Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43 – 72

www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Geology and geochemistry characteristics of the Chiapanecan

Volcanic Arc (Central Area), Chiapas Mexico
J.C. Mora a,⁎, M.C. Jaimes-Viera b , V.H. Garduño-Monroy c ,
P.W. Layer d , V. Pompa-Mera b , M.L. Godinez e
a
Departamento de Vulcanología, Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico
b
Posgrado en Ciencias de la Tierra Instituto de Geofísica, UNAM Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico
c
Instituto de Metalurgia, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo, Mexico
d
Geophysical Institute University of Alaska Fairbanks Fairbanks, AK, 99775, USA
e
Instituto de Geografía, UNAM Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico
Received 27 February 2006; received in revised form 5 December 2006; accepted 7 December 2006
Available online 12 January 2007

Abstract

The Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc (CVA), located in the central portion of the State of Chiapas, is a 150 km stretch of volcanoes
irregularly aligned in the northwest direction between two great volcanic features: the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt to the
northwest and the Central American Volcanic Arc to the southeast. The CVA is located in a complex zone marking the interaction
of the North American, Caribbean and Cocos plates, near the Motagua–Polochic fault system, the boundary between North
American and Caribbean plates. The central part of the CVA is composed of an irregular northwest alignment of at least 10 volcanic
structures generally lying along NNW–SSE-trending faults splayed from the Motagua–Polochic system. Among the structures
there are seven volcanic domes (Huitepec, Amahuitz, La Iglesia, Mispía, La Lanza, Venustiano Carranza and Santotón), one
explosion crater (Navenchauc), one collapse structure (Apas), and one dome complex (Tzontehuitz). In the majority of the
structures there is a clear resurgence with the formation of several domes in the same structure, with the destruction of previous
domes (Navenchauc) or with the formation of new explosion craters or collapse structures (Apas). The volcanic activity in the CVA
was mainly effusive accompanied by explosive and phreatomagmatic events and is characterized by volcanic domes accompanied
by block-and-ash-flows, ash flows with accretionary lapilli, falls, and pumice flows. The volcanic structures and deposits are
calcalkaline in composition with a medium to high content of potassium. CVA volcanic rocks vary from andesite to dacite with
SiO2 between 57 and 66 wt.%, show low concentrations of Ti, P, Nb and Ta, are enriched in Light Rare Earths, depleted in Heavy
Rare Earths, and show a small Eu anomaly; all indicative of arc-related volcanism associated with subduction of the Cocos plate
under the North American plate, but complicated by the geometry of the plate boundary fault system.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc; volcanic dome; subalkaline magma; Chiapas

1. Introduction

The Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc (CVA) is located in

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 56224118x13; fax: +52 55502486.
E-mail address: jcmora@geofisica.unam.mx (J.C. Mora).
0377-0273/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.12.009
southeastern Mexico, in the central part of the State of
Chiapas, between 92°00′ and 92°20′ W and 17°00′ and
16°15′ N. It lies in a tectonically complex region where
44 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
three great plates interact: the North American Plate,
the Caribbean Plate and the Cocos Plate. A zone of
lateral displacement and a zone of convergence define
the limit between these plates. The first is characterized
by a regional system of left-lateral strike–slip faults
known as the Motagua–Polochic Fault System, formed
by the eastward migration of the Caribbean Plate
relative to the North American Plate, and the second is
formed by the subduction of the Cocos and Rivera
plates under the North American and Caribbean Plates
(Fig. 1A).
The boundary between the Caribbean and North
American Plates has been widely recognized as a
system of transform faults (Sedlock et al., 1993). In the
Caribbean Sea, east of Central America, this boundary
corresponds to the Cayman Trench (Sedlock et al.,
1993, and references quoted therein). In the northern
part of Central America, this contact has been widely
interpreted as a zone of faults with left lateral move-
ment. This system of faults has a general east–west
orientation, which crosses Guatemala, where redirects
the courses of the Polochic and Motagua rivers, and
continues to the northeast into the west-central part of
Chiapas (Guzmán-Speziale et al., 1989, Sedlock et al.,
1993).
In Chiapas the limit between the North American
Plate and the Caribbean Plate is delineated by:
– A tectonic province of strike–slip faults, located in
the eastern portion of the Sierra de los Altos de
Chiapas (Sanchez Montes de Oca, 1978; Guzmán-
Speziale et al., 1989).
– A tectonic province of reverse faults, located in the
south-central part of Chiapas and the northern part of
Guatemala (Guzmán-Speziale and Meneses-Rocha,
1999).
Malfait and Dinkelman (1972) and Plafker (1976)
concluded that the western part of the Motagua–
Polochic Fault System is inactive. They associated this
inactivity to the compression produced by convergence
between the Cocos Plate and the North American Plate.
Based on their study of orbital photographs (Skylab),
Muehlberger and Ritchie (1975) have suggested that the
Cuilco–Chixoy–Polochic Faults System continues to
the Mesoamerican Trench. Bowin (1976) inferred that
the extension of the Motagua–Polochic Faults System to
the northeast, crosses a zone of compression in
Guatemala, and southern Mexico, and intercepts the
Mesoamerican Trench, where it forms the denominated
Triple Point (Transform Fault Triple Junction). Burkart
(1978), using Landsat satellite images, outlined the
western extension of the Polochic Fault through the
rocks of the Chiapas Massif, in Mexico where it
intercepts the trench. The same author advances the
hypothesis that the curvature of the trench, located in the
Gulf of Tehuantepec, represents the western-most
extension of the Polochic Fault beyond the continental
margin.
Guzmán-Speziale et al. (1989) have studied the
locations of earthquake hypocenters associated with the
faults that delimit the contact between the North
American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. They suggest
that the triple point formed by the union of the three
plates (North American, Caribbean and Cocos) cannot
be considered as a classic triple point and propose that
the continuation of the western-most part of the
Motagua–Polochic system is an wide and long zone
of faults that starts in northern Guatemala and continues
into southern Mexico. This zone includes a wide system
of faults of lateral displacement with a slight extensional
component (Fig. 1B).
The subduction zone extends from the south-central
part of the Pacific coast of Mexico to Panama. At the
western margin of Central America it is known as the
Mesoamerican Trench (Sedlock et al., 1993, and
references cited therein), while along the Mexican
Pacific coast it is known as the Middle American
Trench (Fig. 1). Dengo (1968) reported a maximum
depth of the trench of nearly 6600 m near the border
between Mexico and Guatemala, in front of Tacaná
volcano. The subduction of the Cocos Plate under the
North American Plate presents variations in the depth
and in the angle of the subducting plate (Sedlock et al.,
1993). In the zone including the southern part of
Mexico, the angle of subduction varies from 10° to 20°
and the depth is of about 100 km (Sedlock et al., 1993,
and references cited therein).
The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB), Chiapa-
necan Volcanic Arc (CVA) and the Central American
Volcanic Arc (CAVA) are associated with Cocos Plate
subduction. The TMVB is one of the most spectacular
geologic provinces in central Mexico thanks to the large
volcanoes that include, among others, Sangangüey,
Ceboruco, Volcano of Colima, Popocatépetl, Iztaccí-
huatl, Nevado de Toluca, Citlaltépetl (Pico de Orizaba).
The TMVB is an E–W volcanic chain located between
19° and 20° N latitude that extends from the Pacific to the
Gulf (Mooser, 1969). The TMVB was built during the
Miocene to the Quaternary by accumulation of lavas
and pyroclastic materials, and also of rocks of lacus-
trine origin (Demant, 1978; Aguirre-Díaz et al., 1998;
Ferrari et al., 1999). The interpretation that has been
given for the TMVB province is that of an active
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72

