation C. Natural Selection
B. Mutation D. Overproduction
16. The process by which isolated populations of the same species become a different species is
called______.
A. Evolution C. Natural Selection
B. Genetic variation D. Speciation
17. Which prehuman species were first associated with stone tools?
A. Cro-Magnon C. Homo habilis
B. Homo erectus D. Homo sapiens
18. Carrying capacity refers to the ________?
A. Sudden crash of a population
B. Limiting factors in an environment
C. Reproductive rate of a certain organism
D. Maximum size of a population that an environment can support
19. An ecosystem that maintains its normal structure and function amidst disturbances
exhibits____________.
A. Biodiversity C. Resilience
B. Carrying capacity D. Resistance
20. A body part that is involved in both the nervous and endocrine system is the _________.
A. Adrenal gland C. Testis
B. Hypothalamus D. Thyroid gland

Lesson 1: Coordinated Functions of the Reproductive, Endocrine, and Nervous Systems

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 EXPLORE
Hello! How are you? In this grading, we will discuss about the living
organisms and their environment but we will start first with our 1 st lesson which is
about the Coordinated Functions of the Reproductive, Endocrine, and Nervous
Systems. Please don’t forget to take note some important ideas as you go along in
this first stage of your module. Enjoy!
The human body is made up of different systems that coordinate with one another in order to
perform their functions well. If any part of these organ system malfunctions, the body will become
unbalanced. The instability caused by malfunctioning of one system cannot be made stable by other
systems because each system has its own function in the body. You have studied in the past that human
body systems are the combined functional units composed of various organs that work in full
coordination with one other. In Grade 9, you have already studied how the circulatory and respiratory
systems work together and how lifestyle affects these systems. Now you will learn about the coordinated
functions of the reproductive, endocrine, and nervous systems.
As you go through this lesson, you will be able to understand organisms having feedback
mechanisms. You will also learn how these feedback mechanisms help organisms maintain homeostasis
to reproduce and survive.
Activity 1: KWL Chart
Instructions: You need to fill in the Know and the Want column of the K-W-L Chart with your
thought or ideas to the Essential question given. Leave the third column blank for now because you will
answer it as the discussion progresses.

How do the nervous, endocrine and reproductive systems perform coordinated functions?

K-W-L CHART
What I KNOW What I WANT to know What I LEARNED

Hey, I’m back! Since you already accomplished the 1st activity, let’s us now
answer the 2nd activity based on what you have understood in the given essential
ideas below. If you have any clarification you can ask me. Study well.

The nervous system (brain, spinal cord, and nerves) controls and coordinates various body
functions. It sends signals and receives responses from every organ of the body. The signals make it

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possible for you to do various activities at the same time such as reading, writing notes, and listening to
your teacher.

The functional unit of the nervous system is the neuron. There are three types of neurons that
will interact with one another: sensory, motor, and associative. The table below shows the different
functions of each type of neurons.

Type Function
Sensory neurons Carry signals to the brain or spinal cord
Motor neurons Carry signals from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles
Associative neurons or interneurons Link sensory and motor neurons

All neurons have a cell body that contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, and nerve fibers, which are the
dendrites and axons. Dendrites relay signals toward the cell body, while axons relay signals away from
the cell body going to other neurons or effectors. The picture below shows the parts of neurons and its
function.

The nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The central nervous system (CNS) processes the information it receives (or incoming signals)
from the sensory nerves and sends out responding actions (or outgoing signals). It consists of the brain
and the spinal cord.
The brain is the control center of the human body. It is protected and enclosed by the skull. The
brain is immersed in the cerebrospinal fluid in the skull which serves as the “cushion” for the brain. The
parts of the human brain can be grouped into three: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

In the forebrain, you can find the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The cerebrum, or
cerebral hemisphere, is the largest portion of the brain. It controls the sensory function and is also
responsible for intelligence, personality, and understanding of language. The cerebrum is divided into
left and right hemispheres, which are connected by a structure called corpus callosum. Each hemisphere
is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. The frontal lobe is responsible for
reasoning, higher-order cognition, movement and language. The parietal lobe is responsible for tactile
(touch) sensory information. The temporal lobe is responsible for interpreting sounds and language.
The occipital lobe is associated with interpreting information and visual stimuli.

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 The thalamus processes the signals received from the sense organs before relaying them to the
cerebrum. It sorts the signals coming from the sense organs. The hypothalamus controls body
temperature, thirst, hunger, salt and water balance, emotional behavior. It also controls the production of
various hormones.
The midbrain also relays information form the sense organs. It is responsible for eye reflexes
(such as movement of the eyes and size of the pupils) and regulates sleep.
The hindbrain has the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. The pons connects the two
hemispheres of the cerebellum and cerebrum. The medulla oblongata is the enlarged part of the spinal
cord. It controls breathing, swallowing, digestion, and action of the heart and blood vessels. The
cerebellum is responsible for the coordination of voluntary muscle movements and maintains body
balance.

Another part of the CNS is the spinal cord. It is a nerve that is protected by the vertebral
column. It connects the brain to the nerves from all over the body. It also controls involuntary
movements called reflexes.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the other component of the nervous system. It carries
signals within the central nervous system. It consists of 12 pairs of motor and sensory cranial nerves
form the brain and 31 pairs of motor and sensory nerves from the spinal cord. There are also peripheral
nerves which can be found outside the brain and the spinal cord. There are also peripheral nerves which
can be found outside the brain and the spinal cord. The PNS has two division: the somatic nervous
system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system connects the CNS to the
voluntary muscles. The autonomic nervous system connects the central nervous system to the glands,
smooth muscles of different internal organs, and cardiac muscles. It has two divisions – the sympathetic
and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system functions when you are
stressed, anxious, or afraid of something. On the other hand, the parasympathetic nervous system has
the opposite function. It returns the body functions to normal and maintains them at that level.

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 You already know the different parts of the nervous system. Now, it is your time to
apply what you have learned from the discussion by simply answering the activity
below. Enjoy!

Activity 2: Guess What Am I?

A. Instructions: You need to identify the parts of the nervous system based on their functions given
below. Kindly write your answer on the space provided after the statement.

1. Controls breathing, swallowing, digestion, and action of the heart and blood vessels._______ ______
2. Controls numerous reflexes_____________
3. Controls body temperature, thirst, hunger, salt and water balance, emotional behavior and the
production of various hormones_____________
4. Controls the coordination of voluntary muscle movements and maintains body
balance_____________
5. Receives and processes the signals from the sense organs before relaying them to the
cerebrum_____________
6. Controls the sensory functions and is responsible for intelligence, personality, and understanding of
language_____________

B. Instructions: Kindly read and understand the given questions below, and you need to circle the
letter that corresponds to the correct answer. After answering, kindly answer the process
questions below.

7. Which is not a part of the central nervous system?

A. Cranial nerves C. spinal cord
B. Hypothalamus D. thalamus

8. Which of the following can conduct impulses away from the neuron cell body or toward it?
A. Axon C. myelin sheath
B. Dendrite D. synapse

9. The peripheral nervous system includes the ____________.

A. Brain C. spinal cord

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 B. Nerves D. synapse

10. The cerebellum is the site for managing _____________

A. Behavior C. motor activity
B. Memory D. respiration

11. In which direction does an impulse travel along a neuron?

A. From axon to axon C. from dendrite to axon
B. From axon to dendrite D. dendrite to dendrite

12. Which controls the “fight-or-flight” response that we experience during a stressful situation?
A. Central nervous system C. somatic nervous system
B. Parasympathetic division D. sympathetic division

C. Process Questions:
13. What is the function of the nervous system? the CNS and the PNS?

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

14. How is the sympathetic nervous system different from the parasympathetic nervous system?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Hello! I’m sure that you’ve already done sharing your opinion from the
essential question given in the 1st activity and you have learned so much from the
essential ideas about the nervous system. Now, let’s move to the next stage of this
module to learn more about the other two systems, endocrine and reproductive. As
we go to the next stage, always keep in mind this question how do the nervous,
endocrine and reproductive systems perform coordinated functions?

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 FIRM-UP

Welcome students! In this stage of this module, we will discover how the
nervous, endocrine and reproductive systems perform coordinated functions. Enjoy!

It is not only the nervous system that maintains the body’s homeostasis but also the endocrine
system. The two organ system works and in hand in coordinating all the activities of the body. Each part
of the endocrine system secretes a chemical messenger that flows in the blood to initiate or end specific
bodily functions. Such chemicals are called hormones.

There are two kinds of glands: exocrine and endocrine. Exocrine glands go through a duct or
passageway to the place where the secretions will take effect. One example of exocrine gland is the
salivary gland. Endocrine glands secrete their products into the bloodstream. Their products are the ones
you call hormones. There is a specific gland for a specific hormone. A hormone works only on the
gland, tissue, and organ that it targets. The table below presents various endocrine glands, the hormones
they secrete, and the functions of the hormones.

The Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones, Target Structures, and Functions

Gland Hormone Target Structure(s) Function(s)

Pituitary Growth hormone (GH, All cells Stimulates cell division, bone
(anterior lobe) somatotropin growth, and protein
production
Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid gland Stimulates the production of
hormone (TSH), thyroxine
thyroxine
Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal cortex Stimulates the secretion of
hormone (ACTH) glucocorticoids and controls
glucose metabolism
Follicle-stimulating Gonads Stimulates sperm formation
hormone (FSH) in males and development of
follicles in females
Luteinizing hormone Gonads Stimulates the release of an
(LH) egg cell and the production of
testosterone in males

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 Prolactin Mammary glands Stimulates the production of
milk
Endorphin Pain receptors in the Inhibits perception of pain
brain
Melanocyte-stimulating Melanocytes Regulates the activity of
hormone pigment-containing cells in
the skin
Pituitary Oxytocin Uterus, mammary glands Stimulates muscle
(posterior contractions during childbirth
lobe) and milk release
Antidiuretic hormone Kidneys Stimulates water reabsorption
(ADH, vasopressin)
Hypothalamus Hypothalamic-inhibiting Pituitary Inhibit the release of GH and
hormones prolactin
Hypothalamic-releasing Pituitary Stimulate the release of GH,
hormones TSH, LH, FSH, ACTH, and
prolactin
Thyroid Thyroxine and All body cells Stimulate metabolic rates and
triiodothyronine for growth and development
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Bones, kidneys Controls level of calcium and
(PTH) phosphate ions in the blood
Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Kidneys Maintains proper balance of
sodium and potassium
Glucocorticoid (cortisol) Liver, various cells Inhibits glucose uptake, aids
in healing, and reduces
inflammation
Adrenal Epinephrine and Various cells Control stress reactions,
medulla norepinephrine increase heart and breathing
rates, and raise blood
pressure and glucose level
Pancreas Insulin Liver, muscles Lowers blood glucose level
(islets of
Langerhans)
Glucagon Liver, adipose tissue Raises blood glucose
Ovary Estrogen Follicle Controls female secondary
sexual characteristics

Progesterone Uterus Prepares the uterus for the

implantation of the embryo
Testes Androgen (testes) Male sex organs Controls the development of
(testosterone) male gametes and male
secondary sexual
characteristics
Pineal Melatonin All body cells Helps control one’s sleep-
wake cycle

Imagine you’re in the sidewalk that is dark. You are waiting for your ride home; no one is
around because it’s 1:00 am. And then, suddenly, a guy with a knife jumps out of nowhere and tries to
rob you. And then, suddenly, a guy with a knife jumps out of nowhere and tries to rob you. What will
you do? Make a Bruce Lee move and fight or run like a pro?
The sympathetic nervous system initiates the fight-or-flight reaction by activating the hormone
that is responsible for the body to be alert and ready for action.
When there is an emergency or distress, the adrenal medulla is stimulated causing it to release
the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) which cause changes in the
body such as increase in blood pressure and heart rate to enable the cells most especially the muscle

12
cells, to have adequate amounts of oxygen in order to break down in sugar in its system to change it into
energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate or ATP.
ATP is used as a fuel that will increase the normal strength, speed, and alertness of a person
during an emergency. But afterwards, when the emergency had stopped, the body will go back to its
normal condition.
The male and the female reproductive systems are regulated by the neuroendocrine system, a
single system that consists of the nervous system and the endocrine system. These are the main control
systems of the body. They can stimulate and inhibit the activities of other body systems to help maintain
the body’s homeostasis.
The neuroendocrine systems involve the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, ovary, and
testes. The hypothalamus sends a command, in a form of hormones, to other parts of the brain and other
glands in the body through nerve connections called synapse. Together with the hormones, these nerve
transmissions are the way the hypothalamus creates a chain of command that controls the activity of the
endocrine system. The picture below shows the hypothalamus and pituitary gland as part of the
neuroendocrine system

Hypothalamus and pituitary gland as part of the neuroendocrine system

Homeostasis is a process by which all living things maintain relatively stable internal
environment. Feedback is a system of self-regulation by which its mechanism detects the amount of
hormones present in the blood circulation. After receiving the feedback from the nervous system, an
endocrine gland adjusts the amount of a particular hormone being released. If the feedback brings more
hormone output, it is called positive feedback. On the other hand, a negative feedback inhibits the
production of more hormones. Most homeostatic control in the body is maintained through negative
feedback. The negative feedback mechanism monitors and adjusts one’s hormone levels for optimum
body functions.

Hello! Did you learn something from the discussion? Now, it is your time to
apply the things you have learned by answering the activities below. Come on! Let’s
answer the following activities and if you have question you can ask me. Don’t forget
to pray before you start my beloved student.

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Activity 3: Choosing the Right One!
Instructions: Kindly read and understand the given questions below, and you need to circle the letter
that corresponds to the correct answer. After answering, kindly answer the process questions below.
1. What is the mechanism that regulates the amount of a hormone in the blood?
A. Adaptation C. negative feedback
B. Diffusion D. secretion

2.Which of the following is true about insulin?

A. It is an enzyme.
B. It is secreted by the thyroid gland.
C. It is involved in fight-or-flight response.
D. It is involved in the metabolism of glucose, amino acids, and fats.

3. Fight or flight reactions is activated by epinephrine secretion of what specific gland?

A. Adrenal cortex C. hypothalamus
B. Adrenal medulla D. pituitary gland

4. A speeding car suddenly approaches you. Which of your endocrine glands will most likely
function to release a hormone?
A. Adrenal gland C. pituitary gland
B. Pineal gland D. thyroid gland

5. A body part that is involved in both the nervous and endocrine systems is the____________.
A. Adrenal gland C. testis
B. Hypothalamus D. thyroid gland

6. If you skip a meal, which of the following conditions would prevail?

A. Insulin levels would rise.
B. Glucagon levels would rise.
C. Insulin level would rise, and glucose would be converted to glycogen.
D. Glucagon levels would rise, and glycogen would be converted to glucose.

7. An advantage of having the endocrine system as well as the nervous system involved in fight-or-
flight response is that_____.
A. The endocrine responds faster
B. The endocrine system response usually lasts longer
C. The endocrine system affects only the largest organs whose response is needed to
meet the emergency
D. The response by the endocrine system frees the nervous system to think of the way
out of the situation instead of simply maintain the body in the alert state.

8. All are functions of the endocrine system except_______.

A. Facilitation of efficient gas exchange
B. Ensurance of proper growth and development
C. Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
D. Provision of a mechanism for rapid response to changes in the body

9. Which of the following hormones have antagonistic (note: look up for the meaning) effects?
A. FSH and LH C. parathyroid and calcitonin
B. Oxytocin and prolactin D. testosterone and melatonin

10. A body part that is involved in both the nervous and endocrine system is the _________.
A. Adrenal gland C. Testis
B. Hypothalamus D. Thyroid gland

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 Annyeong! How’s your activity? Now, let’s explore the reproductive systems to
understand more how these systems performed coordinated functions. Let’s explore
first the beauty of male reproductive system and its importance. So, what are you
waiting for? Let’s discover it together!

The male reproductive system has three main functions: to produce sperm (male gametes), to
secrete male sex hormones, and to deliver the sperm into the site of fertilization.

The Male Reproductive System

The sperm cells or sperms (male gametes or spermatozoa) are produced in the testes. The testes
(singular: testis) are the two reproductive glands located in the scrotum which are responsible for the
production of sperm cells and testosterone. Each testis consists of seminiferous tubules, the site of
sperm formation. Each mature sperm consists for three main: the head, the midpiece, and the tail. The
head has a nucleus which houses the male chromosomes and has a protective cap called the acrosome.
This protective structure aids the sperm cell in penetrating through the egg cell. The midpiece contains
the mitochondria that supply the energy into the tail. Energy is needed by the sperm cell so that it can
swim in the female reproductive system to find the egg cell. The tail is a whiplike structure that propels
the sperm cell forward with a snakelike motion.

A typical adult male produces several hundred million sperm cells during his life. After being
produced in the seminiferous tubules, the sperm matures as it journeys along the long tubes. During this
time, several glands secrete substances that are added to the sperm which lubricate the tube where the
sperm passes and at the same time nourish the sperm in its travel.

Once the sperm cells are formed, they go through another tube called the epididymis where
sperm cells are temporarily stored and mature. It takes about 20 days to travel through the end of the 6-
meter epididymis of the human male. During ejaculation, muscular contractions push sperm cells out of
15
the epididymis going through the vas deferens and then through the urethra that acts as the passageway
of the sperm (and urine) to the external environment. The ejaculatory duct blocks the passageway from
the bladder to prevent urine from mixing with the sperm. The sperm released during ejaculation is
secreted as part of a milky liquid called semen. Aside from sperm, the semen also contains secretions
from three male reproductive glands: the seminal vesicle gland, Cowper’s gland, and prostate gland. A
pair of seminal vesicles contributes to about 60% of the total volume of the semen which contains a
fructose-rich fluid that nourishes sperm cells. The prostate gland located below the bladder secretes an
alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids present in the female reproductive organs. A pair of
bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands also secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acid
present from the traces of urine in the urethra. The semen has prostaglandin which causes the
contraction of the uterine muscles to bring the sperm cells up the fallopian tubes. These secretions
provide nutrients and the proper environment for the survival of the sperm.

