Police Photography

Forensic photography - sometimes referred to as police photography, forensic imaging or crime

scene photography. - is the art of producing an accurate reproduction f a crime scene or an
accident using photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation.

Photography - is the art, science and practice of creating durable images by recording light. The
word photography was derived from the Greek word "phos" - light and "graphe" - drawing.

Photograph - is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface usually

photographic film or electronic imager.

Sir John Herschel - made the word photography known to the world in a lecture before the royal
society of London on 1839.

Camera - is a device that records and stores images.

History of camera

  Mo Ti -  5th century BC Chinese philosopher who noted that a pin hole can form an
inverted and focused image when light passes through the hole and into a dark area. He is
the first recorded person to have exploited this phenomenon to trace the inverted image to
create a picture.
 Aristotle - in 4th century BC, described observing a partial solar eclipse in 330 BC by
seeing the image of the sun projected through the small spaces between the leaves of the
tree.
 Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) - an Egyptian scientist who wrote about observing a solar
eclipse through a pin hole and he described how a sharper image could be produced by
making the opening of the pin hole smaller.
 Roger Bacon - English philosopher and Franciscan friar who in his study of optics,
included a discussion of the physiology of eyesight, the anatomy of the eyes and brain and
considered light, distance, position, size, direct vision, reflected vision and refraction,
mirrors and lenses.
 Johannes Kepler - a German mathematician and astronomer who applied the actual name
of camera obscura and later added a lens and made the apparatus transportable in the form
of a tent.
 Robert Boyle -  a British scientist who, with his assistant Robert Hooke developed a
portable camera in the 1660.
 Johann Zahn - in 1685, built the first camera obscura that was small enough for practical
use as a portable drawing aid because the only way to preserve the images produced by
the camera was to manually trace them.
 Joseph Nicephore Niepce - was a french inventor who is noted for producing the first
known photographs in 1825 by using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles and
Vincent Chevalier in Paris.
  1920 - the electronic video camera tube was invented, starting a line of development that
eventually resulted in digital cameras which largely supplanted film cameras after the turn
of the 21st century.
 William Henry Fox Talbot - a British inventor and pioneer of photography. He was the
inventor of calotype process, the precursor to most photographic processes of the 19th and
20th century.
 Lumiere Brothers - introduced the autochrome, the first commercially successful color
process.
 Kodachrome - the first modern integral tripack color film, was introduced by Kodak in
1935. It captured the three basic color components in a multi layer emulsion.
 

camera obscura

camera obscura
Camera obscura - obscura means dark or darkened chamber room, is an optical device that
projects an image of its surroundings on a screen. It is used in drawing and for entertainment and
was one of the inventions that led to photography. The camera obscura is the forerunner to the
photographic camera.

Basic Modern Camera Parts

1. Lens - the light enters through the lens, this is
    where photo process begins.
2. View Finder - is what the photographer looks
    through to compose and in many cases to focus,
    the picture.
3. Body - the basic most part of a camera. It is the
    box that holds the film and the camera controls.
4. Shutter Release - is a button found on many
    cameras used to take the picture.
5. Aperture - is a hole or an opening thorough which
    light travels. The aperture affects the image's
    exposure by changing the diameter of the lens
    opening which control the amount of light reaching
    the image sensor.
6. Image Sensor - converts the optical image to an
    electronic signal.
7. Memory Card - stores all the image information.
 8. LCD Screen - typically replaced the view finder.
9. Flash - provide extra light during dim, low light
    situations.
10. User Control

Exposure - total amount of light allowed to fall  on the photographic medium during the process
the of taking photograph.

Film Speed - is the measure of a photographic films sensitivity to light.

Shutter Cycle - is the process of the shutter opening, closing and resetting to where it is ready to
open again.

Shutter - is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of time for the purpose of
exposing photographic film or light sensitive electronic sensor to light to capture a permanent
image of a scene.

Red Eye Effect - is the common appearance of red pupils in color photographs  of eyes. It occurs
when using a photographic flash very close to the camera lens in ambient low light.

Photographic Emulsion - is a light sensitive colloid such as gelatin, coated into a substance. In
silver gelatin photography, the emulsion consists of silver halide crystals  suspended in gelatin
and the substance may be glass, plastic film, paper or fabric

Police Photography Definition of Terms

Actinic rays - light rays of short wavelengths occurring in the violet and ultraviolet parts of the
spectrum, which produce chemical changes, as in photography.

Angle of incidence - the angle of incidence as used here conforms to that used in optics to
describe reflection and refraction of light rays.The angle is measured with respect to the normal
to the surface, rather than to the surface itself. The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular
(90°) to the plane of the surface. Thus, a straight-on impact (along the normal) is said to have an
angle of incidence of zero.

Aperture -  Adjustable opening, also referred to as f-stop, that controls the amount of light that is
focused on the film.

Aperture preference - Term used to describe the automatic exposure system used on some
cameras, in which a specific aperture is selected but the shutter speed adjusts automatically to
expose the film to the correct amount of light.

Artificial light -  Any light other than daylight.

Artificial light film - Color film balanced for use in tungsten artificial light, usually of 3200°K.
Packs are usually marked tungsten or Type B.

ASA - American Standard Association, formerly a standardized rating number for film based on
its sensitivity to light.

Auto iris -  Automatically regulates the amount of light entering the camera.

Auto white balance - Electronically adjusts camera color levels.

Auto focus - Automatically sets the focus (distance) from scene to camera.

Automatic camera - A camera with a built-in exposure meter that automatically adjusts the lens
opening, shutter speed, or both for proper exposure.

Auxiliary lens - A lens element added to a regular lens to shorten or increase the focal length.
Background - The part of the scene that appears behind the principal subject of the picture.

Backlighting - Light shining on the subject from the direction opposite the camera; distinguished
from frontlighting and sidelighting.

Backscatter - The light reflected back to the camera in underwater photography caused by flash
reflection of particles suspended in the water.

Blur -  Indistinct image caused by movement or inaccurate focusing.

Bounce lighting - A light source reflected off of another surface and then onto the subject.Flash
or tungsten light bounced off the ceiling or walls in order to give the effect of natural or available
light.

Bulb - A shutter speed setting used to hold the shutter open for extended periods with the use of a
shutter release cord or continuous pressure on the shutter release button.
Cable release - A flexible, enclosed wire used to release the shutter mechanism.

Camera -  A photographic apparatus used to expose sensitized film or plates to reflected light
images formed by a lens. Also, an electronic device to change film or live action into video
signals.

Camera angle - The photographer’s point of view of a subject or scene as viewed through the
lens or viewfinder.

Cartridge - A lightproof container that is loaded with film in the dark and can be handled and
placed in the camera in the light.

Cassette - A film cartridge or magazine. A lightproof holder used in autoradiography for

exposing x-ray film to radioactive blots.
Circle of confusion - An optical term describing the size of an image point formed by a lens.

Close-up - A photograph taken close to the subject or evidence, often requiring an auxiliary lens.
Macro and micro are degrees of close-up.

Color - The sensation produced in the eye by a particular wavelength or group of wavelengths of
visible light.