Fig. 1. (A) Location map and tectonic setting of Southern Mexico (Modified from Tepley et al., 2000). (B) Map of the North America–Caribbean plate boundary, west of the Motagua–Polochic Fault
45

System (map modified from Guzmán-Speziale, 1985). (C) Location map of the Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc (CVA), and El Chichón Volcano (ECV), Tacana Volcanic Complex (TVC), and study area.
Abbreviations; CAVA, Central American Volcanic Arc; MPFS, Motagua–Polochic Fault System; TMVB, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.
46 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
continental arc related to the subduction of the Cocos and
Rivera plates under the North American Plate along the
Mesoamerican Trench (Siebe et al., 1995; Suter et al.,
1995; Aguirre-Díaz et al., 1998; Wallace and Carmi-
chael, 1999). The TMVB has a length of 1000 to
12000 km, a width between 20 and 150 km (Demant,
1978; Nixon, 1982) and an orientation that differs by 15°
to 16° with respect of the orientation of the Mesoamerican
Trench (Urrutia-Fucugachi and Del Castillo, 1977; Pardo
and Suárez, 1999). The volcanic sequences in the TMVB
are predominantly calc-alkaline, with common occur-
rences of alkaline magmatism (Negendank et al., 1985;
Nelson and Livieres, 1986; Nelson et al., 1995; Ferrari et
al., 2001; Gómez-Tuena et al., 2005; Petrone et al., 2003;
Aranda-Gómez et al., 2005). Recent studies have
proposed some tectonic models to try to explain the
coexistence of alkaline and calc-alkaline magmas in the
TMVB, the most recent model was proposed by Ferrari
(2004).
The CAVA formed as the result of the subduction
of the Cocos Plate under the western border of the
Caribbean Plate. The CAVA presents a well-defined line
of composite volcanoes and eruptive centers parallel to
the Mesoamerican Trench (Chan et al., 1999). The
approximated length of this arc is 1100 km from the
Mexico-Guatemala border to Costa Rica (Carr et al.,
1982). Carr et al. (1982) grouped the volcanoes in this
arc into seven segments with an approximate orientation
of N60°W. The lavas generated in this arc are calc-
alkaline andesitic to basaltic principally with a chemical
signature typical of a subduction tectonic environment
(Chan et al., 1999).
The CVA has been the least studied of the volcanic
belts in Mexico, and hence, is the focus of this
investigation. The CVA was first described by Damon
and Montesinos (1978) who named it “Modern
Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc”. Damon and Montesinos
(1978) described it as a 150 km long volcanic structure
aligned NW–SE composed of 6 volcanoes and reported
K–Ar ages: Huitepec (0.85–1.95 Ma), Santa Fe
(2.17 Ma), Tzontehuitz (2.14–1.95 Ma), Zinacantan
(0.85 Ma) and Navenchauc (0.432 Ma). Damon and
Montesinos (1978) concluded that the CVA was formed
as a result of a readjustment of the direction of plate
motion of the Cocos Plate at 2.79 Ma, they believed it to
be essentially continuous with the TMVB. Capaul
(1987) renamed this arc the “Chiapanecan Volcanic
Arc” (CVA), and described it as composed of Quater-
nary volcanoes, including El Chichon volcano, of low
eruptive volume and that were formed in a tectonically
complex region of Chiapas. Jaimes-Viera et al. (2004)
conducted preliminary mapping of the central part of the
CVA and showed 10 volcanic structures with deposits
of pyroclastic flows and associated fall deposits. All
products emitted by the eruptive centers of the CVA
have intermediate, calc-alkaline compositions except El
Chichón which has some basic alkaline products
(trachybasalts) (Damon and Montesinos, 1978; Capaul,
1987; Macías et al., 2003; Garcia-Palomo et al., 2004;
Jaimes-Viera et al., 2004; Jaimes-Viera, 2006). As with
the TMVB, the CVA does not parallel to the coast or the
trench that represents the contact zone between the
North America and Caribbean Plates (Fig. 1C; Sedlock
et al., 1993).
In this work we report the results of new geologic
mapping and geochemical analyses on the volcanic
structures and deposits from the central part of the
Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc. Our study area is located
∼ 80 km to the SE of the El Chichón volcano, and
∼ 100 km to the NW of the Tacaná Volcanic Complex
(Fig. 1B, C).
2. Regional geology
The geology of State of Chiapas has been described
by several authors as consisting of a pre-Mesozoic
metamorphic and sedimentary basement, a sequence of
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and a sequence of volcanic
and Cenozoic sedimentary and igneous rocks (Fig. 2).
The oldest of the pre-Mesozoic units are Proterozoic
granites, diorites, and gneisses (Pantoja-Alor, 1974;
López-Ramos, 1975; Salas, 1975). These units are
covered by a sequence of sedimentary deposits, and
metamorphic rocks (serpentinites, schists, quarzites and
gneisses) (López-Ramos, 1975; Castro-Mora, 1999).
These rocks are in turn intruded by gabbros, granodiorite,
diorite and granite rocks of the Chiapas Batholith (or
granitic Chiapas Massif), which outcrops mainly in the
southwest portion of Chiapas (Damon in Salas, 1975).
The Mesozoic units are composed of a sequence
of marine and continental clastic-carbonate deposits
from Triassic–Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous in age.
These deposits outcrop in the north-central part of the
State forming steep mountains (Castro-Mora, 1999;
Fig. 2).
The Cenozoic sequence (Paleocene to Pliocene) rests
on the Mesozoic rocks and consists principally of igneous
and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 2). In addition two episodes