The external parts of the male reproductive system are the two scrotal sacs and the penis. Each
scrotal sac encloses a testis that hangs outside the body between the legs. The scrotal sacs protect the
testes from physical damage and maintain a constant temperature, about 2-3 oC lower than the body
temperature.

The penis delivers the sperm inside the female body during sexual intercourse or copulation. It is
composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from modified veins and capillaries.
During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries. The penis becomes erect,
longer, larger in circumference, and firm. This would enable the semen to be introduced easily into the
human body.

The main shaft of the penis is covered by relatively thick skin. The sensitive head, or glans penis,
is covered by a loose skin that ends in a fold, which is the foreskin or prepuce. Oftentimes, the prepuce
is removed during circumcision to enable easy cleaning of the penis. Sperm cells exit the penis through
ejaculation, which is the forceful expulsion of semen. After the semen is deposited in the female
reproductive system, the sperm cells swim until they encounter the egg cell. If any of the sperm cell does
not penetrate the egg cell, fertilization occur. About 3.5 mL of semen is expelled during ejaculation. It
normally contains 300 to 400 million sperms, or about five to 10 million in just one drop! Only a few
reach the egg cell, however, because most of them die in the acidic environment of the reproductive
tract.

Testosterone is the major male sex hormone secreted by Leydig cells (interstitial cells) of testes.
A male begins to make testosterone before birth and causes the embryo to develop penis and scrotum.
The secondary characteristics are structural changes that develop at puberty and discriminate males
from females. Male secondary sex characteristics include hair growth distribution in pubic area, face,
leg, chest, and axilla; changes in the larynx resulting in deep voice; and increased skeletal muscle mass
and rate of bone growth. After puberty testosterone maintains the adult male genital structure,
reproductive ducts, and secondary sex characteristics. Testosterone also influences the male
reproductive organ development necessary for sperm cell formation.

Hormones control the development of the reproductive parts, secondary sexual characteristics,
formation of sperm cells, and sexual behavior. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the
hypothalamus stimulates the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) from the anterior pituitary gland. LH stimulates the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) of the testes to
secrete testosterone while FSH binds to the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules and stimulates
sperm cell development. The more LH and FSH released from the pituitary gland, the more testosterone
are produced by the testes. The testosterone secreted by the interstitial cells has a negative feedback on
GnRH from the hypothalamus and on the pituitary gland to decrease the secretion of LH and FSH. Both
LH and FSH are named after their functions in females, but they are also vital reproductive hormones in
males

16
Activity 4: Let’s Cross the Way
Instructions: You need to fill in the crossword puzzles in either across or downward direction. You can use the
given descriptions below as guide. Kindly answer also the processing questions below.
1
2
3 4 5 6

7 8 9
10 11
12 13

14
15 16

17

18

19

Across
1 also known as sexual intercourse
3 gland that secretes the alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids in the female reproductive system
6 gland that secretes the alkaline fluid that neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra
7 protective sac of skin that holds the male reproductive organs
8 a whiplike structure that propels the sperm cell forward with a snakelike motion
12 clusters of hundred of compartments where immature male sex cell develop; ______ tubules
13 the forceful expulsion of the sperm out of the male’s body
15 a male hormone
17 powerhouse of the sperm cell
18 tube that conducts the sperm from the epididymis to the urethra
19 a stage of human development where secondary male characteristics develop

Down
1 compact, organized structure that contains the genetic information
2 gland that secretes sugar-rich fluid that sperms use for energy
4 also known as male gamete
5 male reproductive organ
9 a long coiled tube where sperm cells are temporarily stored and where maturation starts
10 refers to having half the number of chromosomes
11 the inability of a couple to conceive a child after one year of regular, unprotected intercourse
14 the tube through which urine and/or sperm pass and exit the body
16 the male organ that deposits the sperm in the female reproductive system

A. Processing Questions

1.Why do sperm cells need to be bathed with fluids from the prostate gland and seminal vesicle?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the pathway of the sperm.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

17
 Konnichiwa! How are you feeling today? I hope you feel great.
Since you already know the different parts of the male reproductive system
and how important it is. Let us now discover the beauty of female
reproductive system and how it produces an egg. So, what are you waiting
for! Come and join me to explore this amazing thing!

The ovaries are the female reproductive structures responsible for producing eggs. They are
located inside the abdominal cavity located just slightly below the waist, with one ovary on each side of
the body. Like the testes, the ovaries produce hormones. Estrogen, one of its hormones, triggers the
development of secondary female characteristics such as the widening of the hips and the enlargement
of the breasts. Most importantly, it stimulates egg development.

The onset of mature egg cell production among

females starts around the age of 11 to 14 years, during the
first discharge of blood from the vagina, called menarche.
Thereafter, each month, a normal adult female releases a
mature egg cell of female gamete in one of her ovaries.
After the sperm has been deposited inside the
female reproductive system during intercourse and after
fertilization has occurred, the role if the male reproductive
system is complete. The female reproductive system, on
the other hand, will continue its role in nourishing and
protecting the fertilized egg during nine months of
development, or pregnancy.

At birth, all females are born with all the two million egg cells they will ever produce. By the
time a female reaches puberty, the number of egg cells would have gone down to about 400 000. Like
sperm cells, egg cells contain 23 chromosomes (the haploid number) because eggs are also produced
through meiosis. During puberty, the increased production of hormones enables one immature egg to
complete its development each month. In the lifetime of a female, out if the 400 000 egg cells at the start
of puberty, only 300 to 500 will mature and are then called ova (singular ovum)

Sci Bit
The egg cells are some of the biggest
cells in a woman’s body. Even so, 10
egg cells are needed to cover a
pinhead.

An ovum can live for two or three day after it is released. Since ovulation occurs Day 14, it
means that an ovum can survive from Day 14 to Day 17. Sperm can live for approximately two to three
days in the female reproductive system. This means that sperm released into the vagina around Day 11
can fertilize the ovum and bring about pregnancy. Hence, the period from around Day 11 to day 17 is
the fertile period: that is, fertilization is possible during this period. Meanwhile, the remaining days
make up infertile phase of the menstrual cycle.

18
 About every 28 days, an ovum is released in an adult female body. Hairlike structures called cilia
sweep the ovum from the ovary into either of the two fallopian tubes or oviducts. Each fallopian tube is
a passageway through which an ovum moves from the ovary to the uterus. Smooth muscles that line the
fallopian tube contract rhythmically to allow the ovum to move down the tube toward the uterus. It takes
three to four days for an ovum t travel inside the fallopian tube. If the ovum is not fertilized at this stage,
it dies within 24 to 48 hours.

During sexual intercourse, sperm cells are deposited inside the vagina, a passage that leads from
the outside of the female’s body to the entrance of the uterus, called the cervix. If fertilization occurs,
the fertilized ovum now called a zygote, travels down further and implants itself in a hollow muscular
organ about the size of a fist, called uterus. During a normal childbirth, a baby passes through the cervix
and leaves the mother’s body through the vagina.

All females who have reached puberty will undergo monthly physiological cycles known as
ovarian and menstrual cycles. The ovarian cycle involves changes in the ovary as it prepares the egg for
maturation. The menstrual cycle, on the other hand, involves changes in the uterus as it grooms the
uterus for a possible implantation and, later on, pregnancy.

The ovaries prepare the female body for a possible pregnancy each month in a series of events
collectively called the ovarian cycle. The monthly release of an ovum from the ovary called ovulation.
The released ovum is swept into the fallopian tube and begins to move toward the uterus he uterus to
await fertilization. The ovarian cycle spans about 28 days, although it varies from female to female.

The ovarian cycle happens in two distinct phases or stages – the follicular phase and the luteal
phase. These phases are regulated by the hormones produced by the hypothalamus and the anterior
pituitary gland. The events of the ovarian cycle are summarized in the figure below.

In an ovary, egg cells mature within follicles. A follicle is a cluster if cells that surrounds an
immature egg cell and provides it with nutrients. During the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle,
hormones regulate the completion of an egg cell’s maturation.

19
 The follicular phase begins when the anterior pituitary gland releases the follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) into the bloodstream. Both FSH and LH cause the
follicle to produce estrogen, a sex hormone that aids the growth of the follicle. When the follicle bursts,
ovulation occurs. After ovulation, the luteal phase begins. LH causes the cells of the ruptured follicle to
grow, forming a corpus luteum. A corpus luteum is a yellowish mass of follicular cells that functions
like an endocrine gland. LH causes the corpus luteum to secrete both estrogen and progesterone,
another sex hormone. Progesterone signals the body to prepare for fertilization.

If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone for several weeks.
Otherwise, the production of progesterone slows down and stops the ovarian cycle. Aside from the
series of events that happen in the ovaries, a different monthly cycle, called menstrual cycle, occurs in
the uterus to prepare it for a possible pregnancy.

The menstrual cycle lasts an average of 28

days. The events in the menstrual cycle are
controlled by the changing levels of estrogen
and progesterone during the ovarian cycle. Prior
to and after ovulation, increased levels of
estrogen and progesterone cause the lining of
the uterus to thicken and become a conducive
place for a fertilized ovum. If pregnancy does
not occur, the levels of estrogen and
progesterone decrease, causing the lining of the
uterus to be shed, which marks the end of the
menstrual cycle. When this happens, blood
vessels break and bleeding results. The mixture
of blood and discarded tissues leaves the body
through the vagina in a process called
menstruation, which usually occurs about 14
days after ovulation.

At the end of the ovarian and menstrual cycles, neither estrogen nor progesterone is being
produced. This signals the pituitary gland to produce FSH and LH, starting the cycles again. Women
eventually stop menstruating, usually around the age of 45 to 55. After this event, called menopause, a
woman no longer ovulates, and therefore, is unable to bear a child.

A human being develops from an egg that has been fertilized by the sperm. The process begins
when sperm are deposited in the vagina, and then move through the uterus in to the fallopian tubes. If
the sperm reach the fallopian tube within 36 hours during the female’s ovulation period, there will be an
egg ready for fertilization in one of the fallopian tubes. Nearly 300 to 400 million sperm cells may have
made the journey to the fallopian tube, yet only one of these sperms will fertilize the egg as shown
below.
During fertilization, a sperm cell penetrates an ovum and releases the enzymes stored in its
acrosome. These enzymes break down the jellylike outer layers of the ovum. The head of the sperm
enters the ovum, and the nuclei of the ovum and the sperm fuse together to produce a diploid cell called
a zygote, which will later on develop into a new organism. The nucleus of the sperm and that of the egg
each has 23 chromosomes. When they unite through fertilization, a zygote with 46 chromosomes, or 23
chromosome pairs, is formed.

20
 Cell division takes place as the zygote
travels back down the oviduct toward the uterus, a
journey of six to seven days after fertilization.
Eventually, the zygote becomes a small ball of
cells (blastocysts) that attaches itself to the uterine
wall in the process called implantation. The zygote
is now called an embryo.
Science Connections
Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is a
test done on embryos to check for
genetic disorders prior to implantation in
the uterus. This test will help parents
become aware of defects, if any, in the
child.

It takes about nine months from the time the embryo becomes implanted on the walls of the
uterus until a baby is born. This nine-month period is called pregnancy. During the first two months of
pregnancy, the developing child is called an embryo. The figure below illustrates how the embryo
develops inside the uterus.

Part of the uterine wall produces the villi, which constitute the placenta, along with other blood
vessels and capillaries. An umbilical cord forms and connects the placenta to the embryo. Nutrients and
oxygen in the mother’s blood are transported to the embryo through veins in the umbilical cord. Carbon
dioxide and other wastes are carried away from the embryo through an artery in the umbilical cord to the
mother’s bloodstream for disposal. During the third week of pregnancy, a thin membrane called
amniotic sac begins to form around the embryo. The amniotic sac becomes filled with a clear liquid
called amniotic fluid, which helps cushion and protects the embryo.

During the third week of pregnancy, the developing embryo begins to look more human – eyes,
fingers, toes, arms, and legs, will have developed – and is now called a fetus. By this time, too, all the
major organs are present to some extent. The feta heart can be heard beating, and the mother starts
feeling the movement of the fetus within the uterus. The fetus also begins to suck its thumb. By the
fourth month, the sex of the fetus can be determined by an ultrasound test. The fetus becomes more
active as it moves around in the uterus. By the end of the seventh month of pregnancy, a layer of fat
develops under the skin, and fetal bones begin to harden.

8 weeks Major organs have begun to form. Limbs are forming.

12 weeks Skin and nails form. Internal organs start to develop.
21 weeks Hair forms on body and head. Facial features are obvious.
8 months Fetal development nears completion. The brain grows rapidly and lungs
continue to grow. Bones on the head are soft so the baby can easily pass through the
birth canal.

21
 By the ninth month, the fetus has actually rotated to a head-down position inside the uterus. The
time for birth has arrived. The birth process begins with the onset of labor, the muscular contractions of
the uterus. As the contractions become stronger and in closer succession, the amniotic sac usually breaks
and releases its fluid. Eventually, the contractions cause the opening of the uterus to widen so the baby
can pass through the vagina and then out into the birth, taking in his/her first gasp of air.

My Future in Science

An obstetrician is a physician who has completed a medical

course and training in the management of pregnancy, labor and
childbirth. Most obstetricians concurrently specialize in
gynecology to upgrade their knowledge on the health of the
reproductive system as well as its disorders and diseases. OB-
GYNs work on clinical settings, public hospitals, and
preventive medicine administration. To become an OB-GYN,
one must pursue a medical degree and undergo a residency
program of about four years. Further training and certification
leads to sub specialization in oncology, maternal or fetal
medicine, and reproductive endocrinology or infertility.

Eotteohge Jinaeseyo? Did you learn something from our discussion about the
female reproductive system? Are you ready to our next activity my dear student? But
before we proceed to our next activity, let’s just continue first our discussion about
prevention, detection and treatment of diseases of the reproductive system. Hajimemasho
my dear student! Aja!

22
 Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It can be
cured easily in its early stages, but may lead to serious complications if left untreated. The disease has an
incubation period of about few weeks to several months and occurs in several stages before it turns into
a dangerous condition. A painless sore known as a chancre, initially develops at the site of infection,
typically on the genitals, rectum, or mouth. The second stage occurs several weeks later and is
characterized by a fever and a skin rash that begins in the trunk and covers the entire body. Then, it
disappears or comes and goes within a year. It will enter a latent period without any symptoms. Many
years later, if left untreated, it will produce neural lesions that can cause extensive damage to nervous
tissue, leading to paralysis, insanity, and death. Congenital syphilis is contracted by babies born to an
infected mother. Symptoms that later may be experienced by infected babies include deafness, tooth
deformities, and collapse of the nose bridge. Antibiotics, such as penicillin, are used to treat the initial
stages of syphilis and stop it from progressing. Longer cases of syphilis require higher dosage of
antibiotics.

Gonorrhea is caused by a sexually transmitted bacterium, Neisseria gonorrhea, which invades

the epithelial lining of the vagina and male urethra. This result in a discharge called pus. I. Gonorrhea
can also affect other parts of the body such as the rectum, eyes, throat and joints. Though those infected
are mostly adults, babies born to infected mother can also contract the disease. It would take a week to
notice the onset of symptoms. In mean, there may be a burning sensation during urination, pain or
swelling in one testicle, and a pus discharge in the urethral opening. Women usually do not experience
any symptoms in the early stages, but may experience increased vaginal discharged, painful urination,
vaginal bleeding in between periods, as well as abdominal and pelvic pain. If left untreated, gonorrhea
could lead to pelvic inflammatory disease. Antibiotics are used to treat disease. Antibiotics are used to
treat disease.

Genital herpes is caused by an infection with herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2). The infection is
characterized by painful, itching lesions and blisterlike eruptions in the genital area that occur 10 days
after exposure to an infected sexual partner. These sores take about two weeks to heal and may recur.
Some infected individuals may not experience signs and symptoms and yet may be contagious. The
virus may stay dormant in the body but can be activated in times of stress or illness. Genital herpes is
incurable.

AIDS is the acronym for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is caused by a virus known as
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks the immune system of the body. The disease
was first reported in 1981 and continues to persist until today as no cure is available. Since then,
millions have died from this fatal disease. AIDS is transmitted through contact with body fluids
containing the virus: sexual intercourse, sharing of contaminated needles, receiving contaminated blood
via transfusion, or birth from an infected mother. It has a latency period of 5 to 10 years before it
becomes a full-blown disease. In the early stages of the disease, HIV-infected individuals do not show
symptoms of the infection. AIDS-related symptoms in the later stages include weight loss associated
with diarrhea, swollen lymph glands, chronic low-grade fever, fatigue, and night sweats. In the last
stages of AIDS, the patient becomes susceptible to opportunistic infections such as pneumonia,
tuberculosis, or fungal infections in the lungs and throat. There is no known cure for AIDS, but prompt
medical attention can reduce or delay the onset of serious complications. Continuous research is going
on to fully understand the mechanism of the disease. Some available drugs are meant to inhibit
reproduction of the virus, thus controlling their ability to spread. Other drugs cripple the virus from
being functional.

