Italy was the cradle of the Renaissance. This was due to several reasons.
Italy had
In the latter part of the Middle Ages, a movement called Renaissance rose.
Renaissance is a French word which means "rebirth." It was called "rebirth" because it began
in the literature and are of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It bridged the gap from the Middle
Ages to the modern times.
Classical civilizations of the Greeks and the Romans were not entirely lost in the
Middle Ages. Their literature, philosophy, and sciences were also studied but were
subordinated to the "other worldliness" teachings of the church, which emphasized the
religious and spiritual aspect. In Renaissance, the topical concepts were more secular or
humanistic. Humanists were people who held that in order for a person to get the most out of
life, one must place greater emphasis upon the natural and the human. They cast aside
medieval learning which disciplined the mind and the imagination for the sake of the
hereafter so that the object of art and literature of the pleasure-loving Greeks and Romans
were destroyed, thrown away or forgotten for centuries. The Humanists began to look for
relics of the past in the form of classical books, manuscripts, and works of art. Kings,
princesses, nobles, and churchmen showered favors on the humanists. Wealthy families
placed their fortunes at the service of the humanists who spent a good deal of their time
looking in libraries of cathedrals and monasteries, in old bookshops and in private libraries
for the lost writings of the ancient masters. One of the most famous patrons of the
Renaissance was the wealthy Medici family of Florence.
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been the seat of the old Roman Empire. Relics of its glorious past were evident in the temples,
viaducts, aqueducts, baths, sculptures, and pottery found elsewhere in the peninsula. The
Italians took pride in their close relation to the Romans in blood and language. Amidst these
surroundings, the people were inspired to revive the classical culture.
Italy had many wealthy cities like Florence, Venice, Milan, and Genoa which became
centers of trade enabling the people to receive cultural ideas from the East and West. These
cities vied with one another in patronizing arts and letters. Besides, a more democratic
atmosphere in Italy prevailed, where both the rich and the poor enjoyed equal opportunities in
acquiring learning.
A new movement called Humanism began in the 14th Italy. The humanist way of
looking at life is marked by an interest in people. Humanism taught people to live a full life
and welcome new experiences. Humanists wanted people to have better lives in this world
rather than wait for the next. This turned directly away from the medieval view that the only
important part of life was working towards eternal salvation. All art and thought were for the
Church. Tie new movement was closely tied to a returning interests in classical learning.
Francisco Petrarch, a Florentine, was the earliest pioneer of the Renaissance and was
called the Father of Humanism. His father wanted him to take up law but Petrarch's first
interest was on classical antiquity. He mastered Latin and produced a great number of works
in Latin among which were his Sonnets in the Life and Death of Laura. Laura was the woman
he loved but failed to marry. His large collection of classical books included copies of Plato
and Homer in the original Greek.
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 Petrarch and later humanists tried to gather the actual writings of ancient authors.
They studied Greek and Latin and they spent much money and time to find old manuscripts.
They searched for prized pieces of parchment. Greek manuscripts became more plentiful
after 1453, when the Turks took Constantinople and many Greek scholars escaped Italy.
Another noted humanist was Giovanni Boccaccio who wrote both poetry and prose.
In 1348, the terrible plague known as the Black Death struck Florence, where Boccaccio lived.
Thousands died from this disease. He made this time the setting for the "Decameron."
During the Renaissance, people decided that education had uses. Its goal, still aimed
mostly at men, became that of making people well rounded.
The ideal Renaissance aristocrat was well mannered and witty. He had learned
enough to understand good literature, painting, and music. The so called Renaissance man
was well-formed in body and good in ports. In the arts of war, he was a brave and an able
soldier. Baldassare Castiglione outlined this well-rounded person in his "The Courtier." He
himself was a scholar, poet, and courtier.
To reach the goals of Renaissance education, Italian schools taught less theology
and more literature, especially Latin and Greek. The humanists who taught Greek and Latin
languages and literature, gained great respect. People travelled far to hear their lectures. Rich
men and rulers took humanists into their homes to teach their sons and daughters.
Humanists found a great following everywhere. From Italy, the Renaissance spread
all over Western Europe. During the latter half of the 15th century, Desiderius Erasmus of
Holland became the leader of the movement. His book, "In Praise of Folly," satirized the
behavior of all social classes, even the clergy. He also wrote the Latin translation of the New
Testament. His "Handbooks of the Christian Soldier" urged men not to accept the teachings
of theologist but to go directly to the Bible and work out the meanings themselves. Erasmus
remained faithful to the church but his works helped bring out reform, which greatly
weakened the influence of the church.