of intense igneous activity are recognized (Damon and
Montesinos, 1978) based in K–Ar radiometric ages from
rocks that outcrop in the south, southwest, center and east
parts of Chiapas. The first episode occurred during the
Miocene with the intrusion of igneous rocks into the
metamorphic rocks of the Chiapas Massif. The second
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
Fig. 2. Generalized geological map of Chiapas modified from Castro-Mora (1999).
episode occurred during the Late Cenozoic (Pliocene) and
is characterized by the predominance of the volcanic
activity in the central and northern parts of Chiapas. This
activity is exemplified by the El Chichón, Tzontehuitz and
Nicolás Ruiz volcanoes. Again, these authors used the
term “Modern Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc” to distinguish
this episode of activity from the pre-Cenozoic igneous
units (Damon and Montesinos, 1978).
3. Structural geology
De la Rosa et al. (1989) divided the State of Chiapas
into 8 tectonic provinces which are: (1) Granitic Chiapas
Massif; (2) Comalapa Anticlinal; (3) Central Sinclinal; (4)
Strike–slip fault; (5) Simojovel; (6) Miramar; (7) Liberty
Arc; (8) Yucatan Peninsula (Fig. 3). The CVA is located
mainly in the Strike–slip fault province (Fig. 3). The main
faults present in this province are the Chacté–Ocosingo
47
(Tecpatán–Ocosingo), Oxchuc (Tenejapa), Chicoasén–
Malpaso–Hixtán (Telestaquín–San Cristóbal), Mal-
paso–Muñiz, Bajucú, San Fernando, Quintana Roo,
and La Venta faults. Guzmán-Speziale and Meneses-
Rocha (2000) concluded that these faults represent the
northern extension of the Motagua–Polochic Fault Sys-
tem and are characterized by both reverse and left-
lateral strike–slip motion. (Fig. 1B). In the study area
there is clear evidence of a left-lateral transpressive fault
system aligned with the geometry of the Motagua–
Polochic System.
In addition, mapping and our geomorphological
study have shown that there is a second set of high-
angle NNW–SSE faults with a right-lateral displace-
ment. These faults form part of the Riedel system (R′),
which is distinct from the Motagua–Polochic system.
In the study area these faults clearly displace the
Tzontehuitz Dome Complex and Motagua–Polochic
48 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
Fig. 3. Tectonic provinces map of Chiapas from De la Rosa et al. (1989).
system faults with a right-lateral component (based on
satellite interpretation field observations of the lava
dome). These faults were probably active from the
Upper Miocene to the Pleistocene. Morphologically
both the R′ and Motagua–Polochic fault systems
present evidence of Quaternary activity, however the
recent activity has not been well studied.
4. Methodology
We analyzed blocks and juvenile lithics of block-
and-ash-flow deposits, ash flow, and fall deposits, as
well as samples of domes, and one small black aphanitic
xenolith. Chemical analyses were performed in the
Laboratorio Universitario de Geoquímica Isotópica
(LUGIS) at UNAM and at Activation Laboratories,
Ancaster, Canada (Actlabs). LUGIS and Actlabs
analyzed major elements (SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, FeO,
MnO, CaO, K2O and P2O3) with an accuracy b 1%.
Actlabs the trace elements (Rb, Sr, Ba, Pb, Th, Zr, Nb,
La, Ce, Nd, Y, Ni, Co, Cr, Cu, and Zn) uncertainty is
approximately 5% for Rb, Sr, Ba, Zr, Nd, Ni, Co, Cr, Zn
and Cu; 10% for Nb, La, Ce and Y, and 15% for Pb.
Concentrations of Fe2O3, MgO and Na2O were obtained
through wet-chemical analysis; and MgO and Na2O
through atomic absorption spectroscopy. The loss
ignition (LOI) was obtained measuring the loss of
mass after subjecting the sample to a temperature of
900 °C for 24 hours.
The concentration of the Rare Earths Elements (REE)
and U, Ta, Hf, Sc, Cs, and Tb were analyzed by
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-
MS) and by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis
(INAA) (Ba, Cr, Cu, Ni, Sr, Ta, V, Y, Zn, and Zr
b1 ppm; Cs, Hf, Tb, U and Th = 0.5 ppm; Rb, 20 ppm;
Sm, Eu and Yb = 0.1 ppm; detection limits) at the
Activation Laboratories, Ancaster, Canada.
At LUGIS elemental determinations of REE were
made with induced-coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS). For the analysis, 0.2 g of dried powdered
rock was digested with a mixture of concentrated acids
(10 ml HF and 4 ml HClO4). The solution was
evaporated to dryness and dissolved with 4 ml HClO4.
After evaporation, 1% HNO3 was added to make a
solution with a total volume of 50 ml. The ICP mass
spectrometer employed was a VG-Elemental model
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 pp. 49–52

Fig. 4. Geological Map of the central part of the Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc. The study zone cover an area of 4900 km2 and is composed by 10 volcanic structures: one collapse ctructure (Apas; ACS), one explosion crater (Navenchauc; NEC),
dome complex (Tzontehuitz; TzDC) and seven volcanic domes (Huitepec, Amahuitz, La Iglesia, Mispía, La Lanza, Venustiano Carranza and Santotón; Fig. 4).
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 53

Fig. 5. Photographs of the Apas Collapse Structure (ACS) volcanic deposits. (A) Discordant contact between ash flow deposit and limestone from the
basement sequence rocks. (B) Outcrop of the medium part of the Apas Volcanic Sequence. (C) One outcrop of block-and-ash-flow deposit along the
fan to the south of the ACS. (D) Outcrop of the block-and-ash-flow deposit in the south of the ACS, in the fan area.

