Energy Engineering

(18ME81)

Module – 5 Lecture – 3

Faculty In-charge:
Mr. Girish B.
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
Bangalore Institute of Technology
Bangalore
 Different Nuclear Reactors

1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
3. Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor
i. Sodium Cooled Reactor(SGR)
4. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
5. Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR)
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
• PWR uses a sealed system to prevent water circulating through the core from boiling
due to high pressure.
• The heat from this system is removed by the water in pipes to the steam generator.
• In a PWR, natural and highly enriched fuel is used.
• PWR use ordinary water under high pressure (superheated water) as coolant to
remove heat generated by nuclear chain reaction from nuclear fuel, and also as the
moderator.
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

PWR Reactor Design

• Light water enters the bottom of the reactor core at about 275 °C and is heated as it
flows upwards through the reactor core to a temperature of about 315 °C.
• The water remains liquid despite the high temperature due to the high pressure in the
primary coolant loop, usually around 15 MPa.
• Pressure in the primary circuit is maintained by a Pressurizer (about 15 MPa or 155 bar).
• Pressurizer is a separate vessel (boiler) that is connected to the primary circuit and
partially filled with water which is heated to the saturation temperature (boiling point)
for the desired pressure by submerged electrical heaters.
• To achieve a pressure of 155 bar, the pressurizer temperature is maintained at 345 °C,
which gives a sub cooling margin of 30 °C (the difference between the pressurizer
temperature and the highest temperature in the reactor core, since pressurizer
temperature is higher than the primary coolant temperature).
• PWRs are the most common type of power producing nuclear reactor, and are widely
used in power stations such as ships and submarines all over the world.
• More than 230 of them are in use in nuclear power plants to generate electric power,
and several hundred more for marine propulsion in aircraft carriers, submarines and ice
breakers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Advantages
 PWR reactors are very stable due to their tendency to produce less power as temperatures
increase; this makes the reactor easier to operate from a stability standpoint.
 PWR reactors can be operated with a core containing less fissile material. This significantly
reduces the chance that the reactor will run out of control and makes PWR designs relatively
safe from critical accidents.
 PWR reactors can use ordinary water as coolant, moderator hence less expensive and easily
available.
 PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in the secondary loop
is not contaminated by radioactive materials.
 Compact and power density is as high as 65kW/litre
 A small number of control rods are required.
 There is complete freedom to inspect and maintain the turbine, feed heaters and condenser
during the operation.
 Fission products remain contained in the reactor and are not circulated.
Disadvantages
 The coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high temperatures. This
requires high strength piping and a heavy pressure vessel and hence increases construction
costs.
 Most pressurized water reactors cannot be refueled while operating. This decreases the
availability of the reactor- it has to go offline for comparably long periods of time (some weeks).
 Natural uranium is only 0.7% Uranium-235, the isotope necessary for thermal reactors. This
makes it necessary to enrich the uranium fuel, which increases the costs of fuel production. If
heavy water is used it is possible to operate the reactor with natural uranium, but the
production of heavy water requires large amounts of energy and is hence expensive.
 Severe corrosion problem.
 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

 Boiling water reactor (BWR) is the simplest of all facilities.

 Water absorbs heat from the reactions in the core and is directly driven to the turbines.
 After condensing the water is pumped back to the reactor core.
 In a BWR , enriched fuel is used.
 The BWR uses demineralized water (light water) as a coolant and moderator.
 Heat is produced by nuclear fission in the reactor core, and this causes the cooling water to boil,
producing steam.
 The steam is directly used to drive a turbine, after which is cooled in a condenser and converted back
to liquid water.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Advantages
1. Heat exchanger circuit is not required so direct conduction hence more
thermal efficiency.
2. Use of low pressure principle hence no need of Pressurizer.
3. Metal temperature remains low.
4. Outlet temperature of steam is very high (as compared with PWR).
5. Pressure is low, and thicker vessel is not required.

Disadvantages
1. Possibility of radio active contamination in the turbine mechanism.
2. More elaborate safety particulars needed which are costly.
3. Power density is low, 33kW/litre and hence size of the vessel is large.
4. Wastage of steam resulting in lower thermal efficiency on part load.
5. The possibility of burn out of fuel is more.
 Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor

 High temperatures are always desirable in all thermal plants to increase the
efficiency of a power plant
 The excellent heat transfer characteristics and heat transfer capacity of liquid
metals make them potentially attractive as reactor coolants.
 The liquid metal coolant can be circulated through the reactor at moderate
temperatures and yet attain temperatures as high as 540 deg C.
 It is possible to achieve low cost power with metal cooled reactor.
➢ Enriched uranium is used as fuel
➢ Graphite as moderator
 The common coolants are sodium and potassium
 However sodium is best suited as coolant as it has
◦ low absorption cross section (0.5 to 2 barns)
◦ low melting point (98 deg C)
◦ high boiling point (883 deg C)
◦ high specific heat (1.2 kJ/kg deg C)
◦ high thermal conductivity (120 times that of water) and
◦ considerably cheap
Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor
Sodium Cooled Reactor
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sodium Graphite Reactor (SGR)

Advantages
1. High temperature can be achieved in the cycle leading to high efficiency and
low cost power.
2. Sodium as coolant need not be pressurized.
3. The neutron absorption cross section of sodium is low and it is best suitable
for reactors using enriched fuel.
4. The low cost graphite moderator can be used as it can retain strength and purity
at high temperatures.
5. More stable as the reactivity decreases with the rise in temperature.
6. Reactor size is comparatively small.
Disadvantages
1. Neutron economy is reduced with an increase in temperature.
2. Necessity of separating sodium from graphite.
3. Increased construction cost
4. The leakage of sodium is very dangerous as it comes out in highly radio-active state
5. A precaution must be taken to avoid sodium coming in contact with water.
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
 Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

◦ The reactor is able to create more fissionable material than it consumes.

◦ These reactors uses fast neutrons without using moderators
◦ These reactors uses highly enriched fuel such as pure or nearly uranium 235,
Plutonium or uranium 233 in a casing.
◦ The absence of moderator and very pure nature of fuel makes core size
extremely small.
◦ The casing is surrounded by fairly thick blanket of depleted fertile uranium.
◦ When U235 is fissioned it produces heat and additional neutrons.
◦ If some U238 is kept in the same reactor, part of additional neutrons available,
after reacting with U235 convert U238 Into fissionable Plutonium.
◦ Fertile material (U238 or Th232) is surrounded on to fissionable fuel kept in
reactor vessel, neutrons produced by fission are absorbed by fertile material
which generate U233 or U239.
◦ In conjunction with the reactor, cooling circuit is used to exchange energy and
further to produce power.
◦ Sodium, sodium-potassium alloy, helium, CO2 are used for cooling circuit.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

Advantages
1. It does not require moderator.
2. High power density, small core is sufficient.
3. High breeding is possible.
4. At high energies, the structural materials of the reactor do not absorb neutrons,
therefore a wide choice of constructional materials is possible.

Disadvantages
1. It requires highly enriched fuel.
2. Control is difficult and expensive as neutron flux is high and neutron lifetime is
short.
3. Safety must be provided against melt down.
 Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR)

CO2, Helium are the commonly used coolants

1. Gas cooled graphite moderator reactor uses natural uranium - Coolant pressure of 7 bar and
temperature up to 336 deg C
2. High temperature gas cooled reactor uses enriched uranium carbide with thorium carbide and
clad with graphite - Coolant pressure of 15 to 30 bar and temperatures of 700 to 800 deg C
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR)

Advantages
1. Fuel processing is simpler. There is no problem of fuel cladding. Uranium carbide and thorium
carbide are merely ground together and reprocessed.
2. Uranium carbide and thorium carbide are able to resist high temperatures and the problem of
limiting the fuel element temperature is not as serious as in other reactors.
3. The use of CO2 as coolant completely eliminates the possibility of explosion in reactor which
always present in water-cooled plants.
4. There is no corrosion problem.
5. The low cost graphite moderator can be used as it can retain strength and purity at high
temperatures.
6. Graphite remains stable under irradiation at high temperatures.
Disadvantages
1. Power density is very low due to low heat transfer co-efficient, therefore, large vessel is
required.
2. The loading of fuel is more elaborate and costly.
3. The leakage of gas is a major problem if helium is used instead of CO2.
4. Coolant circulation requires much power as high as 10 to 20% of plant capacity whereas only
5% is required in water cooled reactors.
5. The critical mass is high therefore large amount of fuel loading is initially required.
6. The control is more complicated due to low negative co-efficient as helium does not absorb
neutrons.
 Radiation hazards
 Emission from radioactive material consists of α (helium nuclei), β (electrons) and γ (gamma)
radiations.
 Nuclear bombardment of neutrons releases protons and neutrons.
 Nuclear radiations may be grouped into ionizing and non-ionizing types
 Ionizing radiations readily react with shielding material and are easily stopped. When radiations
are stopped by shielding energy of radiations is converted into heat which increases
temperature of the material
 Ionizing radiations (α) can be stopped even by aluminium foil and hey cannot penetrate human
skin. These radiations cause negligible external hazards but results in serious internal hazard in
body because of strong ionizing character.
 β radiations are penetrating and have less ionizing character.
 Gamma radiations consists of electro-magnetic waves and they can penetrate greater thickness
of material.
 Radiation hazards
Biological damage
Biological effects upon tissues exposed to a radiation field result from the interaction of
the radiation and the tissue.
The interaction between radiation and tissue is manifested in three ways,
◦ Ionization, displacement of atoms and absorption of neutrons by nuclei of tissue.
 Ionization – The formation of ion-pair in issue requires 32.5 eV of energy.
About 3100 ion-pairs are formed when a single 1MeV β particle is stopped by tissue.
If one cm2 are of tissue surface is subjected to a beam of β radiation of 1000 β
particles/cm2/s, about 31×106 ion pairs are formed each second.
This absorption results in complete damage of tissues in the body of man or beast
or birds.
α, β and γ radiations all ionize tissues into which they penetrate.