Now, it is your time to apply the things you have learned from our
previous discussion by answering the activity below. ENJOY.

23
Activity 5: Fill me in!
Instructions: You need to fill in the crossword puzzles in either across or downward direction. You can
use the given descriptions below as guide. Kindly answer also the processing questions below.

1 2 3 4

5 6 7

9 10

11

12

13 14 15

16 17

18 19

20

21

22

23 24

25

Across

1 the monthly series of changes in the uterus that prepares it for possible pregnancy; ______ cycle
3 connects the placenta to the embryo
5 a physician who completed a medical degree and training in the management of pregnancy, labor
and childbirth
8 refers to the diploid cell formed when a sperm and the nuclei of an ovum fuse together
10 a stage in mammalian development where the major organs of an offspring are developed
11 cluster of cells that surrounds an immature egg cell and provides it with nutrients
13 hairlike structures that sweep the ovum into either of the two fallopian tubes
14 muscular contractions of the uterus during childbirth
15 a hormone that triggers the development the development of a girl’s secondary sex
characterisitics
16 other term for the fallopian tube
17 refers to a mature egg
18 virus responsible for AIDS; acronym
20 a stage in a woman’s life when she no longer ovulates, thus makes her unable to bear a child
21 entrance of the uterus
22 a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum
23 the hollow muscular organ about the size of a fist where pregnancy occurs
25 refers to the monthly release of an egg from the ovary
Down

2 refers to the developing child during the first two months of pregnancy
4 the process where the mixture of blood and discarded tissues leaves the body through the vagina
6 a yellowish mass of follicular cells that functions like an endocrine gland
7 the stage in human development when the zygote becomes a small ball of cells (blastocyst) and
attaches itself to the uterine wall
9 first discharge of blood from the vagina
12 a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Neisseria, which invades the epithelial
lining of the vagina and the male urethra
16 female reproductive structures responsible for producing eggs
19 a muscular tube where sperms are deposited

24
24 acronym for the molecule that encodes the genetic information

Processing Questions
1. Describe the difference between the egg cell and sperm cell.
____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________ .

2. What happens when the fertilized egg implants itself in areas other than the uterus?
____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Hello! Welcome to the next section of this module. In this stage of this
module, you will learn more how one system affects another system. So what are you
waiting for? Let’s explore and discover it together my dear student! Aja!

25
 DEEPEN

Our bodies perform a tough internal balancing act on a daily basis. Interestingly, this happens
24/7, with no breaks, and without our voluntary control.
This makes it an even tougher act to sustain as the balance involves coordination with the
nervous, endocrine, and reproductive systems. Even with just one of these systems failing, the
consequences could seriously affect our health; these consequences could range from acne, infertility,
and even up to cancer.

Activity 6: Article Analysis

Instructions: In this activity, you will read and analyze an article about how substances in an
environment may affect the reproductive health. You will summarize what you have read by answering
the table below. Let the process questions be your guide as you accomplish the table.

Article 1: Environmental Effects on Reproductive Health: The Endocrine Disruption Hypothesis

Reproductive health is exquisitely sensitive to characteristics of an individual's environment

including physical, biological, behavioral, cultural and socioeconomic factors. The relative effects of
these features may vary in different parts of the world or even within a country. For example, in
populations with high rates of sexually transmitted diseases or in areas with inadequate health care
resources, untreated infections may pose the greatest threats, increasing women's risk of experiencing
premature delivery, fetal loss or prenatal mortality. Furthermore, the infants of women with such
diseases risk acquiring the infection during delivery and are vulnerable to other complications during the
neonatal period.1

In societies where cultural norms favor large families, women may suffer health problems
resulting from frequent childbearing. Similarly, malnutrition increases a pregnant woman's susceptibility
to poor outcomes.

In some regions, workplace and industrial pollution, as well as substances that are used
commercially or in the home, may pose the greatest threats. Exposure to lead, for instance, is associated
with fertility impairments in both women and men, as well as with the risk of spontaneous abortion and
stillbirth; exposure to mercury in certain forms may cause birth defects and neurological disorders. A
number of solvents contribute to the risk of spontaneous abortion and birth defects, and some of these
substances may be a factor in hypertensive disorders during pregnancy and male infertility.
Epidemiological studies have proven the adverse reproductive health effects of some pesticides, and
mounting evidence suggests that other of these products also are harmful to reproductive health.2

Both man-made and naturally occurring materials that appear to interfere with hormone synthesis
or action are among substances whose effects on reproductive health are strongly suggested, if not
clearly established. Recent research pointing to the possible role of so-called endocrine disrupters in a
variety of reproductive health problems in wildlife, laboratory animals and humans has engendered
considerable controversy in scientific circles. Some scientists question the validity of the findings on a
variety of grounds, while others have used them to outline agendas for further research and relevant
policymaking.

As the endocrine disruption debate continues to occupy researchers, it also is gaining attention
among the public. During the past several years, articles and opinion pieces about reproductive health
problems and endocrine disruption have appeared in newspapers and in popular science, business, news
and general interest magazines.3 Public interest groups have produced monographs reviewing the
subject,4 and the trade publications of industries whose products have been labeled endocrine disrupters
have carried articles and editorials seeking a balanced reading of the evidence.5

A new round of coverage followed the publication in early 1996 of Our Stolen Future: Are We
Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival? —A Scientific Detective Story.6 The book,

26
written for lay readers, chronicles the development of the endocrine disruption hypothesis and considers
its implications.
Much of the popular coverage of the issue has reflected great attention to presenting both sides of
the question in a manner that will inform but not alarm the public. Some of it, however, has been less
successful at establishing a context for the findings, clearly distinguishing facts from hypotheses, and
communicating a measured view of the implications both of what has been demonstrated and of areas
requiring extensive additional research.

The public has a right and a need to know about issues with a potential for substantial public
health ramifications; sensible voices on both sides of this debate acknowledge the need for additional
research and risk assessment, clear priorities for dealing with documented risks and dissemination of
verifiable information that can help individuals make informed health decisions.

The endocrine disruption hypothesis promises to remain a focus of research —and debate —for
some time to come. Therefore, without minimizing the importance of other environmental risk factors
for men's and women's reproductive health, this report focuses on what is known about hormone
disrupters, areas that are being explored and the potential implications for public health and policy.

HORMONES AND DISRUPTERS MECHANISMS OF ACTION

The organs of the endocrine system (including the pancreas, pituitary, thyroid and reproductive
organs) produce a variety of hormones, each of which triggers a specific biochemical response.* For
example, insulin regulates the body's level of blood sugar, thyroid hormones are important for regulating
the metabolic rate, and estrogen and testosterone control the development and functioning of the
reproductive organs.

In order for a hormone to produce an effect, once it has been released into the bloodstream, a
carrier protein transports it to a cell wall; there, it binds to a receptor, and the hormone and receptor
together bind to a specific region of a cell's DNA to activate particular genes. A hormone and its
receptor fit together precisely, much as a key fits in a lock, and this specificity is crucial to the
hormone's functioning. Also crucial are the precise levels of hormones produced and the timing of their
synthesis and action.

Several dozen synthetic compounds appear to interfere with hormonal activity in a number of
ways. Some of these endocrine disrupters mimic a hormone by binding to its receptor and activating the
same response that the natural hormone would or a stronger response, and some stimulate the production
of more hormone receptors; all of these substances can amplify the effects of the endogenous hormone.
On the other hand, some compounds bind to a receptor and trigger a weaker effect than the naturally
occurring hormone would, and some produce no biochemical effect but prevent hormonal action simply
by occupying the appropriate hormone's site on the receptor.

Certain endocrine disrupters bind to carrier proteins, thereby reducing the availability of these
proteins to transport hormones through the bloodstream. Others alter the level of endogenous hormones
by accelerating their breakdown and elimination or by deactivating the enzymes that facilitate their
breakdown; some react directly with hormones to alter their structure or affect their synthesis.

SOURCES OF HORMONE DISRUPTERS

Endocrine disrupters, some of which occur naturally (phytoestrogens) and some of which are
man-made, are ubiquitous: They can be found in soil, water, air and food, as well as in commonly used
industrial and household products. Phytoestrogens are present in grains, legumes, grasses, herbs, nuts
and a variety of fruits and vegetables; some fungi also produce compounds that may interfere with
hormonal function. Phytoestrogens are weaker than endogenous estrogen (i.e., they do not bind as well
to hormone receptors) and are quickly excreted or broken down into other compounds; they do not
accumulate in body tissue.

Perhaps the best-known man-made endocrine disrupters are synthetic hormonal drugs, such as
birth control pills and diethylstilbestrol (DES); dioxin, a by-product of waste incineration and industrial
processes (e.g., the production of some pesticides and the bleaching of paper pulp); and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), which once were widely used in the United States in electrical equipment, adhesives
and plasticizers. Other synthetic compounds that disrupt hormone activity are alkyphenols and

27
phthalates, which are widely used in industrial and household products, and some pesticides, fungicides
and insecticides.
Man-made endocrine disrupters vary in potency and in the level of exposure required to produce
a deleterious effect. Individually, they may not be released into the environment at levels that would
pose substantial risks, but the effects of chronic low levels of exposure are of concern.7 In addition,
these substances occur in the environment not individually but in various combinations, and they may
interact synergistically: In some experimental systems, a combination even of two weak compounds has
proven to be more than 1,000 times as potent as either compound alone.8

Furthermore, while some of these man-made substances are ubiquitous simply because they are
produced in large quantities, others may be found in regions of the world where they are not produced
because they are easily transported through the atmosphere and do not break down readily in the
environment. Rather, they accumulate in soil and sediments, which serve as continued sources of
exposure to wildlife; the substances then make their way up the food chain, and unlike phytoestrogens,
they can be stored for long periods in the body fat of animals and humans. Consequently, species
feeding at the highest levels of the food chain are the most vulnerable to adverse effects of
environmental pollutants because in addition to being directly exposed to contaminants, they feed on
animals with accumulations of harmful compounds in their body tissue.9

Thus, for example, although most uses of PCBs were banned in the United States in the late
1970s, PCB residues remain widespread in the environment, and animals and humans continue to ingest
food with small amounts of these chemicals. Women who have, over their lifetime, regularly eaten
animals contaminated with PCBs may deliver slightly preterm, and their newborns may suffer from a
variety of deficits; if these women nurse, they risk passing the toxicant along through their breast milk,
making their infants vulnerable to developmental disorders.10

KNOWN EFFECTS

Wildlife studies and research on laboratory animals have identified a broad range of effects of
endocrine disrupters on reproductive health. These results are the necessary starting point for
considering reproductive health effects in humans, which to date are most clearly established by the
DES experience.

ANIMAL STUDIES

In 1991, a multidisciplinary group of scientists concerned about the evidence of endocrine

disruption by chemicals in the environment gathered to review the issue. In their consensus statement
(dubbed the Wingspread Statement, for the name of the conference site), they summarized the following
reproductive health effects of endocrine disrupters on wildlife: "decreased fertility in birds, fish,
shellfish, and mammals; decreased hatching success in birds, fish, and turtles; gross birth deformities in
birds, fish, and turtles; metabolic abnormalities in birds, fish, and mammals; behavioral abnormalities in
birds; demasculinization and feminization of male fish, birds, and mammals; defeminization and
masculinization of female fish and birds."11

Furthermore, they concluded, while effects vary according to species and substance, a number of
generalizations can be made: Endocrine disrupters may have "entirely different effects" on developing
organisms than on adults; the timing of exposure is critical to the outcome; and effects may not be
obvious until an organism has reached maturity.

Experiments on laboratory animals have corroborated many of these theories. For example,
research on rats has identified day 15 of a typical 21-day pregnancy as a critical "window of
vulnerability": A low level of exposure to dioxin on that day, when the tissues are actively
differentiating and developing, is more likely than exposure on other days to produce a wide range of
adverse effects in the reproductive development and behavior of male offspring.12

The authors of the Wingspread Statement acknowledged that the implications of their
conclusions for humans were uncertain for a number of reasons, including that "information is limited
concerning the disposition of these contaminants within humans....This is compounded by the lack of
measurable endpoints (biologic markers of exposure and effect) and the lack of multi-generational
exposure studies that simulate ambient concentrations." Nevertheless, they noted, effects documented in
wildlife should "be of concern to humans," who are exposed to the same contaminants.

28
 DES is a synthetic estrogen that was prescribed to pregnant women between the late 1940s and
early 1970s to prevent miscarriage. In all, 5-10 million Americans were exposed to DES during
pregnancy or in utero.13 With data available both on women who took DES and on their adult children,
the experience with this drug serves as a model demonstrating the possible effects on humans of
exposure to synthetic estrogens in utero.

Although questions about the consequences of exposure to DES remain, several effects are well
established:14 Women who took DES have a small (less than twofold) but significantly elevated risk of
breast cancer. Their daughters are at risk of developing vaginal clear-cell adenocarcinoma, a cancer that
typically occurs among women in their 50s but may occur about 30 years earlier among young women
exposed to DES in the womb. This effect raises the concern that when young women who were exposed
in utero reach the age at which the risk of cancers of the reproductive organs may be expected to
increase, they may have an above-average incidence of these cancers.

DES also is associated with abnormal development or dysfunction of reproductive organs and
with premature births among women exposed in utero. It may affect the risk of ectopic pregnancy and
reduced fertility, but these relationships are less clear.

In males exposed to DES in utero, the drug has been associated with several structural
abnormalities of the reproductive tract; it may be a factor in infertility and testicular cancer, although the
literature reveals conflicting findings. Additionally, some studies have shown semen quality in DES-
exposed men to be lower than that in men not exposed to the drug.15

The grandchildren of women who took DES are entering their childbearing years, and their
reproductive experiences will provide an opportunity for the evaluation of any third-generation effects
on fertility. As yet, no such effects have been documented.

The DES experience illustrated in humans a number of points made by the wildlife studies
summarized in the Wingspread Statement. It showed that chemical exposure in utero can have serious,
long-term, delayed effects; that substances that have little apparent effect in adults can cause substantial
damage to a developing fetus; and that the human body can mistake a synthetic hormone for a natural
one.16

POSSIBLE EFFECTS

DES is the only synthetic hormone with a proven role in reproductive health disorders. However,
a variety of reproductive disorders affecting both women and men that appear to be occurring with
increasing frequency are causing some scientists to speculate that endocrine disrupters may be partly
responsible for these, too.

BREAST CANCER

Worldwide, the incidence of breast cancer has been rising since the 1940s; it is highest in
developed countries, but is increasing most rapidly in developing societies. Despite major strides in
research on the disease —particularly the discovery of a gene that increases a woman's susceptibility to
the condition —the cause of breast cancer cannot be identified in about two-thirds of cases. However, a
review of known risk factors has led some researchers to question the possible influence of exogenous
estrogens.17

Established risk factors for breast cancer include several that are related to levels of the naturally
synthesized estrogen estradiol. Early onset of menstruation, late menopause, never having given birth
and never having breastfed contribute to the risk by elevating a woman's lifetime exposure to estradiol.
Another risk factor, being older than 50, probably reflects older women's long-term exposure to this
hormone. Additionally, the increased odds of the disease that have been found among women with diets
high in animal fat and with high levels of alcohol consumption may be explained by the fact that fat
tissue can manufacture estrogen, and alcohol can increase the hormone's production.

These are not the only risk factors for the disease (high-dose exposure to X rays also plays an
important role), and the mechanism by which estradiol might participate in the development of breast
cancer is not entirely clear. Nevertheless, researchers hypothesize that if an excess of natural estrogen
can be harmful, prolonged exposure to man-made estrogens might pose similar threats; laboratory
findings indicating that synthetic estrogens can cause breast tumors in animals, they contend, support

29
their hypothesis. Furthermore, they suggest, the accumulation of environmental hormones in fat tissue
may help explain the association between breast cancer and high-fat diets.
Studies evaluating the link between environmental hormones and breast cancer risk in humans
have yielded inconsistent findings. Results from a large study on hormones, diet and cancer risk
implicate DDE, the chief breakdown product of the pesticide DDT.18 The study involved 14,290 New
York City women who attended a mammography screening clinic between 1985 and 1991, many years
after DDT use was banned in the United States.

In all, 58 participants had breast cancer diagnosed within six months after entering the study, and
these women had higher levels of DDE in their blood than did 171 women in a comparison group.
Furthermore, analyses controlling for potentially confounding factors revealed that women with the
highest concentrations of DDE were four times as likely as those with the lowest concentrations to have
breast cancer. The researchers also examined the influence of PCBs and found no significant
associations.

Findings from a large California study, however, challenge these results.19 A group of 57,040
women who underwent health examinations between 1964 and 1969 were followed up through 1990,
and the researchers identified those in whom breast cancer was diagnosed six months or more after their
examination. Using blood samples drawn during the examination and kept frozen, the investigators
compared the levels of DDE and PCBs in the blood of 150 randomly selected breast cancer patients (50
whites, 50 blacks and 50 Asians) with those in blood samples taken from 150 controls. The results
showed no difference between the groups in the blood level of DDE or PCBs.

Analysts comparing these two studies observe that the California study's larger sample makes it
more persuasive. Additionally, the California women, whose blood samples were drawn before the DDT
ban, had considerably higher blood levels of the chemical than did those in the New York study.20
Critics of the California study, however, suggest that its inclusion of Asian women may have skewed the
results.21 Asian women generally have a much lower risk of breast cancer than whites and blacks,22
and those in the sample had no increased risk of breast cancer despite high levels of potentially harmful
chemicals in their blood.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH PROBLEMS

Although research results have been inconsistent, a substantial body of evidence suggests that in
recent decades, men have grown increasingly vulnerable to reproductive health problems. Perhaps the
most extensively publicized finding is the decline in semen quality over the past 50 years reported in a
1992 meta-analysis of 61 studies conducted worldwide.23 The studies, whose results were published
between 1938 and 1990, included a total of 14,947 men without a history of infertility.