PQ3. Detection limits are calculated as the concentration
equivalent to three times the standard deviation of five
replicates of the blank solution. For all elements it is
better than 50 ppt. Calibration was performed with a 1,
10, 100 and 200 ppb multi-elemental standard solution
(SPEX-High Purity) and a blank solution of deionized
water, all containing HNO3 at 2%. Matrix effects and
instrumental drift can be eliminated by the use of In 115
(10 ppb) as internal standard. The validity of the
analytical procedure was assessed by accuracy and
precision tests. These were calculated by comparison of
measured versus reference values for standard JA-2. All
elements have better precision than 3% RSD (relative
standard deviation). Data obtained for JA-2 showed
good agreement with certificated values.
5. Geology of the CVA
The study area covers approximately 4900 km2 and
extends along a northwestern trend of at least at least 10
volcanic structures among which include a collapse
structure (Apas), an explosion crater (Navenchauc), a
dome complex (Tzontehuitz) and seven volcanic
structures or volcanic domes (Huitepec, Amahuitz, La
Iglesia, Mispía La Lanza, Venustiano Carranza and
Santotón; Fig. 4).
54 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72

6. Apas Collapse Structure (ACS)
This collapse structure is located in the “Sierra de los
Altos de Chiapas” (UTM coordinates: 15Q 522815E,
1848210N; Fig. 4). It has a crater 2.87 km in diameter,
and an associated sequence of block-and-ash-flows, ash
flows, and pumice flows, with two directions of em-
placement: to SW and NW. Inside the ACS we identified
two outcrops. The first is located on the road to the village
of Apas where there is an outcrop of ash flow deposits in
discordant contact with carbonates rocks of the sedimen-
tary basement (AC-04; Fig. 5A). This is a brownish
deposit with a massive, slightly compact structure, and
with a thickness of ∼15 m consisting mainly of gray ash
composed of crystals of plagioclase, amphibole, glass and
few dense fresh lithic fragments. The lithics are light gray
and angular with dimensions of up to 20 cm. We defined
these fragments as juvenile lithics composed of phe-
nocrysts and microphenocrysts of plagioclase (10%),
pyroxene (15%; clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene), am-
phibole (13%; hornblende), and Fe–Ti oxides (1%; ilme-
nite and titanomagnetite).