Color balance - The ability of a film to reproduce the colors of a scene. Color films are balanced
in manufacture for exposure to light of a certain color quality daylight, tungsten, etc. Color
balance also refers to the reproduction of colors in color prints, which can be altered during the
printing process.

Color balancing filter -  Filters used to balance color film with the color temperature of the light
source and to prevent the formation of colorcasts. An 85B filter is used with tungsten film in
daylight, an 80A filter with daylight film in tungsten light.

Color compensating (CC) filters - Comparatively weak color filters used to correct for small
differences between the color temperature of the illumination and that for which the film was
manufactured.

Color conversion filters -  Fairly strong color filters used for exposing film in light of a type
markedly different from that for which the film was made.

Color negative film - Film that records the colors of the subject in complementary hues that are
subsequently reversed again in the printing paper to give the correct colors.

Color reversing film - Film that produces a direct positive by effectively reversing the negative
image during processing. Transparency (slide) film is of this type.

Contrast - The difference in intensities of light falling on various parts of a subject. The density
range of a negative, print, or slide; the brightness range of a subject or the scene lighting.

Contrast filter - A colored filter used to make a colored subject stand out either lighter or darker
(for black-and-white film).

Correction filter - Filters used to alter colors to suit the color response of the film.

Coupled exposure meter - Exposure meter built into the camera and linked with the aperture or
shutter speed controls, or both.

Coupled rangefinder - A rangefinder connected to the focusing mechanism of the lens, which is
focused while measuring the distance to the subject or object.

Cropping - The elimination of part of an original image on a single negative during printing
either because of automation or enlargement.
Daylight color film - Color film designed to be used with daylight or a light source of equivalent
color temperature, including blue flashbulbs and electronic flash. The film is balanced to 5400
EK.

Dense - Dark negative or positive film on paper that is overexposed, overdeveloped, or both.

Depth of field - The zone between the foreground and background that appears in sharpest focus
for a particular lens, distance, and aperture.

Depth of field scale - Scale on a lens barrel showing the near and far limits of depth of field
possible when the lens is set at any particular focus and aperture.

Developer - A solution used to turn the latent image into a visible image on exposed films or
photographic papers.
Electronic flash - Lighting unit utilizing the flash of light produced by discharging a current
between two electrodes in a gas-filled tube.

Electronic viewfinder (EVF) - A small TV monitor attached to a video camera for viewing of
recorded images.

Emulsion - a suspension of a salt of silver in gelatin or collodion used to coat film.

Existing light - That light present at any one time in a given area no matter what the source.

Exposure index - Methods of rating film speed developed by the American Standards
Association (ASA), now known as the American National Standards Institute, Inc. (ANSI).

Exposure setting - The lens opening and shutter speed selected to expose the film.

Extension tube - Increases the distance between the lens and the sensitive film in the camera and
changes the lens capability.

Eyepiece - The optic found on a camera, microscope, telescope, and so on, used to look through
the instrument.
Fade-in/Fade-out - Gradually changing video from dark to picture or picture to dark.

Fast film - Film that has an emulsion that is very sensitive to light. Such films have high ASA
ratings.

Fast lens - lens with a large aperture, requiring less light.

Field of vision - The area a person is able to see through the viewfinder, scope, or lens.

Fill-in - Secondary illumination to keep shadow areas from photographing too dark; also known
as the fill light.
Film - A sheet or strip of celluloid coated with light-sensitive emulsion for exposure in a camera.

Film plane - That portion of the camera body that holds the sensitized film in place during the
exposure process. It is also that position of the camera where the image is focused.

Film speed - A means of representing numerically the response of a photographic emulsion to

light.

Finder - A viewer through which the picture to be taken may be seen and centered.

Fish-eye lens - Wide-angle lens with angle of view that may reach 180°. Depth of field is
practically infinite.

Flash - A general term for any auxiliary, sudden, brilliant light. A unit holding flashbulbs is
referred to as a flash.

Flash sensor - Electronic unit actuated by light flash.

Flood - Light source providing a wide, diffused beam of light.

Fluorescence - Property possessed by various substances that glow when exposed to light of a
short wavelength. The phenomenon in which some substances  absorb light and re-emit part of it
as light of a longer wavelength. Fluorescence ceases when incident or exciting illumination
ceases.

Focal length - The distance in millimeters (mm) from the center of the lens to the point where the
image comes into critical view.

Focal plane shutter - A shutter that operates immediately in front of the focal plane. Usually
contains a fixed or variable-sized slit in a curtain of cloth or metal that travels across the film to
make the exposure.

Focus - Point at which converging rays of light from a lens meet.

Focusing - The adjustment of the lens-to-film distance to produce a sharp image of the subject.

Format - Size, shape, and general makeup of negatives, slides, photographic prints, camera
viewing areas, or video equipment.

Frame - An individual picture on a roll of film or one full onscreen image of displayed
computerized information.

Frame buffer - A separate area of memory where an image or frame is stored in a computer.

Frame counter - A dial on the camera indicating the number of exposures or frames used.
f-stop (f-number) - Focal setting for the diaphragm controlling the size of the aperture; the
higher the f-stop, the smaller the aperture opening.

Fully automatic - Term indicates that camera aperture and speed settings can be combined to
give complete automatic exposure for a picture.
Gain select - Increase sensitivity to light. Used when sufficient illumination is not available for
video recording.

Gamma - A process that improves the video image by correcting for the lack of picture clarity.

Glare - Intense light reflected off highly reflective surfaces such as water, glass, and very light-
toned objects.

Grain - Individual silver particles or groups of particles in the emulsion

which, when enlarged, become noticeable and sometimes objectionable.

Graininess - The grainy appearance of photographic enlargements. More prominent on higher-

speed film. The sand-like or granular appearance of a negative, print, or slide resulting from the
clumping of silver grains during development of the film. Graininess becomes more pronounced
with faster film, increased density in the negative, and degree of enlargement.

Guide number - An indication of the power of a flash unit, enabling the correct aperture to be
selected at a given distance between flash and subject. The number divided by the distance gives
the f-stop that should be used. A film speed is specified with the guide number and recalculation
is needed for different speeds.
Haze filter - Lens filter that reduces the effect of atmospheric haze. Red reduces most, green the
least. A blue filter induces haze.
Illumination - A specific amount of light present in any given area. Expressed in lux or foot-
candles; the lower the lux of equipment, the less light required for a good picture.

Image - The photographic representation of an object or scene formed by optical or chemical

action.

Image aspect ratio -  Ratio of the width to the height of a displayed computer generated image.

Image resolution - Number of pixels displayed per unit of printed length in an image, usually
measured in pixels per inch (ppi).

Infrared photography - Recording of images produced by infrared radiation.

Iris - The opening of a camera lens that controls the amount of light let in.
Lens cap - A cover used to protect a lens from dust and damage when not in use.

Lumen - Photometric unit equal to the luminous flux on 1 ft2 of

surface from a standard candle 1 ft away.
Luster - The gloss or shine possessed by a fiber, resulting from its reflection of light. The luster
of manufactured fibers is often modified by use of a delustering pigment.
Macro lens - Lens designed to work at close distance, permitting image
magnification.

Macro photography - Photography usually involving close-up capabilities,whether with lens or

bellows, with a magnification from life size (110) up to 50 times (501).