According to the analysts, the results show that between 1940 and 1990, the mean sperm count
declined by 42% and the mean semen volume declined by 18%. These changes, the analysts contend,
cannot be explained by methodological variation or selection bias, but reflect a "true biological
phenomenon."

Results of French and Scottish studies support these findings.24 Semen samples collected from
1,351 healthy men at a sperm bank in Paris between 1973 and 1992 revealed significant declines over
that period in sperm count and the proportions of motile and normal sperm, although semen volume
remained unchanged. These results were independent of any effects caused by aging and were inversely
associated with year of birth: Men born in any given year had a lower sperm count and smaller
proportions of motile and normal sperm than those born a year earlier. In the Scottish study, among 577
semen donors, sperm concentration, sperm count and the number of motile sperm declined among
successive birth cohorts from 1951 to 1973.

On the other hand, a review by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency of studies of
environmental effects on men's reproductive health points out that the decline in semen quality is not a
universal trend.25 According to research cited in the review, sperm concentration in the semen of
Finnish men was unchanged from 1958 to 1992 and is higher than that among other European men.
Furthermore, a recent study involving 1,283 men in three regions of the United States found an increase
in sperm concentration (with substantial differences among the regions) between 1970 and 1994, and no
change in sperm motility or volume.26

30
 The Danish review also brings together data from a number of countries indicating that the
incidence of testicular cancer has been rising by a rate of 2-4% annually among men younger than 50,
the age-group most commonly affected by this disease; overall, the incidence has at least doubled and
perhaps quadrupled over the past five decades. Additionally, data on genital abnormalities, although
difficult to compare across countries, suggest that the occurrence of cryptorchidism (undescended
testicles) and hypospadias (a urethral malformation) is on the rise. All of these conditions show wide
geographic variation.

The concurrent emergence of all of these apparent trends has led some analysts to speculate that
a common cause underlies these conditions. Given the short period of time in which these dramatic
changes seem to have occurred, researchers suggest that the cause is more likely environmental than
genetic.27 Furthermore, development of the sex organs takes place largely during fetal development,
and the DES experience demonstrates that exposure to an exogenous hormone can interfere with that
process. These facts, coupled with findings in wildlife and laboratory animals, have caused some
researchers to question whether exposure to environmental hormones may be harmful to men's
reproductive health.28

THE DEBATE

The hypothesis that chemicals in the environment can interfere with the development and action
of hormones has sparked debate among scientists both because of the inconsistency of findings and
because of certain features of the substances in question. Critics of the hypothesis argue that
phytoestrogens and man-made estrogens are weaker than endogenous estrogens; that exposure to
estrogenic substances occurring naturally in food outweighs exposure to environmental pollutants; and
that chemicals that mimic estrogen and those that block its action cancel each others' effects, much as
acids and bases neutralize each other. These critics also discount evidence from animal studies, which
are based on higher levels of exposure to contaminants than humans are likely to encounter in their
environment, and challenge the relevance of wildlife studies conducted in "hyperpolluted" settings.29

Those who advance the endocrine disruption hypothesis counter that while many exogenous
hormones are less potent than those produced within the body, they are present in body tissues in much
higher concentrations than are natural products. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, many synthetic
endocrine disrupters may be stored in body tissue for long periods, whereas phytoestrogens are rapidly
broken down or flushed out. Thus, the transfer of these substances to a developing fetus or a nursing
infant is a function of the mother's lifetime exposure.30 In addition, some man-made chemicals that bind
with a hormone receptor may not bind to proteins that limit the passage of endogenous hormones from
the bloodstream into cells. Such chemicals (DES is known to be one) may therefore freely enter cells
when natural hormones cannot.31

Refuting the argument that the effects of estrogenic and antiestrogenic compounds in the
environment cancel each other out, supporters of the endocrine disruption hypothesis contend that these
substances cannot interact in a way that is analogous to the interaction of an acid and a base. They add
that studies suggesting otherwise have been based on homogeneous cell cultures and therefore are not
relevant to the complex, constantly changing biological system of a developing fetus.32

Supporters of the hypothesis also note that as the dose of exposure to an endocrine disrupter
increases, the magnitude of the effect may initially increase but then diminish. Thus, findings based on
exposure to high doses of endocrine disrupters may not reflect effects of the same substances at lower
doses.33 In addition, they point out, most studies have focused only on chemicals' estrogenicity and
have not examined other potential hormonal effects; for instance, while DDE has limited ability to bind
with estrogen receptors, it is a strong androgen antagonist.34

Finally, those who hold to the endocrine disruption hypothesis agree that evidence from wildlife
and laboratory animal studies does not prove their case in humans unequivocally. However, they state
emphatically that humans and other vertebrates are similar enough so that even though specific effects
may differ across species, wildlife can serve as "sentinels" of human risk, and wildlife studies can be
used in conjunction with toxicological research to determine the effects of hormone disrupters on men's
and women's reproductive health.35

IMPLICATIONS

31
 The findings and uncertainties regarding endocrine disruption and reproductive health have
suggested a wide-ranging agenda for researchers and policymakers.36 The chief priority is to identify
substances that may have deleterious effects, their mode of delivery and mechanism of action, the
developmental stage at which they have their effect and the minimum concentration at which they pose
risks. A broad range of outcomes needs to be investigated, including functional deficits in offspring and
reproductive health traits other than the ability to conceive and bear children (e.g., menstrual function);
changes in these outcomes over time and at different levels of exposure also must be assessed.

Other high priorities are defining normal variability in reproductive health characteristics so that
trends can be identified reliably and hypotheses about their causes tested, determining how endocrine
disrupters interact and developing risk assessment methods that take these interactions into account. This
information can be used as a basis for considering regulatory measures aimed at limiting exposure to
substances with known or suspected toxic effects.

All of this will entail epidemiological studies examining specific effects among various
subgroups of the population; such studies can also shed light on how susceptibility varies geographically
or with demographic, genetic or overall health factors. A complete understanding of the effects of
endocrine disrupters will also involve wildlife, laboratory animal and in vitro studies, whose
applicability to humans should be clearly demonstrable.

Scientists, government agencies, funders and industry have begun to work together to study
endocrine disruption; such continued collaboration will be essential. In addition to conducting and
funding studies, government entities can contribute to the research effort by incorporating relevant
measures in national-level surveys, encouraging uniform registration of birth outcomes and requiring
manufacturers to disclose the names of all chemicals used in their products so that these may be tested.*

Since research on endocrine disruption requires a multidisciplinary approach, funders can

enhance their role by assuring that panels reviewing research proposals or results include experts from
all appropriate fields. Industries that produce known or suspected endocrine disrupters have launched
their own studies, whose results they have shared both with each other and in broader forums;37 they
can also participate in efforts to quantify and assess the effects of occupational exposure to potentially
harmful chemicals.

The extents to which substances in the home, the workplace and the general environment
jeopardize the reproductive health of men and women are unclear; but it need not, and must not, remain
so. Through an extensive, demanding research effort, government, industry and others can provide the
scientific knowledge on which policies and practices may be based that will safeguard reproductive
well-being.

PROCESSING QUESTIONS:
1. What are endocrine disrupters? Cite a specific example in the article that explains how substance
be considered and endocrine disrupter?
2. Based on this article, why is there a need to maintain the body’s homeostasis?

32
 Environmental Effects on Reproductive Health: The Endocrine Disruption Hypothesis

A SUMMARY

Here’s What So What Now What

(Describe one very important (How you use this concept so you (How can you use this concept in
concept you learned from what will know that you understand it?) life?)
you read)

Activity 7: KWL Chart

Instructions: After filling in the first and second column of the K-W-L Chart, you will now have to
answer the third column with your answer to the Essential Question given.

How do the nervous, endocrine and reproductive systems perform coordinated functions?

K-W-L CHART
What I KNOW What I WANT to What I LEARNED
know

33
 TRANSFER

Great job! You have reached the final activity for this lesson. Your goal in
this section is to apply your learning to real life situations. You will be given a
practical task which will demonstrate your understanding.

Activity 8: Letter to My Diamonds

Instructions: Your school celebrates Family Day with a theme “Honor your Father and Mother”. In
line with this, as a student in your school, you are tasked to create a message collage showing your
appreciation to your parents in 100 to 150 words entitled “To Mama and Papa”. You can include
photos, cut outs, or other art materials you may want to use to enhance your output. Your work will be
evaluated based on graphics, design, the message and content.

RUBRICS FOR THE LETTER

34
Lesson 2: HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

EXPLORE

Hello! I know you learned so much from our previous lesson. Now let’s
move to the 2nd lesson of our module. Let’s find out why we look so beautiful and
handsome. Where do you think we got these traits? How these traits inherited? So
what are you waiting for! Let’s discover these together!

The diversity of life on earth can be attributed to a number of things. Most importantly, all
species have reproductive capabilities. Living things come from parents that very much like them,
sharing similar characteristics that define their species. This is due to the hereditary materials that parent
pass on to their offspring. However, the hereditary materials can undergo some changes through many
years resulting in descendants that may look or behave differently from their ancestors.
The following activities will guide you to understand why we inherit the traits from our parents?
And, why we look the same as our parents?
Activity 1: ELICITING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE THROUGH I-R-F CHART
Instructions: You need to fill in the first column of the I-R-F Chart with your answer to the Essential
question given. The second and third column will be answered as the discussion progresses.

How does mutation result to change in the structure and function of a protein?

INITIAL ANSWER REVISED ANSWER FINAL ANSWER

I-R-F CHART

Hello! Since you already have given your initial ideas on how does mutation result
to change in the structure and function of a protein, let us now move to the next
stage in which we will explore the beauty of DNA and RNA. Have fun!

FIRM-UP

35
 Hello! I’m back! Welcome to the next stage of this module. We will explore
more together about the world of DNA, RNA and how mutations happen? Have
fun!

In 1953, James Watson, an American biologist, and Francis Crick, a British biologist, were
awarded the Nobel Prize Award for Physiology for their work on the structure of the DNA. Many
scientists consider the discovery of the DNA structure as one of the most significant biological event of
this century.

The DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a type if nucleic acid made up of nucleotides. Each DNA
nucleotide is composed of a deoxyribose (a pentose or five carbon sugar), a phosphate molecule, and
one of the four nitrogenous bases adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

The RNA or ribonucleic acid is also a type of nucleic acid and is also made of nucleotides. The
difference of the RNA from DNA lies on the type of sugar and a certain nitrogenous base on its
nucleotide. The RNA nucleotide is made up of ribose (also a pentose or five carbon sugar), a
phosphate molecule and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), and
cytosine (C). Take note that the nitrogenous base thymine (T) from DNA is replaced by uracil (U) in
RNA. The RNA also has three different types which are named after function, namely: messenger
RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

The mRNA acts as a sort of a “message” for the tRNA to interpret. On the other hand, the
mRNA is found inside the ribosomes. It binds the amino acids into chains which will then come out
later as protein chains. The process of producing proteins with the help of the three RNAs is called
protein synthesis.

DNA AS THE GENETIC CODE

Numerous experiments and studies have already proven that DNA is the genetic material or
template for protein synthesis. This means that the DNA controls the cell’s structures and its functions.

It exhibits three characteristics that will make you understand the protein synthesis easier.

First, the DNA is the universal code for all living organisms. This means that the genetic coding
system is true for all living organisms including viruses.

36
 Second, the genetic code is a triplet code. This means a triplet of nucleotides represent an amino
acid to be included in the protein to be synthesized. An example is a triplet of adenine-guanine-
cytosine (AGC) is coding for serine. It was discovered that even the start code (AUG) and the stop
codes (UAA, UAG, UGA) are also in triplet of nucleotides. These codes are seen in the table of
codons for amino acids. However, the table of codes is using mRNA codes or codons because, it is the
mRNA that transcribes or reads the DNA codes.

The last characteristic is that the genetic code is a degenerate code. This implies that although a
triplet code is specific for an amino acid, several triplet codes can code for a single amino acid. An
example is GCU is coding specifically for alanine, but GCC, GCA, and GCG are also codes for
alanine. See the table below of codons for amino acids.

Phe – Phenylaline
Leu – Leucine
Ile – Isoleucine
Met – Methionine
(Start)
Val – Valine
Ser – Serine
Pro – Proline
Thr – Threonine
Ala – Alanine
Tyr – Tyrosine
His – Histidine
Gln – Glutamine
Asn – Asparagine
Lys – Lysine
Asp – Aspartate
Glu – Glutamate
Cys – Cysteine
Trp – Tryptophan
Arg – Arginine
Gly - Glysine
DNA REPLICATION

This is a process of duplicating the entire genome prior to cell division. Extreme accuracy of
DNA replication is needed in order to preserve the integrity of the genome for several successive
generations. Reproduction at any level: cell, or tissues or organism is impossible without DNA
replication. This process is accomplished in 4 steps: initiation, priming, polymerization, and
termination.

Initiation is the unwinding of the two DNA strands. This process is catalyzed by Dna
endonuclease and DNA helicases.
Priming is the attachment of primers which are RNA nucleotide here DNA nucleotides can
attach to. This is catalyzed by the enzyme primase.

37
 Polymerization is the addition of new DNA nucleotides and are attached to the DNA templates
which were the original DNA that have separated in the initiation phase. This is catalyzed by DNA
polymerases.
Termination is the stage where two new DNA molecules are formed. This process is catalyzed
by DNA ligase and DNA topoisomerases.

PROCESS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Protein synthesis is the process by which the cells create new proteins for various purposes. The
process involves the DNA, RNA, and the ribosomes of the cell.

There are five steps in the process of protein synthesis. These are initiation, transcription,
translation, elongation and termination. All these processes are catalyzed by enzymes.

Initiation or Unzipping

A segment of DNA unzips. This is initiated by a cleave or a cut done by the DNA endonuclease
enzyme between a phosphate molecule and a deoxyribose sugar. This is followed by the unwinding of
the DNA helix with helicase enzymes. Look at the figure below.

Transcription

This is the synthesis of an mRNA (codon) based on a DNA template through base pairing. RNA
nucleotides bind with DNA by complementary base pairing with one of the two DNA strands that are
exposed after unzipping. (A with U, C with G). This is catalyzed by the RNA polymerase enzyme.
This is followed by the movement of the newly synthesized mRNA from the nucleus out of the
nuclear membrane and into the smaller subunit of ribosome.

38
 Translation

When the mRNA attaches to the smaller subunit of the ribosomes, tRNA from the cytoplasm
enters the larger subunit of the ribosome with a three-letter code anticodon. This tRNA carries the
amino acid methionine (Met). This signals the start of the protein synthesis. Note that the mRNA
codons determine the type of amino acid brought into the ribosome by the tRNA.

Elongation

Elongation is repeated translation. This is accomplished with tRNAs in the cytoplasm that
continuously enters the larger subunit of the ribosome. The ribosome is large enough to accommodate
two tRNA molecules at a time, one incoming and one outgoing. The amino acid on the incoming
tRNA forms a peptide bond with the amino acid on the outgoing tRNA. The ribosome then moves
laterally, allowing the outgoing tRNA to leave and making space for a new incoming tRNA. The
polypeptide lengthens one amino acid at a time. This is still catalyzed by RNA polymerase.

Termination

Termination which is also a translation process occurs at the stop codon on the mRNA. This is
also catalyzed by RNA polymerase enzyme. The stop codons that can signal for termination are: UAA,
UAG, or UGA. This is translated by a tRNA but does not carry any amino acid. The completed
polypeptide or protein dissociates from the ribosome and the ribosomal units separate from each other.

The example below will summarize the protein synthesis discussed above.

Given mRNA codon for specific amino acids:

AUG – Methionine (START) UCA – Serine UGA - STOP

AAA – Lysine UUU – Phenylalanine

DNA Segment 5’ TAC TCT AGT AAA TTT AGT ACT 3’

3’ AUG AGA UCA UUU AAA UCA UGA 5’

Initiation. The leading strand of DNA (5’3’ strand) separates with lagging strands of DNA (3’5’
strand). The leading strand serves as the DNA template or genetic code for protein synthesis.

DNA template: 5’ TAC TCT AGT AAA TTT AGT ACT 3’

mRNA (codons): 3’ AUG AGA UCA UUU AAA UCA UGA5’

Note that the codons are complementary to the DNA codes in the template.
Translation, elongation, and termination.

39
 tRNA anticodons: 5’ UAC UCU AGU AAA UUU AGU ACU 3’

Again note that the tRNA antocodons are complementary to the mRNA codons.

Amino acids: MET-ARG-SER-PHE-LYS-SER-STOP

start-arginine-serine-phenylalanine-lysine-serine-stop

The sequence of amino acids was based on the mRNA that was synthesized during transcription.

Example:

Determine the anticodon in tRNA and the corresponding amino acids (refer to the table in page 43)
based on the given mRNA.

Given : 5’ AGT CCA ATG CGA TTA 3’

Codon (mRNA): UCA GGU UAV GCU AAU

Anticodon (tRNA): AGU CCA AUG CGA UUA

Amino Acids: Ser – Gly – Tyr - Ala - Asn

Serine – Glysine – Tyrosine– Alanine - Asparagine

A mutation is change in genes or chromosomes which causes a new trait to be inherited, Hugo
de Vries coined the term mutation in 1886 after he noticed some remarkable changes in his experiment
with the evening primrose.
If a mutation occurs on a body or somatic cell such as the skin cell, the mutation only affects the
individual that carries it. This mutation is called somatic or acquired mutation. This kind of mutation is
not inheritable and thus it does not carry the risk of affecting the future generations. On the other hand,
if the mutation occurs on a germ cell or sex cells, this is called germline mutation or heritable
mutation. This type of mutation is inheritable and can be seen in future generations.