Fig. 6. Navenchauc Explosion Crater (NEC), Navenchauc Dome, and Volcanic Deposits. (A) Panoramic photograph looking to the north of the NEC,
The village of Navenchauc lies along a lake in front of the dome. The white line delineates the diffuse contact between dome rocks and carbonate
rock. (B) Photograph of an approximately 35 m high vertical dome wall. (C) Ash flow deposit from the NEC located along the NW caldera wall.
(D) Photograph of detail of the ash flow deposits with accretionary lapilli.
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
Fig. 7. Huitepec Volcanic Dome. (A) Panoramic photograph showing the HVD from San Cristobal de las Casas. (B) Outcrop of ash flow deposits
associated with the HVD.
The second deposit is located at an elevation of
2258 m inside the ACS (AC-41). Here the outcrop is
predominately an ash flow deposit with small intercala-
tions of pumice flow deposits. The total thickness of this
sequence is ∼ 80 m (Fig. 5B). The ash flow deposits
vary in color from light gray to dark gray to brown, with
a compact to semi-compact and massive structure. The
matrix of this deposit is composed of crystals of
amphibole, pyroxene and plagioclase, together with
shards of glass and some juvenile gray lithics. The
lithics have a porphyritic texture with phenocrysts of
plagioclase (0.3 cm) and amphibole (0.3 cm) in an
aphanitic matrix.
The pumice flow deposits intercalated with the ash
flow deposit have a maximum thickness of ∼ 5 cm, are
light yellow in color, and are composed principally of
light brown pumice with vesicular texture. The pumice
fragments have crystals of plagioclase (0.2 cm), amphi-
bole (0.3 cm) and pyroxene (0.2 cm) (Fig. 5B). The two
deposits inside this structure were named the “Apas Ash
Flow Deposits” after the name of the closest village.
These deposits indicate deposition in a wet (water
dominated) environment and are semi-compact with a
massive structure (Fig. 5B).
The block-and-ash-flow deposits outcrop predomi-
nantly outside of the ACS and the largest of these shows
the form of a large fan to the southwest with a maximum
length of 10.2 km (it terminates close to the Grijalva
river), a width of 18.8 km, and covers an area of
∼ 137.9 km2 (Fig. 4). The block-and-ash-flow deposits
are light gray in color and generally show a semi-
compact and massive structure, with predominantly
light gray sub-angular juvenile lithics of up to 5 cm in
length. We also found carbonates rocks of ∼ 6 cm in
55
length and, in less proportion, accidental red lithics of
2 cm in size (Fig. 5C). This deposit varies in color from
beige to brown to gray, with a thickness of ∼ 20 m. It has
a semicompact massive structure, consisting principally
of juvenile light gray angular blocks whose maximum
dimensions are 5 m. This deposit is supported by a
matrix of fine to medium sand composed of crystals of
plagioclase, pyroxene, and amphibole, together with
brown glass and lithic fragments (Fig. 5D). The juvenile
lithics have low density with cooling fractures and
phaneritic and aphanitic textures, crystals of plagioclase,
amphibole, and pyroxene (0.4, 0.8, and 0.3 cm; respec-
tively) are seen.
7. Navenchauc Explosion Crater (NEC)
The NEC is located to the north of the ACS and has
an approximate diameter of 1.34 km (Fig. 4). Associated
with this structure are a dome and pyroclastic flow
deposits. The Navenchauc Dome, thus called after the
village of the same name, is found outcropping along the
northern periphery of the caldera, at the kilometer
64 milepost of Federal Highway 90 (Tuxtla Gutiérrez-
San Cristóblal de las Casas) (Fig. 4). This dome has a
maximum height of 100 m and a mean diameter of
575 m (Fig. 6A). The rock that constitutes this dome is
light gray in color with porphyric texture, and a massive,
compact structure. It has crystals of plagioclase
(0.7 cm), pyroxene (0.2 cm) and amphibole (0.3 cm),
surrounded by a light gray matrix.
The pyroclastic flow deposits are distributed princi-
pally towards the NW with a maximum extent of
∼ 9.5 km, with a thickness of ∼ 20 m and cover an area
of ∼ 48 km2 (Fig. 6A). These deposits are composed of a
56 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
sequence of block-and-ash-flows, ash flows, pumice
flows, and surges. The block-and-ash-flow deposits are
brown in color, with blocks (b 5 m) surrounded by a
matrix of medium to fine sand, composed of crystals of
plagioclase, pyroxene and amphibole, glass and lithic
fragments. The color of the blocks varies from gray-
brown to light gray in fresh rocks. The blocks are similar
to the dome rocks with sub-angular form, phaneritic
texture and massive structure with plagioclase (0.3 cm),
amphibole (0.5 cm) and pyroxene (0.2 cm).
East of the NEC (AC-31; Fig. 4) sequence of volcanic
deposits is exposed. The upper part is a 1.5-m-thick dark
gray ash flow deposit with semi-compact, massive
structure, composed of crystals of plagioclase, amphi-
bole, and pyroxene, glass and fragments of dense lithics
(Fig. 6B). The middle part is a semi-compact and
massive block-and-ash-flow deposit with juvenile
gray dark and light gray lithics (Fig. 6B). The dark
gray are sub-angular (b 9 cm), coarse grain (porphiritic
texture), with abundant crystals of plagioclase (0.4 cm),
pyroxene (0.2 cm) and amphibole (0.3 cm).The light gray
lithics are sub-angular, of phaneritic texture with crystals
of plagioclase (0.3 cm), amphibole (0.3 cm) and pyroxene
(0.3 cm). The lower part of this sequence corresponds
to an intercalation of light gray ash flow and surge
deposits (with accretionary lapilli) 1.4 m in thickness.
(Fig. 6C–D).
8. Huitepec Volcanic Dome (HVD)
The Huitepec Volcanic Dome (15Q 0533,300E,
1852608N UTM) is located 1 km west of San Cristóbal
de las Casas (Fig. 4). This structure has been studied by
Damon and Montesinos (1978) and, according to them,
it is a dome of hornblende andesite with a K–Ar whole-
rock age 0.850 ± 0.030 Ma. The HVD has a mean
diameter at its base of 5.18 km (5.5 km along its major
axis and 4.87 km along its minor axis), covers an area of
∼ 21.2 km2 with an approximate height of 520 m
(Fig. 4). Associated with this dome is a deposit of ash
flows. The rock of this volcanic structure varies in color
from light to dark gray. It is phaneritic in texture with
coarse grain with plagioclase (0.9 cm), amphibole
(0.4 cm) and pyroxene (0.4 cm) (Fig. 7A).
An ash flow deposit (BO-54) outcrops 5 km northwest
of San Cristóbal de las Casas, on the road that goes to San
Juan Chamula (Fig. 7B). It is gray, semi-compact and
massive, with a thickness of 25 m, composed of crystals of
plagioclase, amphibole, pyroxene and glass. This deposit
contains juvenile gray lithics (b8 cm) with porphyritic
texture containing crystals of plagioclases (0.7 cm),
pyroxene (0.2 cm) and amphibole (0.6 cm). These lithics
are concentrated mainly in the upper part of the deposit
where dimensions of up to 1 m in length are observed.
9. Tzontehuitz Dome Complex (TzDC)
This volcanic structure was first studied by Damon and
Montesinos (1978) who referred to it as “Tzontehuitz
volcano”. These authors described this volcano as being
composed of augite andesite with disseminated pyrite and
report a K–Ar whole-rock age, of 2.14 ± 0.04 Ma.
In our study, we observed that the volcanic structure
is composed of at least three domes (Tzontehuitz 1 and
2, and El Calvario) aligned in a north–south orientation
(Fig. 4) and pyroclastic flow deposits. Because it
appears to be a multi-phase structure, we refer to it as
a dome complex, rather than as a single dome. (Fig. 8).
The area covered by the TzDC is approximately 16 km2.
The El Calvario Dome (15Q 5433300E, 1857600N
UTM) outcrops with a height of 80 m and a mean
diameter of 1 km (Fig. 8B). It is composed of a dark gray
rock with porphyritic texture with plagioclase (0.7 cm),
pyroxene (0.5 cm) and amphibole (0.3 cm). Tzontehuitz
Dome 1 (15Q 544,200E 1859800N UTM) is located to
the north of El Calvario, and outcrops with a height of
∼ 200 m and a mean diameter of 1 km (Fig. 8A). The
rock is light gray in color, with a massive and compact
structure, with plagioclase (0.6 cm), amphibole (0.4 cm)
and pyroxene (0.3 cm). In these rocks we observed some
isolated megacrystals of amphibole (2.5 cm) and some
dark mafic enclave with elongated shapes (b1 cm).
Tzontehuitz Dome 2 (15Q 543850 and 1861400
UTM) is located to the north of Tzontehuitz 1. It is a
semicircular structure with a mean diameter of 1.5 km
and a height of 180 m. It is dark gray in color, with a
massive and compact structure, and porphyritic texture.
It is composed of plagioclase (0.4 cm), pyroxene
(0.3 cm) and amphibole (0.3 cm).
Two pyroclastic flow deposits have been recognized
as being associated with the TzDC. They were emplaced
in east and southeast directions with maximum lengths
of 9.5 and 11 km respectively. They have a mean
thickness of 8 m, and cover an area of approximately
73 km2. These deposits are principally block-and-ash-
flows of dark color, and are semi-compact and massive
structures, with lithics and some yellow pumice
surrounded by a matrix of medium to coarse sand with
crystals of plagioclase, amphibole, pyroxene and glass.
The lithics are either red accidental lithics or juvenile
lithics. The juvenile lithics are pumice and slight dense
gray rocks with cooling fractures and have porphyritic
textures. They contain crystals of plagioclase (0.6 cm),
pyroxene (0.3 cm) and amphibole (0.4 cm).
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 57

10. Amahuitz Volcanic Dome (AVD)
The Amahuitz Volcanic Dome (15Q 558,128E
1,824,081N UTM) is located at the most eastern part of
the study area ∼ 33 km southeast of San Cristobal de las
Casas and 1 km southwest of the village of Teopisca
(Fig. 4). This volcanic structure is ∼ 400 m in height,
has a diameter of ∼ 2.5 km and covers an area of
∼ 4.4 km 2 (Fig. 9A). The main structure consists
of massive, very compact, light gray rocks with a
phaneritic texture with abundant plagioclase (0.4 cm),
amphibole (0.3 cm) and pyroxene (0.3 cm).