Magenta - A reddish-blue (minus green) color.

Micro photography - The term used in Europe for the making of large photographs of small
objects, usually through a microscope. In the United Kingdom and the United States this is called
photomicrography, and microphotography is used to refer to the technique of making
microscopically small photographs by the process of optical reduction.

Monochrome - Single colored; for instance, black-and-white photographs and sepia- or other-
toned images in one color. Similar light rays of one color wavelength (i.e., a single, pure color).

Motor drive- Device for advancing the film and retensioning the shutter by means of an electric
motor.

Multiple flash - The use of more than one flash unit, usually operating
simultaneously.
Natural size - A photograph enlarged to the true size of the content.

Near point - The closet object to the camera in focus for a given distance.

Negative - Photographic image in which the amount of silver present is more or less based on the
reflectivity from the original object. Black is white, white is black. The developed film that
contains a reversed-tone image of the original scene.

Normal lens - A lens that makes the image in a photograph appear in a perspective similar to that
of the original scene.
Objective - The first lens, lens system, or mirror through which light passes or from which it is
reflected in an optical system.

Open flash - Method of using the flash in which the shutter is opened, the flash is fired, and then
the shutter is closed. It is used when the shutter speed is unimportant because existing lighting is
poor or nonexistent.

Open up - The term used in reference to changing to a larger aperture (f-stop) opening.

Optical microscope - An instrument used to obtain an enlarged image of a small object, utilizing
visible light; in general, it consists of a light source, a condenser, an objective lens, and an ocular
or eyepiece that can be replaced by a recording device. Also known as a light microscope.
Pan-and-tilt head - Tripod head with separate locks for horizontal (pan) and vertical (tilt)
movements of the camera.

Panning - The movement from left to right and right to left of the camera; normally associated
with movie and video cameras.

Parallax - Difference between the image seen in a viewfinder and that

recorded by the taking lens. Most pronounced at close distance with twin-lens reflex and
rangefinder cameras. Single-lens reflex and studio cameras are free from parallax error.

Peak - The visual image representing an allele on an electropherogram.

Photo flash lamp - An electronic lamp working at higher than the normal voltage,giving brighter
light.

Photoelectric cell - Light-sensitive cell used in exposure meters and for remote triggering of the
shutter.

Photoflood - Photographic lamp designed to produce a high output of light during a

comparatively short life.

Photogrammetry - The process of surveying or mapping through analysis of photographs. A

scientific method used to determine from photographs the length of skid marks, width of
roadways, or any other types of measurements needed.

Photographic negative - A transparency produced when black-and-white film is exposed in a

camera and then developed. The term is derived from the appearance of the transparency, in
which white areas of the original appear the darkest or most opaque, while the darkest portions of
the original are almost clear. With color film the light–dark reversal is coupled with a change of
colors to the complements of those in the original material.

Photographic positive - A print made by passing light through the negative generally onto
photographic paper. In this print the tonal values are directly proportional to those of the original;
i.e., light areas of the original appear light, and the dark areas are dark.

Photography - To write or draw with light. Recording with light is closer to the modern meaning
of the word.

Photomicrographs - Photographs that are made through a compound microscope and may be a
greatly enlarged image of a small area. Similarly, enlarged photographs, which may be prepared
with only a lens of very short focal length, are accurately termed photomacrographs. It is
extremely difficult to distinguish between photographs made by these two processes, and both are
often incorrectly referred to as a photomicrograph.

Projected prints - A print made by focusing light from the negative on the printing paper by
means of a lens system. These positives are generally enlargements. Some workers refer to them
as bromides because of the type of paper emulsion originally used.
Quartz lens - A special lens used for ultraviolet photography.
Rangefinder - A viewer system found on cameras without a through-the-lens viewing capacity
(SLR cameras).

Record/review - Automatically rewinds and plays back the last few seconds of videotape
recording. Provides a smooth transition from one segment to another.

Reflection - The bouncing back of rays of light striking a surface.

Reflex camera - A camera in which the image can be seen right side up and full size on the
ground-glass focusing screen.

Refraction - The bending of a light ray when passing obliquely from one medium to a medium of
different density.

Refractive index (N) - The change in direction (apparent bending) of a light ray passing from
one medium to another of different density, as from air to water or glass. The ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is the index of refraction of the second
medium. Index of refraction of a substance may also be expressed as the ratio of the velocity of
light in a vacuum to its velocity in the substance.

Resolution - The capability of an optical device to separate into

two or more objects (or points) what to the unaided eye appears to be one object (or point), thus
yielding details not otherwise perceptible. Measurement in units per inch of the amount of detail
in an image file: dpi = dots per inch; ppi = pixels per inch; lpi = liners per inch.

Reversal - A positive film such as slide film (either color or black-and-white).

Rogues’ gallery - A file of photographs of arrested individuals; usually includes fullface and
profile photographs (mug shots) along with detailed physical description, age and place of birth,
Social Security number, fingerprint classification, nicknames and aliases, modus operandi, etc.
(also called mug shot file).
Scale - The enlargement or reduction of an object or texture.

Schlieren optics - Imaging system in which the transparent or translucent object to be examined
is placed between two spherical mirrors. The illuminant is a point light source placed at the focal
point of one of the mirrors. Parallel light rays from the mirror pass through the object to the
second mirror, which projects the image onto a screen. A knife edge is placed at the focal point of
the second mirror to block unrefracted light rays. Only light rays refracted by the object reach the
screen.Schlieren optics can produce images of thickness, density, and refractive index
differences.

Self-timer - A timing device permitting the photographer to delay shutter.

Shoot (shot) - A slang term for taking or having taken a photograph.

function.

Shot sheet - A form for recording all pertinent photographic information on a particular roll of
film.

Shutter - Mechanical device that regulates the time light can act upon the film.

Shutter preference - An automatic exposure system in which shutter speed may be selected and
the aperture is adjusted automatically to give correct exposure.

Shutter speed - The action of the shutter that controls the duration of an exposure.The faster the
speed, the shorter the exposure.

Silhouette - A photograph that shows only the mass of a subject in black against a white or
colored background.

Single-lens reflex - Camera system utilizing a hinged mirror between the lens and the film that
swings out of the light path when the shutter is open, allowing the taking and viewing functions
of a lens to be combined.

Slide - A positive film mounted in a slide mount or a positive print on glass for projection upon a
screen.

Slide film - Direct reversal film; usually color film used in cameras for full-color projection
positives. Sometimes called color transparency film.

Slit-width - Size of the opening of the slit through which light emerges. Size depends on
wavelength range, separation ability of wavelength selector,and desired isolation of specific
wavelength.

Slow film - Film having an emulsion with low sensitivity to light. Typically such films have an
ASA rating of 32 or less.

Slow lens - A lens with a relatively small maximum apertura, such as f-8.

Snapshot - A casual picture taken by amateurs, usually with simple equipment.

Snow Print Wax - Registered name of an aerosol product used to assist in the photography and
casting of footwear impressions in snow.

Speed - The sensitivity of a photographic emulsion to light. ISO, ASA, or DIN numbers indicate
their relative speed characteristics. The higher the number, the faster the film reacts to light.