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In Germany the most famous humanist was Philip Melanchthon. He taught Greek at
the University of Wittenberg and also delighted in the study of theology, and medicine.
In England the most famous humanist was Thomas Moore. He was a man of great
learning, a famous statesman, and a master Latin and English prose. His chief literary fame
rests on his book written in Latin entitled Utopia. It described his envisioned ideal state.
Humanists sometimes carried the spirit of freedom too far and without moral
restraints. The man, who believed that "the end justifies the means" and laid the ground of
power politics and a new political science, was Niccolo Machiavelli. He was a statesman and
political writer of Florence. His political ideas were contained in his book, "The Prince," which
was published after his death.
The weakening of the church, the breakdown of feudalism, and the geographical
discoveries of the age, which widened men's horizons to unbelievable extents, developed a
greater consciousness of the world and of its problems. The pattern of life took a severe turn
from the simple and disciplined life of the early period to a full and carefree life at the latter
period. Men and women lived in ornately built homes and palaces, ate and drank rich foods
and wines, and wore lavish costumes jeweled from head to toe. The art of the Renaissance
was full of emotion and feeling; vigorous, natural, and life-like.
Renaissance art, particularly painting, showed the highest degree of expression and
perfection. The ancients left almost no paintings so that the paintings of the period were
more creative than either its sculpture or architecture.
The revival gave birth to a distinct type of architecture that was classical in form but
Christian in spirit. The Gothic pointed arch and flying buttress were replaced by the rounded
arches and Greek columns. St. Peter's Church in the Vatican City, which was built largely on
the plans designed by Michelangelo, is the finest example of Renaissance architecture.
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 Paintings on wood and canvas began in the Renaissance. The titans of the
Renaissance period were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Rafael Santi.
The multi-faceted genius, Leonardo da Vinci, was called the "Perfect Florentine." He
was a painter, a sculptor, an architect, a mathematician, an engineer, a scientist, an inventor,
a philosopher; a musician, and an authority on anatomy. As a painter his rule was, "study
nature, observe life in all its moods, and paint what you see." His masterpieces were Mona
Lisa and The Last Supper.
A versatile artist from Florence, Michelangelo was considered first and foremost a
sculptor, but he was also an outstanding painter, architect, and poet. The statues Moses and
David are his monumental sculptures. He planned the church of St. Peters in Rome and the
tomb of Lorenzo de Medici, the patron of the arts, in whose palace he lived as an art
apprentice for three years. His masterpiece is the painting of the Sistine Chapel. This job took
him four years.
Raphael was another great Italian Renaissance painter. His delicate figures and
sensitive coloring made him a favorite artist. He was referred to as the youthful master.
Raphael's fame rests on his dreamy and sweet-faced Madonna’s of which the Sistine
Madonna painting for the Sistine monks is the most famous.
The works of da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael helped us understand the Italian
Renaissance in art, its new ideas, thoughts, freedoms, and sciences.
Great studies were made in science. The early belief started by the earth was the
center of the universe was disproved by Copernicus who declared that the sun is the center
of a vast solar system and that the earth and other planets move around it. The Copernican
Theory was upheld by Galileo who was able to confirm it with the aid of his telescope.
Galileo was called the "Father of Experimental Physics" for the contributions he made
in science. He discovered the laws of the pendulum and the principle that all bodies
irrespective of weight fall at the same rate. He invented the first thermometer using air in a
glass tube. It was his pupil Torricelli who was the first to make a mercury barometer.
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The interest in the works of classical authors created a great demand for books. The
demand for books became great. The discovery of printing by Johann Gutenberg in 1450
facilitated the making of books and knowledge spread widely.
Renaissance had far-reaching effects:
 Notable progress was achieved in literature, arts, and science. The invention of
printing speeded up the spread of knowledge. The movement developed a spirit of
curiosity and made people question earlier beliefs regarded as sacred. Gradually,
they learned from careful observation, experimentation, and the use of mathematics.
 The fierce spirit of freedom led the countries of Europe to venture on colonizing
activities. Many of the European rulers were influenced by the political philosophy of
Machiavelli that "might makes right" and they imposed their power and influence on
their subjects. Nations rose and they grew in great empires.
 The new knowledge and outlook weakened the prestige of the church. The
interference of the church in the affairs of the state as well as the Abuses of the
clergy caused a revolution in religious thought—a movement called the Reformation.