Fig. 8. Tzontehuitz Dome Complex. (A) Panoramic photograph showing the TzDC (Tzontehuitz 1). (B) Photograph of Calvario Dome and gray rocks
of its structure.
58 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
Fig. 9. Amahuitz Volcanic Dome (AVD). (A) Panoramic photograph
of the AVD. (B) Fall deposit in the village of Teopisca.
In Teopisca there is a 15-cm-thick outcrop of fall
deposits, which is associated with this structure based on
its proximity (Fig. 9B). This is a yellowish-brown
deposit consisting mainly of fragments of yellow
pumice supported grain by grain with normal gradation.
The size of the pumice varies between 4 and 20 mm with
angular shapes and abundant vesicles. The observable
minerals are plagioclase (b0.3 cm) and amphibole
(0.3 cm), surrounded by a yellow glass matrix. This
deposit is found between two light brown clay-rich
lacustrine deposits.
11. La Iglesia Volcanic Dome (IVD)
The IVD (15Q 547372E, 1824242N UTM) is located
26 km to the SE of San Cristóbal de las Casas. It is a
circular structure with a diameter of ∼5 km and a height
of 600 m, and covers an area of ∼ 18.1 km2 (Figs. 4 and
10A). The rocks from the structure that compose IVD are
light gray color, with massive structure and porphyritic
texture. The principal mineral phases are plagioclase
(0.3 cm), amphibole (0.2 cm) and pyroxene (0.3 cm).
Associated with the IVD are deposits of block-and-
ash-flow that were emplaced principally to the south-
west, with a maximum length of 13 km, a mean
thickness of 15 m, and covered an area of approximately
90 km2. These deposits are gray in color, with a semi-
compact and massive structure, consisting of gray
blocks surrounded by a matrix of medium to fine sand
composed of glass, crystals and dense lithics similar to
the dome rocks (Fig. 10B). The lithics are gray in color,
sub-rounded (9 cm) and phaneritic in texture. They
contain plagioclase (0.6 cm), pyroxene (0.3 cm) and
amphibole (0.2 cm).
12. Mispía Volcanic Dome (MVD)
The MVD (15Q 549177E, 1818487N UTM) is
located 5 km southeast of the IVD , this structure was
identified by Capaul (1987) as Nicolás Ruiz Volcano
and for which he reported K–Ar ages of 0.34 and
0.84 Ma. In this work the name has been changed to
Mispía because this is the name by which it appears in
the INEGI 1:50,000 topographic charts used in this
study (Fig. 4). This volcanic structure is an ovoid form
extending in a north–south direction with a mean
diameter of ∼ 3.6 km., a height of 600 m and covering
an area of ∼ 8 km2 (Fig. 11A).
The rock that composes the structure of this volcano
is of light gray color with a coarse grain phaneritic
texture composed of plagioclase (0.4 cm), amphibole
(0.4 cm) and pyroxene (0.3 cm). This rock also contains
black xenoliths of aphanitic texture and elongated form
and some crystal cumulates of amphibole with a length
of up to 5 cm. Associated with this structure are some
block-and-ash-flow deposits that were emplaced prin-
cipally to the southeast, with a maximum extent of
6.8 km and a mean thickness of 6 m. They cover an area
of approximately 32 km2. These deposits are brown in
color, with a semicompact and massive structure,
consisting of surrounded blocks (80 cm in length)
immersed in a matrix of medium to fine sand composed
of glass, crystals and lithics. The blocks have similar
characteristics of dome rock with a dark gray color with
phaneritic texture, whose mineralogy is composed of
plagioclase (0.9 cm), pyroxene (0.3 cm) and amphibole
(0.3 cm) (Fig. 11B, C).
13. La Lanza Volcanic Dome (LVD)
The LVD (15Q 0544322E, 1819402N UTM) is
located 2 km east of the MVD. Damon and Montesinos
(1978) described this structure as a hornblende dacite
volcanic neck with vertical banded-like appearance of
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 59

Fig. 10. La Iglesia Volcanic Dome (IVD). (A) Panoramic photograph of the IVD. (B) Photographs of gray block-and-ash-flow deposit with a semi-
compact and massive structure; the blocks are surrounded by a matrix of fine to medium size sand.
60 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72

Fig. 11. Mispía Volcanic Dome (MVD). (A) Panoramic photograph of the MVD. (B) Photograph of brown block-and-ash-flow deposits, with semi-
compact structure and gray blocks. Surrounding the blocks there is a fine and medium in size sand matrix, composed by glass, crystals and lithics.
(C) Panoramic photograph looking to the south of the MVD, where there is the distribution of dome, block-and-ash-flow deposit and sedimentary basement.

“pelean” type, with a K–Ar age of 0.846 ± 0.024 Ma
(Fig. 4). This volcanic dome is composed of a main
structure with the form of spine surrounded by deposits
of pyroclastic flows. The spine is semi-circular with a
mean diameter of 1.5 km, covering an area of
∼1.18 km2, and a height of 140 m (Fig. 12A). This
structure is composed of a light gray rock with medium
grained phaneritic texture. The mineral phases are
plagioclase (0.4 cm), amphibole (0.3 cm) and pyroxene
(0.2 cm). The rock is slightly altered with reddish brown
oxidation spots.
Pyroclastic flow deposits have a principal direction
of emplacement toward the southeast, with a maximum
range of 9.5 km., a mean thickness of 4 m, and cover an
area of ∼ 50 km2. They are brown in color, with a semi-
compact and massive structure, with dark gray blocks
with phaneritic texture, which are immersed in a matrix
of medium to fine sand composed of glass, crystals and
lithics (Fig. 12B). The blocks are surrounded and have a
dark gray color with phaneritic texture, composed of
plagioclase (0.9 cm), pyroxene (0.3 cm) and amphibole
(0.3 cm). These blocks are similar to the dome rocks.
14. Santontón Volcanic Dome (SVD)
The SVD (15Q 547452E, 1812539N UTM) is located
4 km south of the MVD (Fig. 4). It has a height of
∼ 400 m, an elongated shape with a major axis of 3.6 km.
and a minor axis of 2 km and covers an area of ∼ 6.5 km2.
It is also surrounded by deposits of associated pyroclastic
flows (Fig. 13). The deposits are brown, monolithologic,
block-and-ash-flows with a massive and semi-compact
structure. The blocks are gray in color and are supported
by a matrix of medium to fine sand. The main structure is
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 61