Spotlight - Lamp unit with a reflector and lens that can either focus light into a small,
concentrated circle or give a wider beam.
Standard lens - Lens whose focal length is approximately equal to the diagonal of the film
format with which it is used. It is also referred to as the prime or normal lens.

Static streak- Light streak that appears on photographic film, usually in cold weather when film
is advanced too quickly. Static streaks can be harmful to development of clear photographic
images.

Still - A photograph lacking motion; a single frame.

Stop - A lens aperture or diaphragm opening, such as f-4 and f-5.6.

Strobe - Electronic flash unit. An electrical power supply charges the gas-filled flash tube
emitting light between 1/1000 sec and 1/50,000 sec. A strobe can be manual or manual and
automatic.

Surveillance photography - A secretive, continuous, and sometimes periodic visual

documentation of activities involving persons, places, or objects of importance to an
investigation.

Sync-cord - An electrical power cord used to connect the flash unit to a power source.

Synchroflash - A term applied to flash photography in which a flash bulb is ignited at the same
instant that the shutter is opened.
Time exposure - The camera shutter is opened and closed manually, not automatically. 

Time-lapse - A timing device that can be set to take a photograph every few seconds, minutes,
hours, etc.

Transmission - The ratio of the light passed through an object to the light falling upon it.

Transmitted light - Light that is passed through a transparent or translucent medium.

Transparency - A positive photographic image on film, viewed or projected by transmitted light

(light shining through film).

Trash mark - Mark left on a finished copy during photocopying; results from imperfections or
dirt on the cover glass, cover sheet, drum, or camera lens of a photocopy machine.

Tripod - A three-legged stand used to support a camera or lens and camera.

Tungsten light - Incandescent light, from a bulb having filaments usually of lower wattage, 15 to
500 W.

Tungsten light film - Color film balanced to suit tungsten light sources, with a color temperature
of 3200°K.
Twin-lens reflex (TLR) - Camera having two lenses of the same focal length; one is used for
viewing and focusing, the other for exposing the film. The lenses are mounted above each other.
Ultraviolet filter - A filter that transmits ultraviolet light as used for photography by the reflected
ultraviolet light method.

Ultraviolet light - Light rays beyond the visible spectrum of light at its violet end with
wavelengths longer than x-rays, but shorter than visible light.

Ultraviolet photograph - Any photograph that records the document under ultraviolet
illumination. With some of these the ultraviolet radiation strikes the film, but with others a filter
is employed so that only the visual fluorescence caused by the ultraviolet is recorded.

Underexposure - Results of insufficient light exposing the film. A condition in which too little
light reaches the film producing a thin negative, a dark slide, or a muddy-looking print.

Unipod - A one legged support for a camera.

Videography - The recording of visual images electronically on magnetic tape.Usually
accompanied by a recorded soundtrack.

Viewfinder - A viewing instrument attached to a camera that is used to obtain proper

composition.
Washed out - A negative or print lacking detail and contrast.

White balance - A procedure used to tune a video camera’s color by setting it to perfectly
reproduce a white object.
Zoom lens - A lens with the capacity to have varied focal lengths while maintaining focus on a
particular subject at a given distance.

Zooming - Moving a variable focus lens during an exposure.

Police Photography Review Notes

Important Personalities in Police Photography

*Joseph Nicephore Niepce - was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitized with
silver chloride solution in 1816.He invented a photographic process which he called
"heliography" meaning "writing of the sun"

*Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre - invented "Daguerreotype", an

early photograph produced on a silver or silver-covered copper plate.It formed an image
directly on the silver surface of a metal plate.It was a positive process,thus,it yielded one of
a kind images.
*William Henry Fox Talbot - invented a process called calotype, a photographic process
by which a large number of prints could be produced from a paper negative.Calotype use
paper with surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.

     Calotype vs. Daguerre - fixation in calotype was only partial while
      images in daguerreotype were made permanent with the use of 
     hypo (short for hyposulfite thiosulfate,sodium thiosulfate or a
     solution of thiosulfate).
     Sodium thiosulfate or hypo is a hygroscopic (readily taken up and
     retaining moisture) crystalline salt used especially as a
     photographic fixing agent and a reducing or bleaching agent.
    

*John Frederick William Herchel - coined the term photography and applied the terms
negative and positive to photography.He made improvements in photographic processes,
particularly in inventing the cyanotype process and variations (such as the chrysotype) the
precursors of the modern blueprint process.He discovered sodium thiosulfate to be a solvent
of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery that this
"hyposulfite of soda" (hypo) could be used as a photographic fixer, to fix pictures and make
them permanent after experimentally applying it in 1839.

*Richard Leach Maddox - was an English photographer and physician who invented light
weight gelatin negative plates for photography in 1871.

*Frederick Scott Archer - invented the photographic collodion process which preceded the
modern gelatin emulsion.

    Collodion - is a wound dressing material made of nitrated cotton

    dissolved in ether and alcohol and other chemicals on sheet of
    glass.

*George Eastman - founded the Eastman Kodak company and invented roll film, helping
bring photography to the mainstream.

Definition of Terms:

Photography - To write with light,from two Greek words, Phos - light and Graphia - write.

Police Photography - It is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of
photography, the reproduction of photographic evidence, and its application to police work.

Forensic Photography - the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene

and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.

1.Take photographs of the following:

    a.crime scene
    b.suspects.  
    c.detainees
    d.prisoners
    e.aliens
    f.apprehended persons
    g.applicants for clearances
    h.military and civilian personnel
    i.unknown cadaver
    j.applicant to possess firearm
    k.other physical evidence
2.Conduct comparative examination and analysis of questioned 
    photographs or pictures to the known photographs.
3.Process color and black and white film, print, reduce and enlarge
    picture.
4.Reproduce picture and other printed matters.
5.Compose portrait by means of portrait composition.
6.Provides photographic intrusion detection devices.
7.Maintain Rogues Gallery (a collection of pictures of persons arrested
   as criminals)
 

Care and Handling of Camera

* Must be carried using a portable bag or built-in container to avoid

   dust and dirt. 
* Must be kept dry and avoided contact with water and other liquid
   substances.
* Must be repaired only by qualified technician.  
* Must not be cleaned by oil. 
* Must not be fixed without proper equipment and tools to avoid
   serious damage on it.
 

Basic Camera Parts and Functions

Camera is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image with a shutter and diaphragm to
control the entry of the image; a means of holding a film to record the image/and a viewer or
viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is.

Camera originated from the term camera obscura. Camera obscura (Latin veiled chamber  )
is an opticaldevice used, for example, in drawing or for entertainment. It is one of the
inventions leading to photography.The principle can be demonstrated with a box with a hole
in one side (the box may be room-sized, or hangar sized). Light from a scene passes through
the hole and strikes a surface where it is reproduced, in color, andupside-down. The image's
perspective is accurate. The image can be projected onto paper, which when tracedcan
produce a highly accurate representation.
1.Light Tight Box. This part of the camera is very essential because
   of its capability to exclude all unwanted light that may expose the 
   sensitized materials or film. It is an enclosure that is devoid of light.
2.Lens. The lens is the only responsible in focusing the rays of light
   coming from the subject. It is one of the most important parts of
   camera because without lens, it is impossible to form a sharp image
   of the film. 
3.Film H older. The film holder holds the film firmly inside the camera. It
   is always located at the opposite side of the lens of the camera. 
4.Shutter. The shutter served as the barriers of the rays of light that
   will enter and effect the film inside the camera. It is usually placed
   at the path of the light passing thru the lens.
  