Most mutations are harmful (negative mutation), that is, they reduce an organism’s chances for
survival or reproduction. For example, sickle cell anemia is a serious blood disease which is caused by
a mutation in a gene. Sickle cell anemia results in blood cells that are shaped like a sickle or half
circle. People who have sickle cell anemia have difficulty obtaining enough oxygen. This happens
because the sickle-shaped cell cannot carry enough oxygen to all cells in the body. The sickle-shaped
cells may clump and clog the blood vessels.

Some mutations are helpful (positive mutation) and cause desirable traits in living things. For
example, when mutations occur in crop plants, the crops may become more useful to people. A gene
mutation in potatoes has produced new variety of potato called the Katahdin potato. This potato is
resistant to diseases that attack other potatoes. Also, the new potato looks and tastes better than other
types of potatoes. This type of mutation is the mechanism for revolution to occur.

It may seem as if mutations produce only helpful or harmful traits. However, that is not always
the case. Many mutations are neutral and do not produce any obvious changes. Still, other mutations
are known to cause death to organisms.

Point mutations are small changes often in a single nucleotide base. The sickle cell disease
occurs when the sixth amino acid, glutamic acid, is replaced by valine to change its structure and
function. This is caused by the mutation of a single nucleotide (T to A) from a triplet CTC to triplet
CAC codon causing a change in the structure of the protein hemoglobin which causes the erythrocyte
carrying the red iron pigment to become crescent-shape or sickled.

40
 Deletions remove information from the gene or chromosomes. A deletion could be a small as a
single base or as large as the gene itself.
An example is Cri-du-chat or cat’s cry syndrome which is caused by a deletion of the end of the
short (p) arm of chromosome number 5. This deleted portion of the chromosome causes genes to be
missing.
The size of the deletion varies among affected individuals and researches suggest that the larger
the area of deletions, the more genes are removed resulting in more severe intellectual disability and
developmental delay.

Insertions occur when extra DNA, genes, or extra base pairs are added into an existing gene. An
example of this mutation is Huntington’s disease. The gene defect responsible for Huntington’s
disease is found in chromosome 4. It is a small sequence of DNA where several base pairs are repeated
or inserted many times. The normal gene has only three DNA bases, of the nucleotide sequence CAG.
For patients with Huntington’s disease, the sequence abnormally repeats or inserts itself dozens of
times.

Frame shift mutations result from either insertion or deletion of one or two nucleotide bases that
often create new STOP codons and thus generate nonsense mutations. When this occurs the “reading
frame” is changed so that all the codons read after the mutation are incorrect, even though the bases
themselves may be still present.
An example of this is Tay-Sachs Disease. This genetic disorder is caused in most cases, by a 4
base pairs insertion in exon 11 of HEXA gene found in chromosome 15 that causes a premature stop

41
 codon, leading to a profound deficiency of one of the subunits of hexosaminisades, (hex A). This
protein helps break down a chemical found in nerve tissue called gangliosides. The absence of this
protein leads to ganglioside build up in cells, especially in the nerve cells in the brain.

MUTAGENIC AGENTS

Certain environmental factors can cause mutations to occur at a greater than normal rate. Such
agents are: radiations from x-rays, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and radioactive substances, and
chemical agents like formaldehyde, benzene, and saccharine.

Hello! How are you my dear students? Did you learned a lot from our discussion above?
Now, it’s your time to apply what you have learned from the discussion by answering the
activities below. Enjoy! If you have any clarification, you can call me right away.

Activity 2: Choosing the Correct One!

Instructions: You need to read and understand the questions below. Kindly circle the letter that
corresponds the correct answer.

1. A base sequence of one strand AA TTCG has the complementary strand of _______.
a. AATTCG c. TTAAGC
b. TTAACG d. TTGGAC

2. RNA makes protein through _______.

a. Repair c. transcription
b. Replication d. translation

3. Which of the following statements about DNA and RNA is incorrect?

a. Both have cytosine as a base.
b. Both are composed of a nitrogenous base.
c. The DNA copies specific instructions from the RNA.
d. DNA is a double-stranded helix while RNA is a single-stranded helix.

4. Which type of RNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes?
a. Messenger RNA c. ribosomal RNA
b. Mitochondrial RNA d. transfer RNA

5. In an RNA, adenine pairs with ___________.

a. Cytosine c. thymine
b. Guanine d. uracil

6. The DNA has two chains held together by __________.

a. Covalent bonds c. ionic bonds
b. Hydrogen bonds d. polypeptide bonds

7. Which of the following is not directly needed in the process of translation?

a. DNA c. ribosome
b. mRNA d. tRNA

8. Which of the following is not a stop codon?

a. AUG c. UAG
b. UAA d. UGA

9. Which is not a stage in the process of transcription?

a. Initiation, when RNA polymerase binds into a DNA strand
b. Elongation, when a single strand of DNA has been copied and transcribed
c. Mutation, when a chromosome undergoes inversion
d. Termination, when an mRNA strand has been released and it released and it detaches from the
DNA.

42
10. Which of the following genetic disorders is a result of a chromosome 5 deletion?
a. Huntington disease c. cri-du-chat syndrome
b. Leukemia d. sickle cell anemia

Activity 3: Give Me the Best

Instructions: You need to determine the anticodon in tRNA and the corresponding amino acids (refer to
the table in page 43) based on the given mRNA. Kindly write your answer on the space provided below.
After answering the first part, kindly answer the processing questions below.

1. Given : 5’ GAT CGG CAT CTA GCG 3’

Codon (mRNA): ______________________________________________

Anticodon (tRNA): _____________________________________________

Amino Acids: ______________________________________________

Full name: _________________________________________________

2. Given : 5’ TGC GGA ATA CCA GCT 3’

Codon (mRNA): ______________________________________________

Anticodon (tRNA): _____________________________________________

Amino Acids: ______________________________________________

Full name: ________________________________________________

Processing Questions

1. Why are nucleic acids essential in heredity?

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why must a cell produce protein?

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

3. How are genetic mutations advantageous and disadvantageous?

___________________________________________________________________________________

43
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

Annyeong! How’s your activity? Did you learned a lot from it? Now, let’s move
to the next stage of this module where you can learn more about this lesson. But
before that, let’s answer first the Revised Column of the I-R-F Chart. And always
keep in mind this question “How does mutation result to change in the
structure and function of a protein?” Enjoy!

Activity 4: I-R-F CHART

Instructions: This time, you need to fill in the second column of the I-R-F Chart with your answer to
the Essential question given. The third column will be answered as the discussion progresses.

How does mutation result to change in the structure and function of a protein?

I-R-F CHART

INITIAL ANSWER REVISED ANSWER FINAL ANSWER

DEEPEN

Hello! Welcome to the deepening part of this module where we will discover
together the imperfections of genetics in our body. So what are you waiting for
let’s explore and understand more!

Activity 5: Article Analysis

44
Instructions: In this activity, you will read and analyze three (3) articles related to mutations. After
reading each article, you will fill in the table below with corresponding information stated on each
column.

Article 1: How Gene Mutation Works

Genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes. A gene mutation is defined as an alteration in the
sequence of nucleotides in DNA. This change can affect a single nucleotide pair or larger gene segments
of a chromosome. DNA consists of a polymer of nucleotides joined together. During protein synthesis,
DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated to produce proteins. Altering nucleotide sequences
most often results in nonfunctioning proteins. Mutations cause changes in the genetic code that lead
to genetic variation and a variety of effects. Gene mutations can be generally categorized into two types:
point mutations and base-pair insertions or deletions.

Point mutations are the most common type of gene mutation. Also called a base-pair substitution,
this type of mutation changes a single nucleotide base pair. Point mutations can be categorized into three
types:

 Silent Mutation: Although a change in the DNA sequence occurs, this type of mutation does not
change the protein that is to be produced. This is because multiple genetic codons can encode for
the same amino acid. Amino acids are coded for by three-nucleotide sets called codons. For
example, the amino acid arginine is coded for by several DNA codons including CGT, CGC,
CGA, and CGG (A = adenine, T = thymine, G = guanine, and C = cytosine). If the DNA
sequence CGC is changed to CGA, the amino acid arginine will still be produced.
 Missense Mutation: This type of mutation alters the nucleotide sequence so that different amino
acid is produced. This change alters the resulting protein. The change may not have much effect
on the protein, may be beneficial to protein function, or may be dangerous. Using our previous
example, if the codon for arginine CGC is changed to GGC, the amino acid glycine will be
produced instead of arginine.
 Nonsense Mutation: This type of mutation alters the nucleotide sequence so that a stop codon is
coded for in place of amino acid. A stop codon signals the end of the translation process and
stops protein production. If this process is ended too soon, the amino acid sequence is cut short
and the resulting protein is most always nonfunctional.

Base-Pair Insertions and Deletions

Mutations can also occur in which nucleotide base pairs are inserted into or deleted from the original
gene sequence. This type of gene mutation is dangerous because it alters the template from which amino
acids are read. Insertions and deletions can cause frame-shift mutations when base pairs that are not a
multiple of three are added to or deleted from the sequence. Since the nucleotide sequences are read in
groupings of three, this will cause a shift in the reading frame. For example, if the original, transcribed
DNA sequence is CGA CCA ACG GCG..., and two base pairs (GA) are inserted between the second
and third groupings, the reading frame will be shifted.

 Original Sequence: CGA-CCA-ACG-GCG...
 Amino Acids Produced: Arginine/Proline/Threonine/Alanine...
 Inserted Base Pairs (GA): CGA-CCA-GAA-CGG-CG...
 Amino Acids Produced: Arginine/Proline/Glutamic Acid/Arginine...

The insertion shifts the reading frame by two and changes the amino acids that are produced after the
insertion. The insertion can code for a stop codon too soon or too late in the translation process. The
resulting proteins will be either too short or too long. These proteins are for the most part defunct.

Causes of Gene Mutation

Gene mutations are most commonly caused as a result of two types of occurrences.
Environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, and ultraviolet light from the sun can cause
mutations. These mutagens alter DNA by changing nucleotide bases and can even change the shape of
DNA. These changes result in errors in DNA replication and transcription.

45
 Other mutations are caused by errors made during mitosis and meiosis. Common errors that
occur during cell division can result in point mutations and frameshift mutations. Mutations during cell
division can lead to replication errors which can result in the deletion of genes, translocation of portions
of chromosomes, missing chromosomes, and extra copies of chromosomes.

Article 2: What is Mutation?

Mutation Generates New Alleles

The whole human family is one species with the same genes. Mutation creates slightly different
versions of the same genes, called alleles. These small differences in DNA sequence make every
individual unique. They account for the variation we see in human hair color, skin color, height, shape,
behavior, and susceptibility to disease. Individuals in other species vary too, in both physical appearance
and behavior.
Genetic variation is useful because it helps populations change over time. Variations that help an
organism survive and reproduce are passed on to the next generation. Variations that hinder survival and
reproduction are eliminated from the population. This process of natural selection can lead to significant
changes in the appearance, behavior, or physiology of individuals in a population, in just a few
generations.
Once new alleles arise, meiosis and sexual reproduction combine different alleles in new ways to
increase genetic variation.

Mutation vs. variation

It's useful to think of mutation as a process that creates genetic variation. We often refer to a
mutation as a thing—the genetic variation itself. This approach can be useful when it comes to a gene
associated with a disease: the disease allele carries a mutation, a DNA change that compromises the
protein's function. However, this approach gives mutation a bad name.
It’s important to remember that losing the function of a gene doesn’t always affect health. For
example, most mammals have hundreds of genes that code for olfactory receptors, proteins that help us
smell. Losing one of these genes probably doesn’t make all that much difference.
In contrast to variations that cause disease, there are many more examples of variations that are
neither good nor bad, but just different—like blood types and eye color. Just like with disease alleles, the
process of mutation creates these more neutral variations. But with neutral variations, it can be
impossible to tell which allele is the "normal" one that existed first and which is the "mutant"—and the
distinction is often meaningless.

Proteins and switches

Mutation creates variations in protein-coding portions of genes that can affect the protein itself.
But even more often, it creates variations in the "switches" that control when and where a protein is
active and how much protein is made.
Lactase is an enzyme that helps infants break down lactose, a sugar in milk. Normally the gene
that codes for lactase is active in babies and then turned off at about age four. When people who don't
make lactase consume milk, they experience gas, nausea, and discomfort. But some people have a
variation in a genetic switch that keeps the lactase gene active. This variation is called "lactase
persistence," and people who have it can keep milk in their diets even as adults.

Other drivers of mutation: Environmental agents

Radiation, chemicals, byproducts of cellular metabolism, free radicals, ultraviolet rays from the
sun—these agents damage thousands of nucleotides in each of our cells every day. They affect the
nucleotides themselves: converting one base to another, knocking a base off its backbone, or even
causing a break in the DNA strand.

DNA Repair

46
 Most of the time, mutation is reversed. DNA repair machines are constantly at work in our cells,
fixing mismatched nucleotides and splicing broken DNA strands back together. Yet some DNA changes
remain. If a cell accumulates too many changes—if its DNA is so damaged that repair machinery cannot
fix it—it either stops dividing or it self-destructs. If any of these processes go wrong, the cell could
become cancerous.

When we put on sun screen, we are protecting ourselves against mutation in somatic cells—the
cells that make up the body and are not involved in reproduction. Only when DNA changes are carried
in egg and sperm cells are they passed to the next generation. Believe it or not, a certain amount of
sloppiness is built into the system. Without mutation there would be no variation, and without variation
there would be no evolution.
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/mutation/

Article 3: Facts about Down syndrome

What is Down Syndrome?

Down syndrome is a condition in which a person has an extra chromosome. Chromosomes are
small “packages” of genes in the body. They determine how a baby’s body forms and functions as it
grows during pregnancy and after birth. Typically, a baby is born with 46 chromosomes. Babies with
Down syndrome have an extra copy of one of these chromosomes, chromosome 21. A medical term for
having an extra copy of a chromosome is ‘trisomy.’ Down syndrome is also referred to as Trisomy 21.
This extra copy changes how the baby’s body and brain develop, which can cause both mental and
physical challenges for the baby.
Even though people with Down syndrome might act and look similar, each person has different
abilities. People with Down syndrome usually have an IQ (a measure of intelligence) in the mildly-to-
moderately low range and are slower to speak than other children.
Some common physical features of Down syndrome include:
 A flattened face, especially the bridge of the nose
 Almond-shaped eyes that slant up
 A short neck
 Small ears
 A tongue that tends to stick out of the mouth
 Tiny white spots on the iris (colored part) of the eye
 Small hands and feet
 A single line across the palm of the hand (palmar crease)
 Small pinky fingers that sometimes curve toward the thumb
 Poor muscle tone or loose joints
 Shorter in height as children and adults

How Many Babies are Born with Down Syndrome?

Down syndrome remains the most common chromosomal condition diagnosed in the United
States. Each year, about 6,000 babies born in the United States have Down syndrome. This means that
Down syndrome occurs in about 1 in every 700 babies.1

Types of Down Syndrome

There are three types of Down syndrome. People often can’t tell the difference between each type
without looking at the chromosomes because the physical features and behaviors are similar.
 Trisomy 21: About 95% of people with Down syndrome have Trisomy 21. 2 With this type of
Down syndrome, each cell in the body has 3 separate copies of chromosome 21 instead of the
usual 2 copies.
 Translocation Down syndrome: This type accounts for a small percentage of people with
Down syndrome (about 3%).2 This occurs when an extra part or a whole extra chromosome 21 is
present, but it is attached or “trans-located” to a different chromosome rather than being a
separate chromosome 21.
 Mosaic Down syndrome: This type affects about 2% of the people with Down
syndrome.2 Mosaic means mixture or combination. For children with mosaic Down syndrome,
some of their cells have 3 copies of chromosome 21, but other cells have the typical two copies
of chromosome 21. Children with mosaic Down syndrome may have the same features as other

47
 children with Down syndrome. However, they may have fewer features of the condition due to
the presence of some (or many) cells with a typical number of chromosomes.

Causes and Risk Factors

 The extra chromosome 21 leads to the physical features and developmental challenges that can
occur among people with Down syndrome. Researchers know that Down syndrome is caused by
an extra chromosome, but no one knows for sure why Down syndrome occurs or how many
different factors play a role.
 One factor that increases the risk for having a baby with Down syndrome is the mother’s age.
Women who are 35 years or older when they become pregnant are more likely to have a
pregnancy affected by Down syndrome than women who become pregnant at a younger age. 3-
5
However, the majority of babies with Down syndrome are born to mothers less than 35 years
old, because there are many more births among younger women.6,7
Diagnosis

There are two basic types of tests available to detect Down syndrome during pregnancy:
screening tests and diagnostic tests. A screening test can tell a woman and her healthcare provider
whether her pregnancy has a lower or higher chance of having Down syndrome. Screening tests do not
provide an absolute diagnosis, but they are safer for the mother and the developing baby. Diagnostic
tests can typically detect whether or not a baby will have Down syndrome, but they can be more risky
for the mother and developing baby. Neither screening nor diagnostic tests can predict the full impact of
Down syndrome on a baby; no one can predict this.