For many years, the Church exercised great powers in Europe and its influence was far-
reaching. Rulers pledged allegiance to the Pope, whose authority they recognized as superior
to theirs. Gradually, however, the influence and power of the Church declined. This was
because of the following reasons:
 Islam became a powerful rival of Christianity in Eastern Europe. Many people were
converted to this new faith and it threatened to obscure Christianity in many parts of
the world.
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  The Pope asserted his powers not only in ecclesiastical affairs but also in civic and
political matters. At first, the king is unmindful of the restraints that the Church
placed on his government. Soon strong national states rose, which defied papal
authority and began to move away from the control of the Church.
 In the later Middle Ages, weaknesses arose within the Church. Some of the clergy led
immoral lives, forgetting their religious vows and duties, many grew worldly. Some
popes became involved in politics. Furthermore, the growing wealth of the church led
to Men bought positions in the Church, a practice known as so they could enjoy ease
and luxury.
 Great Schism in the Catholic Church took place when Urban IV an Italian, was elected
Pope and refused to go to Avignon in France where the papal palace was transferred
by one of his predecessors. For a long time, (1305—1378) the popes lived there in
what has come to be called the Babylonian Captivity. The belief that the popes were
at times under the influence of the French King weakened the prestige of the Papacy
in other countries. Another Pope, Clement VIII, was elected by the College of
Cardinals, a majority of whom was French. Both Urban VI and Clement VIII claimed to
be the rightful Pope. In 1417, the Council of Constance put an end to the schism.
Martin V was elected and recognized as Pope. He finally succeeded in uniting the
Catholics but the temporary split caused some irreparable damage to the influence
of the Church.
In the 16th century, a religious revolution within the Church called Reformation or the
Protestant Revolt further divided the Christian world. This revolution was sparked by
grievances against certain evils in the Church such as the corrupt sale of Church offices
known as simony and the scandalous and luxurious-lives led by some clergy which was
contrary to Christian doctrines. Another reason was the Renaissance, which caused men to
question the generally accepted belief of earlier period.
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The early critics of the Church who paved the way for the revolution were John
Wycliffe of England, John Huss of Bohemia, Girolamo Savanarola of Italy, and Desiderius
Erasmus of Holland. John Wycliffe was an English priest who attacked some Catholic beliefs
and practices. He protested against the paying of tribute to the Church by the government of
England and spoke against the Pope as the representative of God. He argued that Christian
beliefs should be based on the Bible alone. He gained many followers in England. He was
popularly called the "Morning Star of the Reformation.
John Huss was an ardent follower of Wycliffe and was also a priest and professor.
He spoke against the forgiveness of sins by confession, arguing that only repentance can
wash away sins. In July 1415, he was sentence to be burnt at the stake for his belief, which
he refused to recant. His death caused a rebellion among the Bohemians who were his
followers. This rebellion was called the Hussite Wars. There were clear signs of a need to
reform the Church to maintain its position and influence. But the pope at the time was a
member of the Medici family and was too busy collecting art and building projects to heed
the signs of rebellion. Soon the revolt began.
Martin Luther studied law, but instead of pursuing his career, he entered the
priesthood hoping to find peace and comfort having been for a long time troubled by the
question of salvation. He joined the Augustinian monks in 1505 and was ordained two years
later. He was a good member for twelve years. He became a lecturer at the University of
Wittenberg in Germany.
When Pope Leo X sent his agent, John Tetzel, to preach Indulgences in order to raise
money to complete the repairs of St. Peter's Church in Rome, Luther rose in protest.
Indulgences are promises of remission of punishment after death for sins committed. The
Church granted these to those who did penance and complied with other conditions set by
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the Church such as fasting, praying going with the Crusade, giving alms to the poor, or gifts to
the Church.
Luther preached against Tetzel's mission and posted his arguments, the famous
"Ninety-five Theses," on the church door of the Wittenberg, which was the practice when a
subject was to be debated. These "Ninety-Five Theses" of 1517 may be considered the start
of the Reformation. Dr. John Eck of the University of Ingolstadt took up Luther's challenge to
a debate and the arguments of the two thrilled their audiences. The growing popularity of
Luther alarmed Pope Leo X. He ordered Luther to recant his theses within 60 days to avoid
excommunication.
Luther drew farther and farther away from the Church. Luther set forth his views. In
his "Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation," he denied the papal supremacy
and held that the church should be subordinate to the state. He urged the rulers to stop
payments to Rome and to appropriate the vast wealth and lands of the Church for temporal
purposes. In his writing, the “Babylonians Captivity of the Christian Church,” he refused to
acknowledge the sacraments of marriage, confirmation and extreme unction and accepted
only three sacraments baptism, communion, and confession., His other writing, "On the
Liberty of Christian," explained his doctrine of justification by faith alone and defended the
private interpretation of the Bible.