Other Parts of the Camera
1.   Viewing system
2.   Film advancer
3.   Shutter speed
4.   Lens aperture
5.   Focusing mechanism

Major Types of Camera  

1.View Finder Type - The smallest and simplest type of camera.This is
   also known as instamatic camera.View finder camera suffers parallax
   error.
2.Single Lens Reflex Type - Cross section view of SLR system
   1) Lens
   2) Mirror
   3) Shutter
   4) Film or sensor
   5) Focusing screen
   6) Condensing lens
   7) Pentaprism
   8) Eye piece

The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is to look behind the lens of the
camera.In this manner the object can be framed properly and recorded on the film.This type
of camera eliminates the problem of parallax error.
Twin Lens Reflex Camera - has two lens, one for viewing and focusing on the subject and
for taking lens.In this type of camera,the image to be photographed is seen as flat surface as
the image is reflected by the mirror behind the viewing lens.This suffers parallax error.

Parallax - the difference between what the view finder on a point and shoot camera sees and
what the lens sees (and thus records on film).At close shooting distances,the difference can
cause you to crop off the top of a subject's head.

Parallax error - the image you see through the view finder is different from the image the
lens will capture.

VIEW OR PRESS TYPE

1.Lens plane
2.Front standard
3.Lens axis
4.Base
5.Film holder/Ground glass
6.Rear standard
7.Film plane

VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA -  The biggest and most sophisticated among the
different type of camera. This type of camera is practically useless for candid and action
photography.

SPECIAL CAMERAS -  These are cameras that have been devised that offer unique
advantage or serve special purposes. Among the special cameras are: a. polaroid, b.
panoramic cameras, c. aerial cameras, d. miniature and ultra-miniature cameras e. digital
cameras (using computer processing.

Control of Cameras 
Knowing the controls on camera is necessary to produce a sharp and normal image and
negatives after  photographing. There are three important controls in a camera to be
manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting.

    *  Focusing control

    *  Diaphragm/Aperture control
    * Shutter speed

Focusing Control
The camera lens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of the object. Adjusting the
lens to form the clearest possible image is called  focusing  .Focusing is defined as the
setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image.

Three Types of  Focusing

1.Rangefinder Type (e.g. viewfinder, instamatic camera and 35mm 
   cameras)
2.Ground Glass Type (e.g. twin-lens reflex camera and digital camera)
3.Scale Bed Type (e.g. press and view camera, and Polaroid Evidence
   Camera)

Rangefinder Type

The rangefinder type is classified into two:

1.Coincidence type - the object to be photographed looks double when 
   the focusing control is not in proper distance, and by moving this
   control, one of the objects will move and coincide with the other object
   to make as one and become accurate appearance of an object.
2.Split Type - Splits the objects to be photographed into two. While
   moving the focusing control, the split image will move and unite to form
   an undivided appearance and therefore the focus is accurate and
   perfect.

Ground Glass Type

Ground glass type focusing mechanism clearly indicates whether the object distance and the
camera is out of focus or not. If the object is not well focused, the object to be photographed
will appear blurred. To make it clear and accurate the focusing ring of the camera is adjusted
on clockwise or counter clockwise to get the desired clearness of the object.

Scale-Bed or Focusing Scale

In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the distance of the object to be photographed
is calculated by means of feet or meter. There are cameras where estimated distance from
the camera to objects is being indicated in the focusing ring.

Diaphragm Control (lens opening)

A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture.
The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eye²it controls the effective diameter of
the lens opening.Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes the
extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus
appears to be in focus.

Aperture and shutter speed are the fundamental controls available to the SLR user: Varying
one or other of these opens up a myriad of creative possibilities. Both also control how
much light reaches the film ± so if you make the hole through which the light passes into the
camera (the aperture) smaller; you must keep this hole open for longer (the shutter speed) to
compensate.

Fortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is made automatically. The size of the aperture
is measured using f/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as f/numbers represent fractions, the
larger the f/number the smaller the aperture. The widest aperture on a lens might be f/2,
whilst the smallest aperture available may be f/22.

Shutter Speed -  is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of time, for the
purpose of exposing photographic film or a light-sensitive electronic sensor to light to
capture a permanent image of a scene.

Types of Shutter
1. Central shutters
2. Focal-plane

Central Shutters - are mounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind or even in
front of a lens,and shut off the beam of light where it is narrow. A leaf mechanism is usually
used.

Focal Plane Shutter - In camera design, a focal-plane shutter is a type of photographic

shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right
in front of the photographic film or image sensor.

Types of Shutters (as to mechanism)

1.Focal-plane shutters
2.Leaf shutters
3.Diaphragm shutters
4.Central shutters

Focal-Plane Shutters - Focal-plane shutters are usually implemented as a pair of cloth,

metal, or plastic curtains which shield the film from light.

Leaf Shutters - is a type of camera shutter consisting of a mechanism with one or more
pivoting metal leaves which normally does not allow light through the lens onto the film,
but which when triggered opens the shutter by moving the leaves to uncover the lens for the
required time to make an exposure, then shuts.

Diaphragm Shutters - is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a number of thin blades which
briefly uncover the camera aperture to make the exposure.

Central Shutters - is a camera shutter normally located within the lens assembly where a
relatively smallopening allows light to cover the entire image. The term is also used for
shutters behind, but near to, the lens.Interchangeable lens cameras with a central shutter
within the lens body require that each lens has ashutter built into it. In practice most cameras
with interchangeable lenses use a single focal plane shutter in thecamera body for all lenses,
while cameras with a fixed lens use a central shutter.In photography, shutter speed is a
common term used to discuss exposure time, the effective length of time a shutter is open;
the total exposure is proportional to this exposure time, or duration of light reaching thefilm
or image sensor.

There are many factors to be considered in using this control . Some of these factors
are:
1.The light sensitivity of the film, which are determined through its ISO
2.The lighting condition  
3.The motion of the subjects on different angles
4.The purpose of the photographs to be taken, etc.

The different shutter speeds are:

1, 2 or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30 sec, 60 o   r 1/60 sec, 125
or 1/125 sec,250 or 1/250, 500 or 1/500 sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or 1/2000.

Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures:
B (for  bulb ) - keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held.
T (for  time ) - keep the shutter open until the shutter release is pressed again.

Avoiding Camera Shake

Unless you are using a tripod, the first thing you should ensure when choosing the shutter
speed is that it is fast enough to avoid camera shake. However tightly you hold your camera,
it will always move slightly as you fire. If you use too slow a shutter speed this will mean
blurred pictures. The speed you use depends on the focal length of lens you are doing.

How to Hold Your Camera

To be able to use the slowest possible handheld speeds, you must hold the camera correctly
to avoid as much vibration as possible.