Fig. 12. La Lanza Volcanic Dome (LVD). (A) Panoramic photograph of the LVD. White lines delimit the block-and-ash-flow and sedimentary
deposits surrounding this volcanic structure. (B) Photograph of one block from the block-and-ash-flow deposit surrounding La Lanza.

composed by light gray rocks of phaneritic texture the
principal mineral phases are plagioclase (0.4 cm),
amphibole (0.8 cm) and pyroxene (0.3 cm).
15. Venustiano Carranza Volcanic Dome (VCVD)
The VCVD (15Q 0547071E, 1807974N UTM) is
located 4 km to the south of the SVD, has an estimated
height of 280 m, a diameter of ∼ 1.2 km and covers an
area of 1.2 km2 (Fig. 4). The VCVD is dome shaped with
block-and-ash-flow, fall, and lahars deposits (Fig. 14A).
The rock of the main structure is light gray in color, of
massive structure and porphyric texture with crystals
enveloped by a light gray matrix. The crystals are
plagioclase (0.4 cm), amphibole (0.3 cm) and pyroxene
(0.3 cm).
The pyroclastic flow deposits of are found surround-
ing the volcano with a mean radius of 2 km and an
estimated area of 13.7 km2. The deposits are mono-
lithologic of brown color, massive and semi-compact.
This is a block-and-ash-flow deposit with light gray
blocks (25 cm) supported by a matrix of medium to fine
sand (Fig. 14B). The blocks are similar to the structure
rocks and vary from angular to sub-angular forms with
porphyric texture with plagioclase (0.7 cm), amphibole
(0.3 cm) and pyroxene (0.2 cm).
62 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
Fig. 13. Photograph of the Santoton Volcanic Dome (SVD).
The pumice fall deposit has a thickness of 1.5 m, is
light gray in color and supported grain to grain. The
pumice is sub-angular, light yellow in color, vesicular
texture, with observable mineralogy composed by
plagioclase (0.3 cm) and amphiboles (0.3 cm). The
size of the pumice varies from 0.5 cm and 2.0 cm.
16. Summary of CVA volcanic structures and deposits
In general in the study area there are two groups of
volcanic structures: The first group is composed by
volcanic dome structures (TzDC, IVD, LVD, MVD,
SVD, AVD, and VCVD) with a NNW–SSE alignment
following the Venustiano Carranza –Tzontehuitz fault
(Fig. 4). The TzDc is the oldest dated structure with an
age of ∼ 2.1 Ma. The HVD is located west of this
trend. It was emplaced in a graben structure (Ixtapa
Graben). The main characteristics of these volcanic
structures are that they have vertical walls and are
surrounded by block-and-ash-flow deposits where the
lithics components are similar in color, mineral and
chemical compositions to those of the dome rocks.
These characteristics imply that the formation of
pyroclastic deposits were at the same time as the
growth of the dome.
The ACS and NEC are two structures associated with
very large volume of block-and-ash-flow and ash flow
deposits, with intercalated small deposits of pumice flow
and surges. There is only one dome structure associated
with the NEC. The presence of accretionary lapilly in the
ash fall indicates that the origin of these two structures
could be related to phreatomagmatic activity followed by
emplacement of dome and ash flow deposits.
17. Whole-rock chemistry
Thirty-two chemical analyses were performed on
representative rocks of domes, and on juvenile lithics of
pyroclastic flows and fall deposits (Table 1). Whole-
rock silica content of the CVA samples range from 55%
to 65% (Table 1). Based on SiO2 content, in the TAS
diagram (Total Alkalis vs. Silica), the rocks of the CVA
are classified as trachyandesite to andesite (57–63 wt.%
SiO2), and trachydacite–dacite (63–65 wt.% SiO2)
(Fig. 15A). The samples show K2O content that varies
from medium to high. Using the classification of Irvine
and Baragar (1971), the samples of the CVA fall in the
sub-alkaline field (Fig. 15B). The sub-alkaline rocks can
be further subdivided into tholeiitic and calc-alkaline
based on the presence or absence, respectively, of an
iron enrichment trend (Irvine and Baragar, 1971). On
this basis, the analyzed rocks follow the typical calc-
alkaline trend.
The Fe2O3 contents decrease from 10 to 4 wt.%
corresponding to increase of silica content from 56 to
65 wt.% (Fig. 15C). The rocks contain b 4 wt.% MgO,
with MgO contents slightly decreasing with increase of
silica content to values of 0.9 wt.% in dacitic rocks
(Fig. 15D). TiO2 content is b 1.1 wt.% and decreases to
0.4 in dacitic rocks (Fig. 15E). CaO content varies from
3 to 9 wt.% (Fig. 15F). The general trend of CaO is a
decrease (from 9 to 6 wt.%) in CaO with an increase in
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 63

Fig. 14. (A) Panoramic photograph looking to the north of the Venustiano Carranza Volcanic Dome. The white line indicates the division between the
volcanic structure and the volcanic deposits. (B) Photograph of block-and-ash-flow deposit.

silica. Only the TzDC samples do not follow this trend,
but rather we see an increase in CaO from 3 to 6.5 wt.%
with an increase in silica from 56 to 60 wt.%. This
anomalous trend may reflect contamination by calcar-
eous basement rocks.
Al2O3 content varies from 16 to 19 wt.% in the
majority of analyzed rocks. Only in the TzDC sam-
ples does the Al2O3 content anticorrelate with silica
(Fig. 15G). K2O contents vary from 1 to 4 wt.%
without a well definite trend to increase the silica
content (Fig. 15H). Na2O content varies from 2 to
5 wt.%. In general its concentration is constant from 3
to 5 wt.% (Fig. 15I). Only in the TzDC samples do we
see an increase in Na2O from 2 to 4 wt.% in the 56 to
60 wt.% interval of SiO2.
Fig. 16A shows multielemental diagrams of trace
elements and rare earth element data (ppm) normalized
to primitive mantle (Wood et al., 1979) and Fig. 16B
shows the rare earth elements also normalized to
chondritic values (Nakamura, 1973). In these diagrams
the rocks of the CVA present the typical pattern for
samples from orogenic environments, with enrichment
of the incompatible elements and light rare earths, and
negative anomalies of Ta, Nb, P, Ti and Eu.
18. Discussion
The Upper Miocene to Present volcanism in Mexico
and Central America is characterized by andesitic
magmas presumably produced by the subduction of
64 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72