In 1520, the Pope excommunicated Luther. This decision was contained in a papal
bull, which Luther publicly burned to show his defiance against the Pope. Frederick the Wise,
the Elector of Saxony backed his action.
Charles V tried to heal the rift between the Pope and Luther. He called the diet of high
Church officials and dignitaries. Luther was summoned to appear so he could recant his
statement and teachings, but he further refused, saying, "I can't recant anything I said,
because these are the dictates of my conscience. And going against my conscience is
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wrong." His refusal gave him many followers among the petty kings of Northern Germany. He
was kept in one of the castles of Frederick for many months where he took time translating
the Bible into German.
The kings and princes who protested against the order of Charles V banning the
spread and teaching of Luther's reforms were called Protestants. They refused to follow the
order and got the support of the most of Western Europe. Later, all those who refused to
recognize the Pope as the representative of God became collectively known as Protestant.
In 1530, in the Diet of Augsburg, which was attended by leading members, drafted a
code. That code known as Augsburg Confession became the creed of the Protestant faith.
The peasants, whose life had never been good, rose against their feudal lords in 1524. They
mistook the equality of men before God as preached by Luther, to mean also economic and
socially equality. They resorted to force in their demand for the abolition of serfdom, wages,
and other privileges. Luther who never tolerated violence urged the peasants to go back to
work and the nobles to initiate reforms. He believed that no matter how unjust rulers were,
the people should not seek redress by violent means.
When the peasants continued to revolt, Luther told the nobles to put down the
rebellion in blood. Some 50,000 peasants were killed in this revolt. As a result, the peasants
who lived most in Southern Germany felt Luther had betrayed them. They remained Catholic.
The nobles on the other hand followed the teachings of Luther. From Northern German,
Luther's teachings spread to the different parts of the world.
By 1555, most princes in Northern German were Lutheran, while most princes in
Southern Germany were Catholic. Lutheran ideas also spread to Scandinavia.
Switzerland emerged as the center of the Protestant Reformation. Ulrich Zwingli, a
priest and admirer of Erasmus, was teaching in the city of Zurich during the same years that
Luther was launching the Protestant Reformation in Germany. Zwingli had no use for
elaborate rituals. In his church, he abolished the Catholic mass, confessions, and indulgences.
He also allowed priests to marry.
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Zwingli believed that a good pastor or minister and a strong sense of discipline
among church members would help Christians lead a spiritual life. He held services in
undecorated buildings and read sermons based on the Bible. By 1529, Zwingli's ideas had
spread to many parts of Switzerland.
John Calvin, a Frenchman, was forced to leave his country because of his religious
ideas. He fled to Geneva, Switzerland where he became a famous religious and political
leader. His book “The Institute of the Christian Religion” set forth his ideas.
Like Luther, Calvin rejected the idea that goodness would ensure salvation. However,
Lutheran and Calvinist teachings differed in emphasis. Luther taught that people could work
toward their own salvation through faith in God. God alone, Calvin said, decides whether an
individual would receive eternal life.
Calvin believed in predestination— the idea that God choose who would be saved.
Calvin's critics warned that predestination would lead people to act irresponsibly. Why should
individuals lead a good life, they asked if God had already determined their fate? But Calvin
answered that people should lead good lives in order to show that God had chosen them for
salvation.
Calvin set up a church with a strong and disciplined leadership. Calvinists practiced
the strict morality taught in the Old Testament. With the Institute as a guide, the new faith
spread rapidly.
Calvinists won many converts in the Netherlands. Middle class people were attracted
to Calvinism because it reflected their belief that people should live simply and work hard.
French Calvinist, called Huguenots, were powerful in Southern France. John Knox took the
new faith to Scotland, which came to be called Presbyterianism. Followers also established
churches in England where it became known as Puritanism.
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A number of Protestant sects rose across the whole of Europe. Some clashed
violently within their group and with Catholics. Each group saw themselves as God's agent
and viewed others as the devil's workers.
Protestant sects developed their own beliefs based on reading and interpreting the
Bible. The Anabaptists which were later known as the Baptist, argued that infants could not
be baptized as members of the church because they are too young to understand the
Christian faith. Anabaptists in German were persecuted by both the Protestants and the
Catholics, yet their ideas continued to influence Protestant thinking in many countries.
Protestantism was also felt in England, but most of the English remained loyal to the
Catholic Church. King Henry VIII even wrote a pamphlet in 1521 attacking Luther. For this the
pope rewarded him with the title "Defender of the Faith."