   Low-level shooting - you don always want to take your pictures from
   normal eye level. This kneeling position allows you to take shots at
   waist level.
When to Use Slow Shutter Speeds
By using a tripod, or other camera support, photographers can use slower shutter speeds
than usual.These allow you to use apertures that would not otherwise be possible when
using a handheld camera  and to shoot in the lowest light. Slow shutter speeds can also be
used for creative effect, as moving subjects will become artistically blurred.

When to Use Fast Shutter Speeds

Moving subjects require you to consider using a faster shutter speed than that needed to
avoid camera shake. Some blur may be welcome with action subjects, but often we want to
freeze the action. Selecting the right shutter speed depends not only on the velocity of the
subject, but also on the direction in which it is traveling.

The Lens - A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which
transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam.

Types of  Lenses

1. Biconvex
2. Biconcave
3. Plano-convex/plane-concave
4. Convex-concave or meniscus
5. Positive or converging lens
6. Negative or diverging lens
Biconvex - A lens is biconvex (or  double convex , or just convex ) if both surfaces are
convex.

Biconcave - A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave ).

Plano-convex or Plano-concave -  If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is  plano-convex

or   plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface.

Meniscus - A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or  meniscus.It
is this type of lens that is most commonly used in corrective lenses.

Positive or Converging Lens - If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated or

parallel beam of light traveling parallel to the lens axis and passing through the lens will be
converged (or   focused  ) to a spot on the axis, at a certain distance behind the lens (known
as the  focal length ). In this case, the lens is called a  positive or  converging  lens.This lens
is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it is bended
toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at a point. It produces a real image
on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from.

Negative or Diverging Lens - If the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam

of light passing through the lens is diverged(spread); the lens is thus called a negative or 
diverging  lens. The beam after passing through the lens appears to be emanating from a
particular point on the axis in front of the lens; the distance from this point to the lens is also
known as the focal length, although it is negative with respect to the focal length of a
converging lens.This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light
passing through it is bended away from each other as if coming from a point. It produces a
virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.

Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations

1. Spherical Aberration
2. Coma
3. Curvature of Field
4. Distortion
5. Chromatic Aberration
6. Astigmatism
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification

Spherical Aberration - When light passing through near the central part of a converging
lens is bended more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from
the edges are focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part.

Coma - This is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned with the light rays
entering the lens obliquely. The defect is noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the
central part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects reproduced at the corners of the
negative are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by
combinations of lenses of different curvatures.

Curvature of Field - This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a
sharper focus in curved surface than a flat surface. The correction of this defect is similar to
spherical aberration and coma.

Distortion - A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either
horizontal or vertical lines in an object. This is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If
the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens,straight lines near the edges of the object tends
to bulge outside. This is known as the barrel distortion.If the diaphragm is placed behind the
lens, straight lines near the edges tends to bend inward. This isknown as the pincushion
distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens component
and the two opposite distortions will neutralize each other.

Chromatic Aberration - This defect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays
of different wavelengths to the same focus. Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while infrared
rays are bent to the least when they pass through the lens. This defect is reduced by utilizing
compound lenses made up of single lens made up of glass of different curvatures.

Astigmatism - This defect is present when the size of image produced by photographic rays
of one wavelength is different from the size produced by another. Size of the image
increases as the wavelength of the rays decreases.In color photography it produces a
rainbow colored fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white photography,
it appears as a slight blue.

Types of  Lenses (as to degree of correction to lens aberration)

1.Achromatic lens - corrected for chromatic aberration.
2.Rapid-rectilinear lens - corrected for distortion.
3.Anastigmatic lens - corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens
   defects.
4.Apochromatic lens - also corrected for astigmatism but with higher
   degree of correction to color.

Focal length - is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane
when the lens is set or focused at infinity position or far distance.Focal length is a measure
of the light-bending power of a lens. It is invariably measured in millimeters(mm). The
longer the focal length of a lens , the narrower the angle of view , and the larger objects
appear in theviewfinder  without the need to move any closer to them.

Focal Distance - is the distance from the optical center of the lens to the film plane.

Telephotos - are long focal length lenses.

Telephotos are lenses with focal lengths greater than 50mm. They range from 70mm short
telephotos to "long toms" with focal lengths of 1000mm or more.

Wide angles - are short focal lengths.

A lens with a focal length of 50mm is known as a  standard lens ± the view that it gives is
similar to that of the human eye . Any lens with a shorter focal length, and wider angle of
view, is known as wide-angle.

How Focal Length Affects Image Size - Lenses work on the principle that light affecting
from a subject can be bent using the refractive properties of glass to form a miniature image
of the subject. Lenses with short focal lengths, such as the wide-angle lens, produce a small
image. Telephoto lenses, with longer focal lengths, produce a larger image, when taken from
the same distance.

Zoom Lens - It is a kind of lens with variable focal length.

Does Focal Length Affect Depth of  Field?

Aperture is not the only factor that affects how much of a scene is in focus. You should also
take into account the focal length of the lens being used and the distance that the lens is
focused at (generally the distance from the camera to your subject). The longer the focal
length, the more restricted depth of field becomes.So, all things being equal, a wide-angle
lens keeps more of the scene in focus than a telephoto one. In addition, depth of field
becomes increasingly more limited the closer you are to the subject that your lens is focused
on.

Factors Affecting Depth of  Field

1.Aperture - The larger the aperture the less depth of field. For
   maximum depth of field, use the smallest aperture.
2.Focused Distance - The closer the subject you focus on, the less depth
   of field. Depth of field is greater with distance subjects.
3.Focal Length - The longer the lens you use, the less depth of field you
   will have. Wide-angle lenses give the greatest depth of field.

Films and Papers

A.Black and White Films

  
1.Emulsion - a suspension of a sensitive silver salt or a mixture of silver
   halides in a viscous medium (as a gelatin solution) forming a coating on
   photographic plates, film, or paper.
2.Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - a layer found in modern
   photographic films. It is placed between the light-sensitive emulsion
   and the tough film base, or sometimes on the back of the film base.
   The light that passes through the emulsion and the base is absorbed
   by the opaque anti-halation layer.This keeps that light from reflecting
   off the pressure plate or anything else behind the film and re-exposing
   the emulsion, reducing contrast. The anti-halation layer is rendered
   transparent or washed from the film (as in K-14 films) during processing
   of the film.
3.Film Base- A film base is a transparent substrate which acts as a
   support medium for the photosensitive emulsion that lies atop it.
   Despite the numerous layers and coatings associated with the emulsion
   layer, the base generally accounts for the vast majority of the
   thickness of any given film stock.

  Historically there have been three major types of film base in use: cellulose
nitrate,cellulose acetate (cellulose diacetate, cellulose acetate propionate, cellulose acetate
butyrate, andcellulose triacetate), and polyethylene trephthalate polyester (Kodak trade-
name: ESTAR).

Characteristics of B & W   Films:

1.Emulsion Speed
2.Spectral Sensitivity
3.Granularity or Graininess

Emulsion Speed
a.ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed in
   arithmetical value.
b.DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normen) rating, which is expressed in
   logarithmic value.
c.ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in
   the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values.