Screening Tests

Screening tests often include a combination of a blood test, which measures the amount of
various substances in the mother’s blood (e.g., MS-AFP, Triple Screen, Quad-screen), and an
ultrasound, which creates a picture of the baby. During an ultrasound, one of the things the technician
looks at is the fluid behind the baby’s neck. Extra fluid in this region could indicate a genetic problem.
These screening tests can help determine the baby’s risk of Down syndrome. Rarely, screening tests can
give an abnormal result even when there is nothing wrong with the baby. Sometimes, the test results are
normal and yet they miss a problem that does exist.

Diagnostic Tests

Diagnostic tests are usually performed after a positive screening test in order to confirm a Down
syndrome diagnosis. Types of diagnostic tests include:
 Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)—examines material from the placenta
 Amniocentesis—examines the amniotic fluid (the fluid from the sac surrounding the baby)
 Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS)—examines blood from the umbilical cord

These tests look for changes in the chromosomes that would indicate a Down syndrome diagnosis.

Other Health Problems

Many people with Down syndrome have the common facial features and no other major birth
defects. However, some people with Down syndrome might have one or more major birth defects or
other medical problems. Some of the more common health problems among children with Down
syndrome are listed below.8
 Hearing loss
 Obstructive sleep apnea, which is a condition where the person’s breathing temporarily stops
while asleep
 Ear infections
 Eye diseases
 Heart defects present at birth

Health care providers routinely monitor children with Down syndrome for these conditions.

Treatments
Down syndrome is a lifelong condition. Services early in life will often help babies and children
with Down syndrome to improve their physical and intellectual abilities. Most of these services focus on
helping children with Down syndrome develop to their full potential. These services include speech,

48
occupational, and physical therapy, and they are typically offered through early intervention programs in
each state. Children with Down syndrome may also need extra help or attention in school, although
many children are included in regular classes.

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/DownSyndrome.html

Now that you have done reading the three articles, you have to answer the
given questions below. Your answers for these questions shall be written on the
Guided Generalization table below where you will need to write your claim (C),
supporting evidences (E) for your claim and your reasons (R). If you have any
clarifications, you can ask me directly.

C-E-R Questions: (Article 1)

1. How mutation works?
2. Which part of the article supports your claim (from answer no. 1)?
3. Why do you think it supports your claim (from answer no. 1)?
4. EQ: How does mutation result to change in the structure and function of a protein?
C-E-R Questions: (Article 2)
1. How mutation affects protein synthesis in the cell?
2. Which part of the article supports your claim (from answer no. 1)?
3. Why do you think it supports your claim (from answer no.2)?
4. EQ: How does mutation result to change in the structure and function of a protein?
C-E-R Questions: (Article 3)
1. How does mutation contribute to the production of faulty proteins?
2. Which part of the article supports your claim (from answer no. 1)? ?
3. Why do you think it supports your claim (from answer no. 1)??
4. EQ: How does mutation result to change in the structure and function of a protein?

Guided Generalization Table

Essential Question Article No.1 Article No. 2 Article No.3

How Gene Mutation What is Mutation? Facts about Down
Works syndrome

49
How does mutation Answer: (From CER Answer: (From CER Answer: (From CER
result to change in the question no.1 for Article 1) question no.1 for Article 2) question no.1 for Article 3)
structure and function
of a protein?

Supporting Texts: Supporting Texts: Supporting Texts:

(facts/evidences from your (facts/evidences from your (facts/evidences from your
answer on CER question answer on CER question answer on CER question
no.1 for Article 1) no.1 for Article 2) no.1 for Article 3)

Reason: (from your answer Reason: (from your answer Reason: (from your answer
on CER question no.2 for on CER question no.2 for on CER question no.2 for
Article 1) Article 2) Article 3)

Common Ideas in Reasons: (Common answer from your reason that will answer to your Essential
Question)

Now that you have deeper understanding of the topic, you are ready to do the task in
the next section. But before moving to the next part, let’s answer first the final
column of the I-R-F Chart based on what you have learned from the discussion. Have
fun!

50
Activity 6: I-R-F CHART
Instructions: After filling in the first and second column of the I-R-F Chart, you will now have to
answer the third column with your answer to the Essential Question given.

How does mutation result to change in the structure and function of a protein?

I-R-F CHART
INITIAL ANSWER REVISED ANSWER FINAL ANSWER

TRANSFER

Great job! You have reached the final activity for this lesson. Your goal in this section is to
apply your learning to real life situations. You will be given a practical task which will demonstrate 51
Activity 7: Prevention is better than Cure
Instructions: In this activity, you will create a slogan expressing awareness of young people about
cancer. Your output will be evaluated based on craftsmanship, creativity and originality. You can use the
next page for your output.

Rubrics for Slogan Making

Lesson 3: Evolution

EXPLORE

Hello! How are you? Welcome to another topic that we are going to
explore. Let us now discover the world of evolution and how species change
through time. Sit back, grab your notebooks and pens, and let us learn together.
52
Enjoy learning.
 Look around you and you can observe that a lot of things have changed and will continue to
change. For example, organisms like humans, plants, and animals change. In biology, scientists study
evolution, the change of species through time in one or more inherited traits found in a population of
individuals. Evolution can be simplified as the history of life on Earth because all organisms that live on
the planet today and even the extinct species could have arisen from a single-celled common ancestor.
The activities here will help you understand more about this topic.

Activity 1: KWL Chart

Instructions: You need to fill in the first and second column of the K-W-L Chart with your thought or
ideas to the Essential question given. Leave the third column blank for now because you will answer it
as the discussion progresses.

How can Natural Selection contribute to biodiversity or extinction?

K-W-L CHART
What I KNOW What I WANT to know What I LEARNED

Since you already accomplished the 1st activity, let’s us now answer the 2 nd
activity based on what you have understood in the given essential ideas in the next
stage of this module. If you have any clarification you can ask me. Study well.

FIRM-UP
Welcome students! In this stage of this module, we will explore and
discover more about evolution. Enjoy!

53
 Evolution is defined as the change of traits which were inherited from an organism’s ancestor.
These traits pertain to the physical aspects of an organism such as the body parts and the instinctive
behavior like migration, camouflage, and many others. It is one of the topics in biology that explains the
origin of the plants and animals in the planet. Many believe that all organisms are connected to each
other by common ancestry.
The descendants of these common ancestors were dispersed in different places that have
different climate and resources. The result of this is that each descendant developed different changes in
its behavior and modifications in its physical attributes in order to survive and reproduce. This concept
explains how genes are transferred from one generation to another. It was made known by the French
naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck during the early 1800s when he made a theory about the organic
evolution of animals.
Lamarck said that animals adapt to the changes I their environment and the body parts of the
animals are also changed depending upon the needs of the animals.
He used the giraffe as an example for his theory. He explained that the ancestors of the giraffes
that we see today did not have long necks because there was no need for them stretch their necks due to
the abundance of the ground.

When the leaves on the ground became scarce, the giraffes reached for the leaves of tall trees.
This resulted into the stretching of their necks. This continued for many generations and the genes of the
ancestors were passed on from offspring to offspring. This resulted to the long-necked giraffes that we
see today.
DARWIN’S THEORY ON COMMON ANCESTRY

During the time that Lamarck was publishing his ideas and
works in 1809, the same year, Charles Darwin was born.
Darwin wrote and published the book, On the Origin of the
species, which explained that all life forms on the earth have
common ancestry which later developed into different kinds of
organisms. His works are a compilation of thousands of specimens
of fossils and living plants and animals from different islands in
South America. This resulted into his theory that the world was
made a very long time ago and all living creatures are constantly
evolving. Charles Darwin

Most of the evolutionary evidences are categorized accordingly as fossil records, biochemical
evidences, comparative anatomy, and observable events.
Fossil records that were collected by Darwin in the layers of sedimentary rock showed that as
you go further down layers, the older the kind of fossils you can find. The comparison between the
fossils and the structure of the animals that are presented today confirmed Darwin’s theory on common
ancestry.
The nitrogen base sequences in the DNA of all organisms are all the same. This is one of the
biochemical evidences that Darwin explained.

54
 Comparative anatomy also shows evidences that some animals have similarities in structures but
have different functions.
Comparative anatomy deals with the comparative study of the body structures of organisms and
their ancestors in order to understand the adaptive changes that they have undergone in the course of the
evolution process.
Due to the changing environment, organisms tend to change their structures as time goes by in
order to be fit in the environment to survive. Some organisms have the same kind of anatomical
structures in the embryonic development but perform different functions. Since these structures are
similar, we can conclude that these organisms have a common ancestor.

Comparative Embryonic Development of Animals

Another clear example of these are the homologous structures of the forelimbs of mammals.
Each limb possesses the same number of bones and these bones are arranged in a very similar way
though their limbs perform different tasks. By comparing the anatomy of these organisms, scientist
determined that they all have a common ancestor.

Comparative Anatomy of Homologous Structure

NATURAL SELECTION
Darwin also observed that the organisms reproduce a large number of offspring but only a few
offspring are able to have their full life cycle and reproduce. According to him, this is because only the
fittest organisms, which can deal with the environment, can survive.

By this, the environment plays an

important role in selecting and filtering the
traits that will be passed on to the next
generation. The favored traits will be
expressed more than the unfavored traits
which will have a tendency to not be
expressed in the following generation.
55
 The organisms that have the favorable traits will have the chance to reproduce, which will make
a change in the characteristics of the population of the species. With the use of the knowledge about
natural selection, Darwin found convincing evidence for his ideas in the results of artificial selection.
Artificial selection is the controlled selection of desirable traits for domesticated plants and animals.
In artificial selection, the desirable traits of a plan to an animal are magnified for desired results
and for the undesired traits to not be passed on to the next generation. Farmers and breeders have been
using this idea in order to get good produce.

Genetic variation is the

difference in the genetic structure
between cells of individual organisms.
It can be observed in the behavior,
mode of reproduction, and even the
metabolism of an organism. However,
not all variation can be passed on to
the offspring. Only the genetic
component of the variation can be
transferred. This variation can also be
linked to mutation. It is the permanent
change of the chemical composition of
the genes. Mutation usually occurs in
the body cell of an organism.
The characteristics of the mutated body cell cannot be transferred into the offspring; only the
mutated cells that produce gametes can be passed on to the offspring; which can later affect the
population’s genetic pol.
SPECIATION
Speciation is the evolutionary process in which a new species arises from an existing species.
This is where a group of species will acquire new characteristics and multiply in number, which later on
makes an entirely new species.
Some causes of speciation
 Geographical Isolation
Being isolated on a specific geographical area can prevent a species to interbreed with others,
which can cause the start of speciation. If the geographical area changed after some time which
divides a population of a species into two or more smaller populations, it can cause changes on
the smaller populations.

 Reduction of gene flow

Species of a population can also experience speciation even without an extrinsic barrier in the
gene flow. For example, when a population extends over a broad geographical range, the species
in the far west would have zero chance of mating with the species in the far eastern part which
then result to reduced gen flow in the area, but not total isolation.

Hello! Did you learn something from the discussion? Now, it is your time to
apply the things you have learned by answering the activities below. ENJOY. 56
Activity 2: Identify Me!

Instructions: You need to identify what is defined or described in each number. Kindly write the
correct answer to the space provided before each number.

_________________1. It is formation of new species resulting in the geographical isolation of a given

population.
_________________2. It is evolutionary process wherein species occupy diverse environmental niches.
_________________3. It shows genetic variation in species.
_________________4. Evolution is a process which takes ________ to accomplish.
_________________5. It is the product of artificial selection.
_________________6. What evolutionary evidences can be used to link the relationship of a prehistoric
animal and the animal that seen in the present?
_________________7. What evolutionary evidence is used to explain the similarities of the genetic
structure of a human and a chimpanzee?

_________________8. What evolutionary evidence explains the similarities of the structures of animals
having different functions?
_________________9. It is defined as the change of traits which were inherited from an organism’s
ancestor.
_________________10. It is the controlled selection of desirable traits for domesticated plants and
animals.

Activity 3: Prove Me!

Instructions: You need to read and understand the questions below and you need to explain your
answer briefly. You can write your answer on the space provided after the question.

1. Explain how the resources and situation in the environment changes in an organism.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2.How does nature determine which species live and evolve or which ones die and become extinct?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

57
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

3. Differentiate natural selection from artificial selection.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

DEEPEN

Hello! Welcome to the next section of this module. I know you have learned so
much about evolution, natural selection and more in our previous discussion. This
time, we will discover together how natural selection contributes to extinction
through reading the different articles below. ENJOY!

Activity 4: Making Generalization

Instructions: In this activity, you will read and analyze three (3) articles related to natural selection.
After reading each article, you will fill in the Generalization table below based on the CER questions
given.

https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/mutationsanddisorders/evolution/

Article 1: How are gene variants involved in evolution?

Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over generations. Genetic variations
underlie these changes. Genetic variations can arise from gene variants (also called mutations) or from a
normal process in which genetic material is rearranged as a cell is getting ready to divide (known as
genetic recombination). Genetic variations that alter gene activity or protein function can introduce
different traits in an organism. If a trait is advantageous and helps the individual survive and reproduce,
the genetic variation is more likely to be passed to the next generation (a process known as natural
selection). Over time, as generations of individuals with the trait continue to reproduce, the
advantageous trait becomes increasingly common in a population, making the population different than
an ancestral one. Sometimes the population becomes so different that it is considered a new species.
Not all variants influence evolution. Only hereditary variants, which occur in egg or sperm cells, can be
passed to future generations and potentially contribute to evolution. Some variants occur during a
person’s lifetime in only some of the body’s cells and are not hereditary, so natural selection cannot play
a role. Also, many genetic changes have no impact on the function of a gene or protein  and are not
helpful or harmful. In addition, the environment in which a population of organisms lives is integral to
the selection of traits. Some differences introduced by variants may help an organism survive in one
setting but not in another—for example, resistance to a certain bacteria is only advantageous if that
bacteria is found in a particular location and harms those who live there.

58
So why do some harmful traits, like genetic diseases, persist in populations instead of being removed by
natural selection? There are several possible explanations, but in many cases, the answer is not clear. For
some conditions, such as the neurological condition Huntington disease, signs and symptoms occur later
in life, typically after a person has children, so the gene variant can be passed on despite being harmful.
For other harmful traits, a phenomenon called reduced penetrance, in which some individuals with a
disease-associated variant do not show signs and symptoms of the condition, can also allow harmful
genetic variations to be passed to future generations. For some conditions, having one altered copy of a
gene in each cell is advantageous, while having two altered copies causes disease. The best-studied
example of this phenomenon is sickle cell disease: Having two altered copies of the HBB gene in each
cell results in the disease, but having only one copy provides some resistance to malaria. This disease
resistance helps explain why the variants that cause sickle cell disease are still found in many
populations, especially in areas where malaria is prevalent.

Article 2: Natural Selection

English naturalist Charles Darwin developed the idea of natural selection after a five-year voyage to
study plants, animals, and fossils in South America and on islands in the Pacific. In 1859, he brought the
idea of natural selection to the attention of the world in his best-selling book, On the Origin of Species.

Natural selection is the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change.
Individuals in a population are naturally variable, meaning that they are all different in some ways.
This variation means that some individuals have traits better suited to the environment than others.
Individuals with adaptive traits—traits that give them some advantage—are more likely to survive and
reproduce. These individuals then pass the adaptive traits on to their offspring. Over time, these
advantageous traits become more common in the population. Through this process of natural selection,
favorable traits are transmitted through

Darwin chose the name natural selection to contrast with “artificial selection,” or selective breeding that
is controlled by humans. He pointed to the pastime of pigeon breeding, a popular hobby in his day, as an
example of artificial selection. By choosing which pigeons mated with others, hobbyists created distinct
pigeon breeds, with fancy feathers or acrobatic flight, that were different from wild pigeons.

Darwin and other scientists of his day argued that a process much like artificial selection happened in
nature, without any human intervention. He argued that natural selection explained how a wide variety
of life forms developed over time from a single common ancestor.

Darwin did not know that genes existed, but he could see that many traits are heritable—passed from
parents to offspring. 

Mutations are changes in the structure of the molecules that make up genes, called DNA.
The mutation of genes is an important source of genetic variation within a population. Mutations can be
random (for example, when replicating cells make an error while copying DNA), or happen as a result
of exposure to something in the environment, like harmful chemicals or radiation.

Mutations can be harmful, neutral, or sometimes helpful, resulting in a new, advantageous trait. When
mutations occur in germ cells (eggs and sperm), they can be passed on to offspring.

If the environment changes rapidly, some species may not be able to adapt fast enough through natural
selection. Through studying the fossil record, we know that many of the organisms that once lived on
Earth are now extinct. Dinosaurs are one example. An invasive species, a disease organism, a
catastrophic environmental change, or a highly successful predator can all contribute to the extinction of
species. 

Today, human actions such as overhunting and the destruction of habitats are the main cause of
extinctions. Extinctions seem to be occurring at a much faster rate today than they did in the past, as
shown in the fossil record.

English naturalist Charles Darwin wrote the definitive book outlining his idea of natural selection, On
the Origin of Species. The book chronicled his studies in South America and Pacific islands. Published
in 1859, the book became a best seller.
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https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/natural-selection/

Article 3: How Does Natural Selection Work?

Natural selection is a mechanism by which populations adapt and evolve.