Soon afterwards, however, Henry quarreled with the pope. He wanted the pope to
dissolve his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Catherine of Aragon had not borne him a son.
He also had selfish reasons. He was attracted to Ann Boleyn but he could not marry unless
his first marriage was set aside. When he refused, Henry chose a new archbishop of
Canterbury. In 1533, the archbishop ruled that Catherine was not Henry's lawful wife. This left
Henry to marry Anne Boleyn, who he hoped would produce a male heir. However, Henry's
second marriage also produced a daughter, Elizabeth, but not a son.
In 1534, the king had Parliament issue the Act of Supremacy. This made Henry VIII
head of the Church in England. Henry also abolished monasteries and took over much of the
Catholic Church's property. He made few changes in religion, but his son Edward VI adopted
several Protestant reforms.
Edward VI was the son of Henry VIII and his wife, Jane Seymour, Henry's third wife.
He had six wives in all. A sickly child, he died at age 16 and Henry's daughter, Mary, soon
became queen in 1553. A loyal Catholic, she severely persecuted English Protestants. This
led people to call her “Bloody Marry.” Mary died in 1558 and was succeeded by Elizabeth, the
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daughter of Ann Boleyn. Elizabeth I firmly established England as a Protestant nation. Yet she
took England along a middle road and preserved many traditional Catholic beliefs. The Thirty
Nine Articles which was prepared by a group of bishops in 1563, became the creed of the
Church of England.
Parliament then passed laws that began a national Church of England. The head of
the Anglican Church, as it was often called, is the king or queen of England.
Most English people were happy with the Anglican Church, but some objected
because it still used certain Catholic sacraments. They wanted the Church of England to be
so pure in its Protestantism that they were called Puritans. Unhappy in England, many of
them left and took Puritanism to the colonies in America.
The Catholic Church became alarmed with the series of issues that rocked and
divided it. The Reformation movement was gradually gaining more followers in Europe. As a
reaction, counter reforms were instituted by the church. This movement to reform the
Catholic Church and fight Protestants came to be known as the Catholic Reformation.
Paul III who was Pope from 1534 to 1549 Jed the reform movement. He appointed
able scholars and reformers to high church offices. He also summoned many officials to a
church council at Trent to discuss reforms.
The Council of Trent met from 1545 to 1563 formulating many doctrines and
statements of beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. Among the reforms and doctrines it
formulated were: (1.) Put up new Latin edition of the Bible the Vulgate, which became the
standard Bible of the church; (2.) It delegated the right to interpret the Bible to the church
alone (3.) It reaffirmed the Pope as the head of the church and the final interpreter of its
doctrines. The council also called for better training of priests and reforms in church's
finances and administration.
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THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
Its main object was the definitive determination of the doctrines of the Church in
answer to the heresies which had arisen; a further object was the execution of a thorough
reform of the inner life of the Church by removing the numerous abuses that had developed
in it.
The Council of Trent also reaffirmed the belief in the sacrifice of the mass, the seven
sacraments, the veneration of saints, the merit of indulgences, and the belief in purgatory. It
banned the selling of religious offices and introduced methods of instilling discipline among
priests and other religious officials.
The Council also appointed a committee in charge of publishing the Index from time
to time. This was a list of books and publications, which the church forbade its followers to
read because they contained ideas contrary to the teaching of Catholicism.
The church realized that and capable leaders were needed in order to maintain unity.
It decided to elect only the most pious and wisest among them to the papacy and other
important offices.
New religious orders also helped to strengthen the Catholic Church. A former soldier
turned priest founded the Society of Jesus, whose main aim was to win back Protestants to
Catholicism and to strengthen the church by establishing schools and universities to educate
the youth with Catholic ideals. This man was Ignatius de Loyola. The Jesuits, as Loyola's
followers were called, swore absolute obedience to the pope. They traveled to the new lands
that the Europeans were exploring and won many converts. In addition, they brought back
many Protestants in Germany and Eastern Europe to the Catholic Church. They went far and
wide in their missionary work and spread Catholicism to India, China, and North and South
America.
The Catholic Church also took other steps to stop the spread of Protestant ideas. For
example, it revived the Inquisition or ecclesiastical court that tried to root out heresies during
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the Middle Ages. It became a powerful and feared institution in many countries of Europe. It
checked Protestants in Southern Europe especially in Spain and Italy.

After the Catholic Reformation, Protestants made few new gains. By 1600, the lines
between Catholic and Protestant areas in Europe were sharply drawn. These religious
divisions contributed to bitter wars.

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