 Displacement of Atoms – If the energy of the impinging particle is sufficiently high,

an atom in the tissue is displaced from its normal lattice position with possible
adverse effects. Neutron and γ radiation result in atomic displacement.
 Absorption – Absorption of neutron by a tissue nucleus results in forming a
radioactive nucleus and change the chemical nature of the nucleus.
This severe alteration causes malfunctioning of the cell and cell damage may have
severe biological effects including genetic modification.
 Radiation hazards

Biological damage

 The inhalation of radioactive materials in the air, water or food also

presents a radiation hazard.
 Some body elements are eliminated from body rapidly, others become
chemically involved in such a way as to give a serious long time problem.
 Strontium-90 has an affinity for bones and if it is absorbed by the bones
through water, air or food, it will have a serious effect on bone marrow.
 Cesium is absorbed in muscles.
 Radiation Shielding

Radiation shielding serves two purposes.

1. Protect the walls of reactor core from radiation damage.
2. Reduce the radiations o the levels that safe working conditions around the plant.
Materials used for shielding should satisfy the following requirements
1. Thickness should be minimum and must absorb gamma radiations
2. Should be free from cavities or cracks i.e., material should have uniform density.
3. Should not be decomposed due to radiation.
4. Must be fire resistant.
 Radiation Shielding

Concrete and steel are the commonly used materials for shielding:
1. Concrete – Biological shield
 It contains sand, gravel, cement and water.
 The density of commonly used material is about 2400 kg/m3 and contains 5-
10% of water.
 During preparation, boron compound may be added to the concrete to
prevent thermal neutrons and secondary radiations.
2. Steel – Thermal shield
 A large amount of heat is generated due to absorption of radiation and the
ability of the concrete to withstand high temperature gradients is low.
 High thermal stresses are developed due to large temperature gradients.
 This needs strengthening of concrete and is done by reinforcement.
 The temperature gradient in the concrete can be reduced by placing a thin
iron shield between the core and biological concrete shield.
 Thermal shield uses two layers of iron alloy, each 10 cm thick.
 A 10cm passage is provided between them for air cooling.
 96% of heat is absorbed by thermal shield and remaining 4% is passed through
the concrete shield of 3m tick.
 Radio active waste disposal

 In nuclear power plant, used fuel is highly radioactive and causes contamination air,
water etc. and if absorbed by living organisms can cause biological damage.
 The different stages of nuclear fuel cycle produces
- solid, liquid and gaseous radio active wastes.
 These must be disposed off in such a manner that there is no hazard to human and plant life.
 Solid wastes will arise from used filters, sludge from cooling ponds, pieces of
discarded cans, control rods etc.
These wastes are stored in Concrete and Stainless steel tank.
 Liquid effluents are from accumulation of corrosion of irradiated fuel elements in
storage ponds.
The liquid effluents are made to pass through ion exchange resins and then they are
discarded to sea.
 Gaseous effluents are discharged to atmosphere through high stack, if the wind
permits.
Generally the radioactive gases are collected and stored in a tank buried in the
ground and disposed off to the atmosphere when the radioactivity level is
sufficiently low.
 Radio active waste disposal

Methods for disposal are

1. Storage in tanks on site

Concrete and stainless steel tanks are used. Radioactivity decays during storage
period and then waste is either disposed either to sea or it is buried in ground.
2. Dilution
Liquids or gaseous wastes are diluted to safe limits and then disposed in river or
sea or disposed to air.
3. Sealed containers
Sealed containers are used to store radio wastes (liquids and solids) and then
disposed off at sea where they are completely covered with mud at the bottom.
4. Underground burial
Radioactive waste is buried directly in ground.
These places must be isolated from public and water must not be allowed to seep.
Radio active waste disposal
Radio active waste disposal
Radio active waste disposal