In its essence, it is a simple statement about rates of reproduction and mortality: Those individual
organisms who happen to be best suited to an environment survive and reproduce most successfully,
producing many similarly well-adapted descendants. After numerous such breeding cycles, the better-
adapted dominate. Nature has filtered out poorly suited individuals and the population has evolved.
Natural selection is a simple mechanism that causes populations of living things to change over time. In
fact, it is so simple that it can be broken down into five basic steps, abbreviated here as VISTA:
Variation, Inheritance, Selection, Time and Adaptation.
Variation and Inheritance
Members of any given species are seldom exactly the same, either inside or outside. Organisms can vary
in size, coloration, ability to fight off diseases, and countless other traits. Such variation is often the
result of random mutations, or "copying errors," that arise when cells divide as new organisms develop.
When organisms reproduce, they pass on their DNA--the set of instructions encoded in living cells for
building bodies--to their offspring. And since many traits are encoded in DNA, offspring often inherit
the variations of their parents. Tall people, for example, tend to have tall children.
Selection: Survival and Reproduction
Environments cannot support unlimited populations. Because resources are limited, more organisms are
born than can survive: some individuals will be more successful at finding food, mating or avoiding
predators and will have a better chance to thrive, reproduce, and pass on, their DNA. Small variations
can influence whether or not an individual lives and reproduces. Differences in color, for instance, aid
some individuals in camouflaging themselves from predators. Sharper eyes and claws help an eagle
catch its dinner. And brighter coloration improves a male peacock's chances of attracting a mate.
Time and Adaptation
In generation after generation, advantageous traits help some individuals survive and reproduce. And
these traits are passed on to greater and greater numbers of offspring. After just a few generations or
after thousands, depending on the circumstances, such traits become common in the population. The
result is a population that is better suited--better adapted--to some aspect of the environment than it was
before. Legs once used for walking are modified for use as wings or flippers. Scales used for protection
change colors to serve as camouflage.

https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/evolution-today/natural-selection-vista

Now that you have read the given articles above, please take note the
following questions below. Your answers for these questions shall be written on the
Guided Generalization table below where you will need to write your claim (C),
supporting evidences (E) for your claim and your reasons (R). If you have any
clarifications, you can ask me directly.

C-E-R Questions: (Article 1)

1. How does natural selection change genetic variation?
2. Which part of the article supports your claim (from answer no. 1)??
3. Why do you think it supports your claim (from answer no. 1)??
4. EQ: How can Natural Selection contribute to biodiversity or extinction?
C-E-R Questions: (Article 2)
1. How natural selection contributed to biodiversity?
2. Which part of the article supports your claim (from answer no. 1)?
3. Why do you think it supports your claim (from answer no.2)?

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4. EQ: How can Natural Selection contribute to biodiversity or extinction?
C-E-R Questions: (Article 3)
1. How did natural selection lead to extinction?
2. Which part of the article supports your claim (from answer no. 1)?
3. Why do you think it supports your claim (from answer no. 1)?
4. EQ: How can Natural Selection contribute to biodiversity or extinction?
Guided Generalization Table

Essential Question Article No.1 Article No. 2 Article No.3

How are gene Natural Selection How Does Natural
variants involved in Selection Work?
evolution?
How can Natural Answer: (From CER Answer: (From CER Answer: (From CER
Selection contribute question no.1 for Article 1) question no.1 for Article 2) question no.1 for Article 3)
to biodiversity or
extinction?

Supporting Texts: Supporting Texts: Supporting Texts:

(facts/evidences from your (facts/evidences from your (facts/evidences from your
answer on CER question answer on CER question answer on CER question
no.1 for Article 1) no.1 for Article 2) no.1 for Article 3)

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 Reason: (from your Reason: (from your Reason: (from your
answer on CER question answer on CER question answer on CER question
no.2 for Article 1) no.2 for Article 2) no.2 for Article 3)

Common Ideas in Reasons: (Common answer from your reason that will answer to your Essential
Question)

Now that you have deeper understanding of the topic, you are ready to do the task in
the next section. But before we will proceed, let us answer first the next activity.

Activity 5: KWL Chart

Instructions: After filling in the first and second column of the K-W-L Chart, you will now have to
answer the third column with your answer to the Essential Question given.

How can Natural Selection contribute to biodiversity or extinction?

K-W-L CHART
What I KNOW What I WANT to know What I LEARNED

62
 TRANSFER
Great job! You have reached the final activity for this lesson. Your goal in
this section is to apply your learning to real life situations. You will be given a
practical task which will demonstrate your understanding.

Activity 6: Transfer Task

Instructions: In this activity, you will write a three paragraph essay on the importance of adaptation as a
mechanism for the survival of a species. You can write your essay on the next page. Your work will be
evaluated based on idea, creativity, and organization of idea.

CRITERION EXEMPLARY PROFICIEN PARTIALLY INCOMPLETE SCORE

(10) T PROFICIENT (6 or 6 below)
(8-9) (7)
Idea The The The The
(Message) idea/message is idea/message is idea/message is idea/message is
clearly shown slightly clearly averagely not seen in the
in the slogan. shown in the shown in the slogan.
slogan. slogan.
Creativity Slogan is Slogan is Slogan is The slogan does
exceptionally creative and a creative and not reflect any
creative. A lot good amount some thought degree of
of thought and of thought was was put into creativity.
effort was used put into decorating it..
to make the decorating it.
banner.
Organization The The The The organization
of Idea organization of organization of organization of of ideas is not
ideas is very ideas is slightly ideas is organized and is
organized and organized and organized and not written
is written is written is written properly.
properly. averagely. averagely.
Teacher’s comment: Score

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64
Lesson 4: Ecosystem

EXPLORE

Hello! How are you so far? We are on the last lesson of this module. I
hope that you are still interested in reading and learning more. Come and let us
continue to learn as we discover the ECOSYSTEM we live in.

Living things are found in almost any location on earth because of evolution resulting in
adaptation. From the very hot Sahara desert, the freezing climate of Antarctic, to the bottom of the deep
ocean, life-forms always find ways to survive. The continuous life existence is mainly attributed to the
planet's favorable condition to host life. In fact, through millions of years, living things are able to shape
the earth's landscape in a way that it became more suitable to life. The process of photosynthesis altered
the atmospheric composition of the planet, while the continuous cycle of decomposition and mineral
breakdown of some animals and plants formed the soil. Each organism, no matter how large or small,
has an important role to play as its relation with other living things and surroundings influences the
balance of nature.
This lesson will help you understand why and how living things interact with each other and the
environment.
Activity 1: What do I Know about Environment?
Instructions: You need to fill in the first and second column of the K-W-L Chart with your thought or
ideas to the Essential question given. Leave the third column blank for now because you will answer it
as the discussion progresses.

How do humans impact the diversity and stability of ecosystem?

K-W-L CHART
What I KNOW What I WANT to know What I LEARNED

Hello, I’m back! Since you already have given your initial ideas on how do
humans impact the diversity and stability of ecosystem, let us now explore more the
world of Ecosystem. Let’s discover together in the next stage of this lesson. Enjoy!

65
 FIRM-UP

Welcome students! In this stage of this lesson, you will learn more about the
ecosystem and its components, and how the organisms interact with their
environment. So, what are you waiting for! Let’s read and understand the concepts!
Enjoy!
The movement of energy and matter in an ecosystem is always in one direction. It starts when
the photosynthetic organisms get the energy from the main source of energy in the ecosystem, which is
the sun.
When the photosynthetic organisms like the plants had acquired the energy from the sun, they
will process the energy together with water and carbon dioxide to make glucose, which is the food for
plants. Because plants and other photosynthetic organisms make their own food, they are called
producers or autotrophs.
There are also organisms that make their own food with the use of chemicals from the
hydrothermal vents found in the ocean floor that has no presence of sunlight. These organisms are called
chemosynthetic autotrophs.
Organisms that feed mainly on the plants and other producers because they cannot make their
own food are called consumers or heterotrophs.
The flow of energy and the matter in an ecosystem can be illustrated in the food chain. The
position of the animals in the chain determines their trophic level.

The Food Chain Pyramid

The first trophic level consists of the procedures and other autotrophs. The second trophic level
consists of the animals that feed on plants. They are called herbivores. The third and fourth trophic
level consists of carnivores and omnivores. Animals in this trophic level can either be a secondary
consumer or tertiary consumer.
Scavengers are organisms that feed on dead organisms. Animals such as vultures, ants, and
crows belong to this kind. Decomposers, on the other, hand are organisms that break down and feed on
dead organic material.

66
 The remains of what had been broken down by the decomposers will go back to the soil or water
and the producers can use them again. The role of decomposers in the recycling of matter and energy is
important for the food chain and its members.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Energy and chemicals are important factors in ecosystem. Energy depletes and is eventually lost
in the environment as it moves to the trophic levels but it is eventually replenished by the sun.
Chemicals are also an important necessity in the environment. Since they have limited resources,
they must be recycled continuously. The rate of the cycle of the chemicals like carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen varies, depending on the location in an ecosystem.
Nutrients can be recycled rapidly like in the rainforest, or they can occur slowly like in an
aquatic ecosystem where carbon deposits on shells will eventually turn into limestones. These
limestone’s can remain intact for millions of years.
There is a constant cycle of nutrients that is found in the terrestrial ecosystem because plants
need nutrients to grow and produce food via photosynthesis. These nutrients that are needed by plants
came from rocks and decaying matter.
Rainfall and water contribute to the weathering of rocks and the decomposition process of
organic matter. Plants then absorb these nutrients and remain in them.
Animals get these nutrients when they eat the plant and then those nutrients will go back to the
soil when their bodies decompose when they die.
OXYGEN CYCLE
Oxygen is being recycled in the environment through three major regions: the atmosphere, the
biosphere, and the lithosphere.

The largest reservoir of free oxygen on earth is found in the atmosphere. The oxygen in the
atmosphere is feed by the process called photolysis. This is when the oxygen-bearing molecules in the
atmosphere break by the high energy of the sunlight that causes the release of oxygen.
In the biosphere, the main cycle that involve oxygen are respiration and photosynthesis. When
humans and animals use oxygen for respiration, they release carbon dioxide, and that carbon dioxide,
will be used by the plants for photosynthesis in which the plants produce oxygen.
In the lithosphere, the oxygen is bounded in the minerals such as silicates and oxides in the
environment. When chemical weathering is in play, the minerals in the lithosphere which contains

67
oxygen will break which enables the oxygen to be released in the environment to be used by organisms
for cellular respiration.

CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is the backbone of all

organic molecules, that is why the
recycling of this chemical is important
to the environment. Carbon when
attached to two oxygen atoms can
produce carbon dioxide (CO₂). It is
given off by humans, animals, and
industries.

The carbon dioxide is then absorbed by the plants and use it for photosynthesis. Decomposers
that feed on dead plants and animals release CO₂ in the atmosphere and in bodies of water to be used by
terrestrial and aquatic plants. But with the constant burning of fossil fuel and coal, the level of carbon
dioxide is continuously rising which causes global warming.
WATER CYCLE

Water is the most essential component in

all living organisms because organisms are made
up mostly of water. Water is recycled in the
process called water cycle in which the sun
drives the movement of the water in the
environment.

The amount of water from the bodies of

living organisms and bodies of water are reduced
by evaporation and transpiration. Water will then
rise up becoming water vapor and will decrease
in temperature causing it to become clouds in the
process of condensation.

When clouds are heavy due to water droplets, rain will be reproduced and water will go back to
the ground or in the bodies of water. Water that reached the soil will be drained down to become ground
water. Organisms get water from the available water in the soil or from water bodies. The water in the
soil and from the other water sources will then be evaporated due to the sun forming water vapor to
continue the water cycle.
NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen is an element that is essential in the structures of proteins and nucleic acids in
organisms. The atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen gas (N₂), but this kind of nitrogen cannot be
used by the plants: it must be first converted into nitrates (NO₃), and ammonium (NH₄).

68
 Soil bacteria can make those compounds from nitrites. Atmospheric nitrogen is then converted
into ammonium by the nitrogen fixing bacteria and then converted into nitrites by the nitrifying bacteria.
This form of nitrogen is then used by plants for the production of proteins and amino acids which will be
available for animals that will eat he plant.

Ni hao! Did you learn something from our discussion? Now, it’s your time to
apply the things you learned from our previous discussion by answering the
activity below. Enjoy!

Activity 2: Choose the Right One!

Instructions: You need to read and understand the questions below. Kindly circle the letter that
corresponds to the correct answer.
________1. An organism that can make its own food is called?
a. Consumer b. Producer c. Decomposer d. Herbivore
________ 2. A consumer gets energy by doing what?
a. Making it themselves.
b. Breaking down biotic wastes and dead organisms and returning raw materials to the
ecosystem.
c. Soaking it up from the ground.
d. Feeding on other organisms.
_______3. A food chain is?
a. Overlapping food chains in an ecosystem.
b. The amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to another in a food web.
c. A series of events in which one organism eats another and obtains energy.
d. biotic and abiotic factors in an area.
_________ 4. This type of consumer obtains all of its energy by eating only producers.
a. Omnivore b. herbivore c. Scavenger d. Carnivore
________ 5. Which of these is always located at the bottom of an energy pyramid?
a. Producer b. Second-level carnivores c. Herbivores d. first-level
consumers
_________ 6. A third-level consumer has to be which type?
a. Carnivore b. Decomposer c. Producer d. Herbivore
_________7. You lose energy as you go up a food chain or energy pyramid.
a. True b. False
________8. The grass that the mice eat contains energy. What is the source of energy for the grass?
a. Rainwater b. the sun c. the soil d. minerals
________9. What is the term for how water becomes water vapor?
a. Evaporation b. condensation c. precipitation d. sublimation
________10. What activity produces carbon dioxide?
a. Sleeping b. planting a tree c. driving a car d. chasing friends
_________11. Choose the correct order of events in the water cycle.
a. precipitation, condensation, evaporation
b. evaporation, precipitation, condensation
c. evaporation, condensation, precipitation
d. condensation, evaporation, precipitation

_________ 12. Which plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle?

a. Bacteria b. carbon c. photosynthesis d. water

_________ 13. Which cycle most likely includes sunlight, photosynthesis, and respiration?
a. water cycle c. nitrogen cycle
b. carbon cycle d. oxygen cycle

69
 Now that you learned about the different role of organisms to the environment
and the different biological cycles. Let us now focus on how plants and
animals deal to environment changes, and how they compete in order to
survive. Enjoy learning!
DIVERSITY AND SURVIVAL
Survival in the environment is the main objective of plant and animal life. By instinct, plants and
animals protect themselves and breed in order to continue and propagate their species. In doing so, they
pass their genetic information.
In order for the plants and animals to cope with the constant changes in the environment, they
made different kinds of relationship with another.
COMPETITION

Competition is the process in which organisms fight for their resources, territory, and right to
breed by other organisms that need the same requirements of survival. When two different species
compete with each other over limited resources such as food and territory or what we call interspecific
competition, there will be always one species between the two that will dominate over the other causing
the other to be extinct in the certain area. This is what we call as the competitive exclusion principle.
This principle applies to a niche of a certain species. Niche is defined as the role of an organism in a
certain environment. It also defines how the organism interacts with biotic and abiotic factors in its
environment.
With the use of the competitive exclusion principle and the niche principle, we can conclude the
two organisms that have the same kind of niches cannot coexist.
There are two possibilities that can happen in this kind of situation: (1) the stronger species
dominates and proliferates and the weaker kind diminishes, or (2) the more efficient species may
eventually evolve and adapt a new kind of ecological niche.
The second option can result into the coexistence of the coexistence of the two species; this
phenomenon is what we call as resource partitioning. One good example for this is shown by the
Caribbean anoles. There are as many as five different kinds of species of anoles that coexist but stay on
a restricted space in the tree canopies, trunks, and some forage close to the ground.
PREDATION

Predation is one kind of interaction in which a predator

kills and eats another organism or the prey. The interaction
involves eating the prey and surviving which is essential in the
success of reproduction of species, so animals in this
relationship of predator and prey evolved in adapting into this
kind of situation.
Predators developed claws, teeth, stingers, and even
poison that help catch and ill the prey.
The prey uses ways on how to hide and get away from
predators. Camouflage is one kind of defense mechanism in
which an animal mimics its environment in order to be hidden.
There are also mechanical defense that animals use in
order to defend themselves from predation. Some mechanical
defenses are the quills of a porcupine, the armor of an armadillo, 70
and even the thorns of a rose.
 Some animals also copy the appearance of another animal in order to threaten and protect it from
predators. This is what we call mimicry. Batesian mimicry is a form of mimicry in which a prey mimics
another kind of prey species that is unpleasant and harmful for the predator. This kind of mimicry is
common to insects. Mullerian mimicry is also form of mimicry in which unrelated species exhibit the
same form of defense in order to avoid a common predator.
COEVOLUTION

Plants are organisms that lack the capacity to

move away from its predators. Such as the common
herbivores like cattles, goats, and insects, had adapted
ways which improved their survival in the ecosystem.
Some plants such as cacti rose and citrus trees had
developed physical defenses such as thorns, spikes,
and prickles.
Some of the plants also demonstrated the
concept of coevolution. This is the evolutionary
adaptation of two species that is due to a change in a
species that consequently affects the other species in
the relationship.

Coevolution exists between the Morgan sphinx moth and the Darwin’s orchid. The Morgan
sphinx moth had developed a very long proboscis that is used in getting the nectar from a deep gland
down the orchid. If the nectar tube of the orchid is shallow, pollen, can’t reach the month making
pollination impossible.
That is why after so many years, the orchids that have shallow nectar tubes didn’t reproduce
and those which had reproduced developed deep nectar tubes over time.