Spectral Sensitivity
a.Blue sensitive film ± sensitive to UV rays and blue color only
b.Orthochromatic film ± sensitive to UV rays, to blue and green color.
   It is not sensitive to red color.
c.Panchromatic film ± sensitive to UV radiation to blue, green, and red
   light or all colors.
d.Infra-red film ± sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green, red light and
   infrared rays.

Granularity or Graininess
This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after development of an
exposed film.Generally, the size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion
speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is used in processing.

Rules to remember:
1.The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain.
2.The higher the emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger are the
   grains.
3.A film developer will produce a finer grain that a paper developer when
   used for film processing.

B.Color Films
A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base.

Main types of color film in current use

1.Color negative film forms a negative (color-reversed) image when
   exposed, which is permanently fixedduring developing. This is then
   exposed onto photographic paper to form a positive image.
   Ex:Kodacolor
2.Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative image
   when exposed, which is reversed to a positive image during
   developing. The film can then be projected onto a screen. Ex:
   Kodachrome

C.Photographic Papers (Black & White)

Photographic paper is exposed to light in a controlled manner, either by placing a negative
in contact with the paper directly to produce a contact print, by using an enlarger in order to
create a latent image, by exposing in some types of camera to produce a photographic
negative, or by placing objects upon it to produce photograms. Photographic papers are
subsequently developed using the gelatin-silver process to create a visible image.

Characteristics of a Photographic Paper

1.Chloride paper -  has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing.
2.Bromide paper - has a fast speed and is recommended for projection
   printing or enlarging.
3.Chloro-bromide paper - is a multi-speed and could be used in both
   contact printing and enlarging.
Exposure and development latitude
Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the ideal exposure or
development without appreciable loss of print quality.

1.Exposure latitude Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide

   exposure latitude so exposure must be critical at all times.
2. Development latitude Papers that do not change appreciable in
   contrast and image tone with reasonable variations in development
   has a good latitude. However, for best quality the developing time
   should be as near as those prescribed by the manufacturer.

Contrast Range or Grade

In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are indicated by numbers - # 0 to 5
1.#0 and 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative
2.#2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negative
3.#3 to 5 used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives

Which Film to Use

Film is available in variety of 'speeds'. The faster the film the more sensitive it is to light,
and the shorter the exposure needed. Fast film produces a grainier image.Film speed is
measured on the ISO scale. A film rated as ISO 100 is four times slower than an ISO
400film, and needs four times more light for the same shot.
Filters
In photography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be
inserted in the optical path. The filter can be a square or rectangle shape mounted in a holder
accessory, or, more commonly, a glass or plastic disk with a metal or plastic ring frame,
which can be screwed in front of the lens.

Types of Filters
a.Light Balancing Filter
b.Color Compensating Filter
c.Neutral Density Filter
d.Polarizing Filter

Light Balance Filter - A filter used to change the color quality of the exposing light in
order to secure proper color balance for artificial light films.

Color Compensating Filter - This is used to change the over-all color balance of
photographic result obtained with color films and to compensate for deficiencies in the
quality of exposing energy.

Neutral Density Filter - This filter is used when the light is too bright to allow the use of
desired f-number or shutter speed with a particular film.

Polarizing Filter - It is used to reduce or minimize reflections on subjects like water glass,
and highly polished surfaces.

Exposure - is simply a combination of the aperture and shutter speed. Thus, it is defined as
the product of the total light intensity and the length of time it strikes the emulsion.
Exposure is subjective and errors in calculation will result to overexposure or
underexposure.

Proper exposure is dependent on:

a. Film speed
b. Lighting condition
c.Type of subject

Light: Its Characteristics and Sources

Light is a form of energy, and to understand light we begin with the electromagnetic
spectrum which is basically a grouping of all electromagnetic radiation arranged according
to the amount of energy contained in the radiation.Visible light is a part of this
electromagnetic spectrum that creates the sensation of light when it falls on the human
eye.The properties of all electromagnetic radiation can be described by three inter-related
terms. These are wavelength, frequency and energy. Since light is a part of this spectrum, it
too can be described by these terms. Hence, it is important to understand these terms as a
first step towards understanding light.

Wavelength
Simplistically, we can think of light traveling as a wave. A typical wave form (e.g., ripples
on the surface of water) has crests (or peaks) and troughs (or valleys). The distance between
two consecutive peaks (or troughs) is called the wavelength, and is denoted by the Greek
letter (lambda).The wavelengths of visible light are measured in nanometers (nm) where 1
nm = 1 billionth of a meter (10-9 meters). The wavelength of visible light is between 400-
700nm. The combined effect of the complete range of radiation between 400-700nm appears
as white light to the human eye.

Rainbow Colors:
*   Violet - 400 to 440nm
*   Blue - 440 to 490nm
*   Green - 490 to 540nm
*   Yellow - 540 to 590nm
*   Orange - 600 to 650nm
*   Red - 650 to 700nm

4 Photographic Rays of Modern Photography

1.X-Rays - 1 to 30 nm
2.UV Rays - 30 to 400 nm
3.Visible Light - 400 to 700 nm
4.Infrared Rays - 700 to 100 nm

Primary Colors of Light

1.Red
2.Green
3.Blue

Secondary Colors of Light

1.Yellow
2.Cyan
3.Magenta

White - is the presence of all color.

Black - is the absence of all colors or the absence of light.

Primary Colors of Coloring Matters

1.Red
2.Yellow
3.Blue

Bending of Light - When traveling in open space, light travels in a straight line (186,000
miles/second). However, when light comes in contact with an object, it may be bended in
the following manner:
    * Reflection
face, it bounces off in all directions due to the
          microscopic irregularities of the interface.
    * Refraction - It is the change in direction of a wave
       due to a change in its speed. This is most commonly observed when
       a wave passes from one medium to another.
    * Diffraction - It is described as the apparent bending of waves
       around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small
       openings.It is also described as the bending of light when it hits a
       sharp edge of an opaque object.
             Examples of Diffraction
             1.The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction
                grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern we see when
                looking at a disk;
             2.The hologram (a picture that changes when looked at from
                 different angles) on a credit card.

Kinds of  Objects

1.Transparent objects - allows sufficient visible light to pass through
   them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.
2.Translucent objects - allows light to pass, however diffuse it
   sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly
   distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be
   recognizable but sharp detail and outlines are obscured.
3.Opaque objects - so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the
   object on the other side is very difficult if not impossible.

Sources of  Light

1.Natural Light Source
2.Artificial Light Source    

Natural Light Source (Sunlight)

1.Bright sunlight -  a lighting condition where objects in open space cast
   a deep and   uniform or distinct shadow.
2.Hazy Sunlight - objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
3.Dull Sunlight - objects in open space cast no shadow
    1.Cloudy bright - objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at
       far distance are clearly visible.
    2.Cloudy dull - objects in open space cast not shadow and visibility of
       distant objects are already limited.

Artificial Light Source - Light sources of this category are man-made and is divided into
the continuous radiation and the short duration.

Forensic Light Sources

1.UV Lamp
2.LASER - Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation.
3.Alternative Light Sources
4.Forensic Light Sources

DEVELOPING, PRINTING AND ENLARGING

Chemical Processing
1.Black & White Processing - development, stop-bath, and fixation.
2.Color Processing - development, stop-fix, and stabilizer

Development - It is the conversion of latent image in an emulsion into visible image.

1.B & W Emulsion - reducing exposed silver halide crystals (black silver)
   into metallic silver. (Same reaction is found in photographic papers.)
2.Color Emulsion - Developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and
   magenta dye.

Stop-Bath - The purpose of the stop bath is to halt the development of the film, plate, or
paper by either washing off the developing chemical or neutralizing it.

Fixation - The fixer removes the unexposed silver halide remaining on the Photographic
film or photographic paper, leaving behind the reduced metallic silver that forms the image,
making it insensitive to further action by light. Without fixing, the remaining silver halide
would quickly darken and cause severe fogging of the image.The most common salts used
are sodium thiosulfate - commonly called hypo - and ammonium thiosulfate, commonly
used in modern rapid  fixer formula.

Film Processing - It can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment.

Note:
Panchromatic materials - handled in total darkness.
Blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers - handled under a safe light.

Equipment for Film Processing

1.Tank or tray
2.Developing reel
3.Opener for film cartridge (pliers)
4.Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
5.Thermometer
6.Timer
7.Funnel
8.Photographic sponge
9.Film clips for drying
10.glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions

Developer Formulation
Typical component:
1.Solvent (water)
2.Developing agent
3.Preservative
4.Accelerator or activator
5.Restrainer

D-76 Film Developer Formula

1.Water 520 C             - 750 ml
2.Elon                           - 2 gm
3.Hydroquinone           - 5 gm
4.Sodium Sulfite           - 100 gm
5.Borax (granules)       - 2 gm
6.Water to make          - 1 li

Dektol - Paper Developer

1.Water 520C or 125 0F    - 500 m   l
2.Elon                                 - 311 gm
3.Hydroquinone                - 12 gm
4.Sodium Sulfite                 - 4.5 gm
5.Sodium carbonate           - 67.5 gm
6.Potassium bromide          - 1gm
7. Water to make -             - 1 li

Stop-Bath - Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid.

Fixing Bath Formula

1.Water
2.Dissolving agent
3.Preservative
4.Neutralizers
5.Hardeners

Typical Fixing Formula:

1.Water 520C or 125 0F     - 600 ml
2.Hypo                                - 240 gm
3.Sodium sulfite                  - 15 gm(anhydrous)
4.Acetic Acid (28%)            - 480 ml
5.Boric Acid (crystals)         - 7.5 gm
6.Potassium alum                - 15 gm(fine granular
7 Water to make                 - 1 li

Photographic Painting
1.Contact Printing - It is a procedure of exposing photographic print
   materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being
   reproduced.
2.Projection Printing or Enlarging - It is a type of printing where the
   image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a print
   material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment
   is Enlarger, the so-called camera in reverse.

Equipment for Paper Developing

 1.Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the
   fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size).
2.Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the
   prints.
3.Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.
4.Timers
5.Paper cutter
6.A bigger tray or tank for washing prints.

APPLICATION TO POLICE WORK

General Application
1.Identification purposes   
2.Recording and preserving of evidences
3.Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked
   eye. 
4.Recording action of offenders  
5.For court exhibits 
6.For crime prevention 
7.Public information
8.Police training

Specific Applications
1.Identification Photographs
2.Crime-Scene Photography

Forensic Toxicology Reviewer 1

1. A substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living
    organism, causes death or injury, especially one that kills by
    rapid reaction.
      A. Tetanus                                                 
      B. Venom   
      C. Toxin
      D. Poison
                                                                                             
2. An antigenic poison or venom of plant or animal origin
    especially one produced by or derived from micro organisms
    and causing disease when present at low concentration in the
    body.
      A. Tetanus                                               
      B. Venom   
      C. Toxin
      D. Poison
                                                                                             
3. Poisonous fluid secreted by animals such as snakes and scorpions
    and typically injected into prey or aggressors by biting or stinging.
      A. Tetanus                                               
      B. Venom   
      C. Toxin
      D. Poison
                                                                                                    
4. A disease marked by rigidity and spasms of the voluntary muscles
    caused by the bacterium clostridium tetani.
      A. Tetanus                                                 
      B. Venom  
      C. Toxin
      D. Poison
                                                                                             
5. A small sharp-pointed organ at the end of the abdomen of
    bees,ants  and scorpions capable of inflicting a painful or
    dangerous wound by injecting poison.  
      A. Sting                                                    
      B. Toxin
      C. Venom
      D. Poison.
                                                                                             
6. A chemical compound that contains the cyano group, -C=N which
    consists of carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom.
      A. Cyanide                                               
      B.Mercury
      C. Arsenic
      D. Corrosive
                                                                                             
7. A chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80.
    It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named
    hydiargyrum.
      A. Cyanide                                              
      B. Corrosive     
      C. Arsenic
      D. Mercury
                                                                                             
8.One that will destroy and damage other substances with which it
   comes contact 
      A. Cyanide                                            
      B. Corrosive     
      C. Arsenic
      D. Mercury
                                                                                             
9. He was a French surgeon and the inventor of the tourniquet.
      A. Joseph Lister                                  
      B. Jean Louis Petit 
      C. Pierre Tourniquet 
      D. Peter Norton
                                                                                             
10.A British surgeon and pioneer of antiseptic surgery.
      A. Joseph Lister                              
      B. Jean Louis Petit  
      C. Pierre Tourniquet
      D. Peter Norton
                                                                                           
Remember the Following:

1. Poison -  A substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a

    living  organism, causes death or injury, especially one that kills by
    rapid reaction.
 
2. Toxin - An antigenic poison or venom of plant or animal origin
    especially one produced by or derived from micro organisms
    and causing disease when present at low concentration in the
    body.

3. Venom - Poisonous fluid secreted by animals such as snakes and

    scorpions and typically injected into prey or aggressor by biting or
    stinging.
  
4. Tetanus - A disease marked by rigidity and spasms of the
    voluntary muscles caused by the bacterium clostridium tetani.
                    - The prolonged contraction of a muscle caused by
    rapidly repeated stimuli.
              
5. Sting - A small sharp-pointed organ at the end of the abdomen of
    bees,ants   and scorpions capable of inflicting a painful or
    dangerous wound by injecting poison.
       
6. Cyanide -  A chemical compound that contains the cyano group,
    -C=N which    consists of carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen
    atom.
 
7. Mercury -  A chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic
    number 80.It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly
    named hydiargyrum.
  
8. Corrosive -   One that will destroy and damage other substances
    with which it comes contact.
   
9. Jean Louis Petit - He was a French surgeon and the inventor of
    the tourniquet.
10.Joseph Lister - A British surgeon and pioneer of antiseptic
     surgery.He is credited   for being the first to use a tourniquet
    device to create a bloodless surgical field in 1864.
           
11.Antidote - is a substance which can counteract a form of
     poisoning.Derived  from Greek word which means "given against"
                       - a medicine given or taken to counteract a
    particular poison.          

Answers: Forensic Toxicology

1.   D
2.   C
3.   B
4.   A
5.   A
6.   A
7.   D
8.   B
9.   B
10. A