SYMBIOSIS

Symbiotic relationship is the

relationship between two or more organisms
that live together in order to survive. There are
three main types of symbiosis, namely:
mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Mutualism is the interaction and
relationship of organisms in which both parties
benefit. This interaction is seen in the
relationship of an Ocellaris clown fish and the
tentacles of the sea anemone.
Commensalism is a kind of relationship in whichA Clownfish and benefit
one species Sea Anemone
and the other is
unharmed but do not get any benefit from the other. Examples of commensalism are the relationship
between the algae that are found in the shells of sea turtles and the orchids that hang in the branches of
trees.

Parasitism is the symbiotic relationship in which

one species get its food from another organism. The species
that obtains nourishments is called as a parasite and the
species where the parasite gets its nourishment is called as the
host.

Some of the examples of parasitism are ticks and lice which are called as ectoparasites that
suck blood from animals, tapeworms and liverflukes which are called endoparasites that are found
inside the body of the host
These symbiotic relationships are needed in the structure of an ecosystem. This proves that
each organism in an ecosystem has a great influence in the life of the diverse relationship with one
another.

71
 Hola! Now, it’s your time to apply the things you learned from our
discussion by simply answering the activities below. If you have clarification,
you can call me right away. Enjoy!

Activity 3: Complete Me!

Instructions: You will list down the different symbiotic relationship that you observe in your home and
write all possible situations or scenarios on the second column. After answering the table, kindly answer
the process questions below.

SYMBIOTIC SITUATIONS/EXAMPLES
RELATIONSHIP

Mutualism

Commensalism

Parasitism

Competition

B. PROCESSING QUESTIONS

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1. A lichen is a combination of fungus and algae that lives on the sides of trees, rocks and other
materials. The fungus provides the algae with water and minerals and the algae use the water and
minerals to make food for both organisms. What type of relationship does the lichen represent? Why do
you say so?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. How can predation affect the ecosystem?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Is competition good or bad? Why or why not?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

73
 Hello students! Now, let us focus on the population growth and the
impact of human to the environment. If you are already tired take some rest for
a while. Enjoy!

POPULATION GROWTH

Population is a compilation of
one kind of species that live together
in a particular geographic area. The
increase or decrease of a population of
a species can greatly affect the genetic
diversity of organisms in an
ecosystem.
An example of serious decrease
of a population of a species is the
danger of extinction of elephants due
to the merciless hunting for their tusk.

The ivory industry is a very wide market that uses the tusks of elephants for ornamental
purposes. This results into the rapid depletion of the species of elephants all over the world.
Carrying capacity is the quantity of a biological species that can be accommodated and
sustained by a given environment that has limited resources.
The carrying capacity is determined by the birthrates and the death rates of a population,
which means the capacity of an ecosystem to sustain the population without a negative effect on the
organisms and it its environment.
Usually when an ecosystem is below its carrying capacity, the population of organisms will
tend to increase and when the carrying capacity decreases the population will also decrease. The
regulating factor is a concept that makes the population size of an ecosystem at equilibrium.
However, the carrying capacity of an environment varies upon the species involved and might
cause change over time due to different factors such as food availability, water supply, living spaces,
and environmental conditions.
The environment had been disrupted by the rapid growth of the human population causing it
to change in order to meet our demanding needs.
In recent studies, industrialization had made a rapid phase in the extinction of many species
of plants and animals, because of the disruption of the trophic structure, chemical cycling, and energy
flow in the environment.
Biodiversity has three major levels: the ecosystem diversity, genetic diversity and species
diversity. Genetic diversity is the factor that allows the organism to adapt to the environment because it
can cause microevolution.
Species diversity describes the variety of species in an ecosystem or in the whole biosphere.
Because of the demand of the growing human population, the diversity of species had been slowly
declining like the population of the Philippine Eagle (Haribon) due to the loss of their habitat caused by
industrialization

The last component of biodiversity is

ecological diversity which describes the overall
richness of species in an ecosystem. When one
kind of species becomes extinct, there will be a
domino effect into the entire ecosystem. It will
not only affect the species but also the energy and
nutrient flow in the ecosystem. We must keep in
mind that humans depend on biodiversity because
we get our necessities in the ecosystem such as
food, clothing, and shelter. Hence, if the
destruction of the ecosystem continues, we will
Tubbataha Reef in Palawan
also be greatly affected.
74
REDUCING HUMAN IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT
The measure of how much we demand from the Earth’s resources is called the ecological
footprint. When our ecological footprint becomes too large as compared to the earth’s capacity to
regenerate its resources, this will cause damage to the environment that’s why it is important to take
some measures to reduce the mark that we leave on nature and its resources.
To reduce our ecological footprint at home, we can change our fluorescent lights to the light
emitting diodes (LED’s) and energy efficient appliances. We can also conserve energy by making sure
that the appliances that are not in use are turned off and unplugged to reduce unnecessary energy
consumption. We should also conserve water and practice segregation of wastes and recycling.
At work, we can reduce our ecological footprint by using electronic mails instead of papers.
Recycled papers should be used in case the use of paper is really necessary. We should also make sure
that computers, printers, and other office equipment are turned off and unplugged when not in use.
The ecological footprint can be also be reduced by planting trees and exploring new ways of
irrigation and growing new crops, managing fisheries, forest and wetlands, dealing with wastes, and
discovering environmental-friendly ways of generating electricity.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Lifeless areas or regions in which the environmental conditions do not support life can evolve
and develop through the process of ecological succession. Ecological succession is the change in the
biological structure of an ecosystem over time. In this process, both the species living in the ecosystem
and the condition of the environment change as a result of the interaction of organisms as they grow and
reproduce.

Ecological succession can be

classified into primary succession and
secondary succession. The first occurs
when the changes occur in an entirely new
ecosystem – one that has never been
inhabited before. Such areas include
newly formed sand dunes, rock faces, and
regions with lava flows and those left
from retreating glaciers. Secondary
succession, on the other hand, occurs in an
ecosystem that has previously existed but
was removed or damage as a result of
natural disasters. Such as fires and floods,
and human activities.
A volcanic eruption that formed a new island in Japan
The importance of ecological succession is that it prevents desertification of most places here
on earth. Without it, life cannot grow and progress. Succession also contributes to an increase in
biodiversity. For instance, the change in the plant species in an ecosystem can trigger the changes in the
species of animals that can thrive in that area. The animal species that would most likely exist in that
ecosystem would be those that feed on this certain species.
The change in environment conditions also brings about changes in the plant and animal species
that exist in an ecosystem. Every species has a set of environmental conditions in which they can best
thrive at. These species will complete against the others and those that are well-adapted will thrive while
others will be outcompeted. Succession brings about multiple allows more species to flourish.

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 An example of ecological succession would be the formation of new islands from volcanic
activity in the ocean. Fungi, bacteria, and moss may thrive at first and then later, as the soil becomes
fertilized, vascular plants may grow. These plants can now support animal life.
Another example is a nurse log in the forest. When a mature tree falls and decays, new forms of
life such as mosses, lichens, and fungi start to thrive on the body of the fallen tree.

Hola! Did you learn something from our discussion? Now, it’s your
time to apply what you have learned by answering the activity
below. Enjoy!

Activity 4: Perfect Match!

Instructions: You need to match the description in Column A with the concepts in Column B. Kindly
write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided before each number.

Column A Column B
____1. It is the backbone of all organic molecules. A. species diversity
____2. This chemical is essential for the structures B. nitrogen
of nucleic acid and protiens. C. water
____3. These two chemicals are for D. parasitism
respiration and photosynthesis. E. mutualism
____4. This chemical makes are up F. carbon
all of the structures of living organisms. G. predator and prey
It is also the universal solvent. H. carbon dioxide and oxygen
____5. Predation I. competition
____6. Organisms that fight for the J. commensalism
same resources.
____7. Host and parasites
____8. Both parasites benefit
____9. One species benefits and the other is unharmed
____10. The variety of species in the ecosystem / biosphere

Hello students! How are you? Now, let’s move to the next stage of this
module to understand more about our topic. Enjoy!

76
 DEEPEN

Hello! Welcome to the next section of this lesson. Let us now focus on
some environmental problems. We will find out together the cause of these
problems. Enjoy

Activity 5: Analyzing Environmental Issues

Instructions: In this activity, you will be given a picture and you need to analyze the problems depicted
on the picture. Use the process questions as your guide.
Problem 1: Farmland are converted into housing projects

Problem 2: River ecosystem dumped with garbage from illegal settlers and toxic wastes from
industries

Problem 3: Forested area is converted into technopark

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Process Questions:
1. What effects do these problems create on the ecosystem?
2. What causes these problems?

Now that you’re done analyzing the three problems, let us find out what is
common between them. Write your answer on the Organizational Chart below
based on the process questions given in the box. Use your answers on the
process questions to make your generalization.

Problem 1: Farmland are Problem 2: River ecosystem Problem 3: Forested area is

converted into housing
projects
(Write your answers here from
the process questions given)
dumped with garbage from
illegal settlers and toxic
wastes from industries
(Write your answers here from the
process questions given)
converted into Techno
Park
(Write your answers here from
the process questions given)

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 GENERALIZATION

So my dear students, now that you have already assessed the effects of
humans to the environment. Let’s us now reflect how important we are to our
environment and vice versa. Enjoy!

Activity 6: Reflect the way I do!

Instruction: You need to read the given statement below and connect it to your life. From the statement,
you need to make a reflection and you will write it on the box provided below.

1. 2. Galatian 3:28 – “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is no male
and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.”

Though we are different form each other, Christ treats us all equally before His eyes. However, in
our society today, racial discrimination is prevalent.

As a child of Christ, what is your advocacy against racial discrimination?

My Journal

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Activity 7: What do I Know about Environment?
Instructions: After filling in the first and second columns of the K-W-L Chart, you will now have to
answer the third column with your answer to the Essential Question given.

How do humans impact the diversity and stability of ecosystem?

K-W-L CHART
What I KNOW What I WANT to know What I LEARNED

In the previous section, the discussion was about various effects of

electromagnetic waves. Now that you have deeper understanding of the topic, you are
ready to do the task in the next section.

TRANSFER

Great job! You have reached the final activity for this quarter. Your goal in this section is to
apply your learning to real life situations. You will be given a practical task which will demonstrate
your understanding.

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Activity 8: Let’s Travel
Instruction: This activity is an integrated performance task of Filipino 10, Science 10 and Religion-
EsP 10. You shall submit only one product for the three (3) subjects. Read carefully the given text
below.
Your travel agency is about to offer a new international tour package which includes the
countries Africa and Persia (Iran). As a travel agent, you are tasked to make a brochure that features the
culture, tradition, the people and its community, landmarks and its natural resources to give customers
insights and information about the said countries. The brochure must also include pictures that could
best describe the contents. Your supervisor will evaluate your brochure based on accuracy of content,
organization and attractiveness, writing organization and grammar, graphics and sources.

Guide or template of the content in making the brochure:

I – Background if the chosen country (Africa or Iran)

(Write a short history and current trends of the chosen country.)

II- Culture and Tradition

(What are the people’s practices and tradition? How are they used to promote their country?)

III – People and its Community

(Describe the people living in your chosen country, their family and neighborhood. How do they
administer peace and order?

IV- Landmarks, Natural Resources and Biodiversity

(Identify and describe the tourist landmarks, natural resources of the chosen country. How diverse is
their ecosystem? How do they manage their resources? Are government restrictions or regulations to
protect their government?

V- Sources (Write from what websites did you get your information and pictures.)

Brochure Grading Rubric

CATEGORY 5 4 3 2 1
Attractiveness The brochure has The brochure The brochure The brochure has The brochure
and exceptionally has attractive has some limited has no
Organization attractive formatting formatting and formatting and formatting and
formatting and and well- well- well- organized well- organized
well- organized organized organized information. information.
information. information. information.
Content- Use of facts and Use of facts Use of facts Use of facts and Use of facts and
Accuracy/ the quantity of and the and the the quantity of the quantity of
Quality information is quantity of quantity of information is information is
exceptional. information is information is present but limited.
very good. good but not limited.
consistent.
Writing- Brochure has Brochure has Brochure has Brochure has Brochure has no
Organization exceptional very good good limited organization..
organization. organization.. organization.. organization..
Writing There are no They’re very They are some They are several
Grammatical
Grammar grammatical few grammatical grammatical
mistakes are so
mistakes in the grammatical mistakes in the mistakes in the
numerous that
brochure. mistakes in brochure. brochure.
the readability
the brochure. of the brochure
is impaired.
Graphics/ Graphics go well Graphics go Graphics go Graphics do not Graphics not
Pictures with the text and well with the well with the go with the present in the

81
 there is a good text, but there text, but there accompanying brochure.
mix of text and are so many are too few and text or appear to
graphics. that they the brochure be randomly
distract from seems “text- chosen.
the text. heavy”.
Sources Careful and Careful and Careful and Sources are not Sources are not
accurate records accurate accurate documented documented
are kept to records are records are accurately or are accurately or
document the kept to kept to not kept on many are not kept on
source of all of document the document the facts and any facts and
the facts and source of source of some graphics. graphics.
graphics in the most of the of the facts and
brochure. facts and graphics in the
graphics in brochure.
the brochure.

Hello! Now that you have accomplished your performance task, let’s look
back and review your learning process in this lesson.

Activity 9: Self – Assessment

Instructions: You need to complete the statement below based on what you have learned and what you
want to know more about the lesson.

What I’ve learned

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

What I want to know more

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

82
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Artificial selection - is the controlled selection of desirable traits for domesticated plants and animals.

Carrying capacity - is the quantity of a biological species that can be accommodated and sustained by a
given environment that has limited resources.

Central nervous system (CNS) - processes the information it receives (or incoming signals) from the
sensory nerves and sends out responding actions (or outgoing signals).
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid - is a type if nucleic acid made up of nucleotides.

Endocrine System - is a series of glands that produce and secrete hormones that the body uses for a
wide range of functions.
Evolution - is defined as the change of traits which were inherited from an organism’s ancestor.

Genetic diversity - is the factor that allows the organism to adapt to the environment because it can
cause microevolution.

Genetic variation is the difference in the genetic structure between cells of individual organisms.

Genital herpes - is caused by an infection with herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2).

Gonorrhea - is caused by a sexually transmitted bacterium, Neisseria gonorrhea, which invades the
epithelial lining of the vagina and male urethra.
Insertions - occur when extra DNA, genes, or extra base pairs are added into an existing gene.

Mutation - is change in genes or chromosomes which causes a new trait to be inherited.

Nervous System – is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - is the other component of the nervous system. It carries signals
within the central nervous system.
Polymerization - is the addition of new DNA nucleotides and are attached to the DNA templates which
were the original DNA that have separated in the initiation phase.

Population - is a compilation of one kind of species that live together in a particular geographic area.

Protein synthesis - is the process by which the cells create new proteins for various purposes.

Reproductive System – a collection of organs and a network of hormone production that work together
to create life.
RNA or ribonucleic acid - is also a type of nucleic acid and is also made of nucleotides.

Speciation - is the evolutionary process in which a new species arises from an existing species.

83
Species diversity - describes the variety of species in an ecosystem or in the whole biosphere.

Symbiotic relationship - is the relationship between two or more organisms that live together in order
to survive.

Syphilis - is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum.

REFERENCES

TEXTBOOKS:

Manosca, L., Villavert, J., Dasas, L., Pisuena, M. Exploring Life Through Science 10 Textbook, Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc. 2018

Alfonso, F., Baniaga, G., Retone, L. World of Science for Critical Thinkers 10 Textbook, The Library
Publishing House Inc.2017

Valdoz, M., Aquino, M., Biong, J., Andaya, M. Science Links Worktext for Scientific and Technological
Literacy 10, Rex Book Store Inc. 2017

Espinosa, A, Lorenzo, A., Navarette, B. Jr., Santos, M., Discover Science 10 Texbook, Diwa Learning
System Inc. 2015

WEBSITES:

https://cms.technopark.org/zcmspg/zupload/5363/dnl_categ/14980289858521000791_AR-TP%202015-
16.pdf

https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-08-20/a-dirty-river-may-be-key-to-south-africa-water-
security

https://dochub.com/eveliasadullo/8adOrbPVQ354DBR24Mj7D5/m4-unit-3-g10?pg=4

https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/mutation/

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/DownSyndrome.html

https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/mutationsanddisorders/evolution/

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/natural-selection/

https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/evolution-today/natural-selection-vista

https://peac.org.ph/learning-module-repository/

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 ANSWER KEY

PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. A 6. A 11. C 16. D
2. C 7. A` 12. A 17. C
3. B 8. D 13. B 18. D
4. C 9. C 14. D 19. D
5. C 10. D 15. C 20. B

Lesson 1
Act.2 Act 3 Act. 4 Act. 5
A.
1. Medulla Oblongata 1. C 1. Copulation 1. Menstrual
2. Spinal Cord 2. D 2. Seminal Vesicle 2. Embryo
3. Hypothalamus 3. B 3. Prostate 3. Umbilical Cord
4. Cerebellum 4. A 4. Sperm 4. Menstruation
5. Thalamus 5. B 5. Testis 5. Obstetrician
6. Cerebrum 6. D 6 Prostate Gland 6. Corpus Luteum
B. 7. D 7. Scrotum 7. Implantation
1. A 8. A 8. Gift 8. Zygote
2. A 9. A 9. Epididymis 9. Menarche
3. B 10. B 10. Haploid 10. Fetus
4. C
5. B
6. D

Lesson 2
Act. 2
1. C
2. D
3. C
4. A
5. D
6. B
7. A
8. A
9. C
10. C

Lesson 4
Act. 2
1. B
2. D
3. C
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. A
8. B 85
9. A