Table 1
Whole-rock chemical analysis of selected samples from the CVA
ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS SVD
Sample AC-02jl a AC-03b-jl a AC-27jl a AC-01b-jl b AC-01a-jl b AC-28jl b AC-32jl b AC-41jl b AC-04a-jl b AC-04b-jl b VC-21 b
wt.%
SiO2 58.37 63.72 62.54 58.02 60.87 58.58 61.20 62.79 61.37 61.19 64.00
TiO2 0.59 0.41 0.51 0.65 0.54 0.62 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.45 0.43
Al2O3 18.23 16.80 16.62 18.36 18.43 18.35 18.10 18.79 18.46 19.05 17.35
Fe2O3⁎ 6.14 4.31 4.95 6.62 5.06 5.74 4.91 4.91 4.57 4.65 4.42
MnO 0.16 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.13 0.18 0.15 0.12 0.15 0.16 0.10
MgO 1.44 1.12 1.46 1.71 1.11 1.66 1.37 1.18 1.26 1.26 1.13
CaO 6.09 5.46 5.69 5.90 5.75 6.34 5.60 5.02 6.10 6.12 5.35
Na2O 4.38 4.38 4.12 3.97 4.40 4.06 4.30 3.57 4.10 4.13 4.11
K2O 3.03 2.50 2.85 2.96 2.85 2.55 2.79 2.31 2.05 2.00 2.32
P2O5 0.32 0.21 0.23 0.30 0.24 0.28 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.18
LOI 0.79 1.05 0.75 1.04 0.64 1.38 1.22 1.03 1.19 1.32 0.76
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 101 100 100 101 100

Trace elements ppm

Sr 827 617 679 715 826 802 753 517 659 674 644
Ba 672 505 588 809 769 560 585 669 666 649 578
Co 11.1 7.9 8.9 15 17 37 16 25 27 30 25
Cr 6.0 11.5 11.4 5 b2 7 13 5 6 6 b2
Cu 21 68 5 35 5 14 32 11 9 25 9
Ni 157 99 4 8 7 12 9 10 9 10 7
Sc 8.27 5.63 8.46 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Th 7.1 6.5 7.1 4 7 7 8 5 6 6 5
Pb 7 8 11 7 8 7 7 5 7 6 6
V 139 74 92 139 110 115 84 79 81 77 74
Zn 73 46 50 65 62 67 46 58 57 70 47
Y 20 22 23 25 26 37 26 32 30 32 30
Rb 81 90 98 99 98 86 94 89 77 78 98
Zr 128 166 171 152 182 246 223 183 207 216 191
Be 2 2 2 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Cs 3.9 3.5 4.0 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Hf 3.2 3.8 4.5 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Ta udl udl udl nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
U 3.3 3.0 3.2 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Cd 0.6 0.9 1.8 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
La 24.4 21.4 25.7 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Ce 45 40 47 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Nd 20 19 23 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Yb 2.00 2.20 2.33 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Lu 0.30 0.34 0.35 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Eu 1.31 0.94 1.20 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Sm 4.48 3.70 4.58 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Tb 0.7 0.6 0.6 nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Nb 31 24 26 11 14 13 10 11 10 11 16
(continued on next page)
NEC NEC HVD HVD TzDC TzDC TzDC TzDC TzDC TzDC VCVD
the Cocos
Sample Plate
AC-31-jl b at varying
AC-53d c geometries.
AC-06d b The
BO-54jl c subduc-
OX-08jl b to theb Tuxtlas
OX-11jl OX-38d Volcanic
b
OX-39dField
b and bChiapanecan
OX-40jl OX-59d c Volcanic
AC-22jl a
tion zone in Mexico is different from that of Central Arc, and continues south to the Central American
SiO2 63.55 63.21 60.17 57.57 59.66 54.43 53.84 54.89 57.40 55.00 62.78
America in that the distribution of volcanism is not Volcanic Arc (Fig. 1). However there are several aspects
continuous and not parallel to the trench. Several hypo- that need to be considered. The first is that the volcanism
(continued on next page)
theses with different petrologic or dynamic points of from Tuxtlas Volcanic Field has coexisting alkaline and
view have been proposed to explain the distribution of cal-alkaline magmas, an observation that is not easy to
volcanism. explain with a simple subduction zone model (Robin,
Damon and Montesinos (1978) considered that the 1982; Nelson and Gonzalez-Caver, 1992; Nelson et al.,
volcanism of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt extends 1995; Gómez-Tuena et al., 2005; Ferrari et al., 2005).
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 65

Table 1 (continued )
ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS ACS SVD
a a a b b b b b b b
Sample AC-02jl AC-03b-jl AC-27jl AC-01b-jl AC-01a-jl AC-28jl AC-32jl AC-41jl AC-04a-jl AC-04b-jl VC-21 b
wt.%
TiO2 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.69 0.71 0.96 1.03 1.01 0.81 0.93 0.44
Al2O3 17.74 17.87 18.70 18.05 17.62 16.97 20.68 19.55 18.26 19.08 16.86
Fe2O3⁎ 4.37 4.75 6.07 7.16 6.75 9.26 9.31 9.03 8.18 8.22 4.13
MnO 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.16 0.19 0.12
MgO 1.11 1.13 1.56 2.28 1.75 3.49 1.71 2.17 2.13 2.28 0.84
CaO 5.83 5.40 7.33 7.66 6.21 8.04 2.80 3.74 5.68 4.69 4.84
Na2O 4.21 3.79 3.48 3.97 3.75 2.97 1.74 2.09 3.02 2.18 5.24
K2O 2.29 2.38 1.74 1.41 2.84 2.60 3.40 3.21 3.00 3.19 3.13
P2O5 0.21 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.33 0.30 0.37 0.36 0.32 0.35 0.18
LOI 0.50 0.70 0.35 0.86 0.37 0.55 5.43 4.09 1.47 3.95 1.18
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Trace elements ppm

Sr 632 596 488 565 773 670 402 402 610 533 750
Ba 555 655 390 395 660 554 965 1039 738 903 870
Co 15 21 20 35 18 31 18 19 21 17 5.8
Cr 7 b2 7 3 9 28 22 2 8 6 9.9
Cu 12 7 6 8 14 37 19 16 12 32 10
Ni 9 9 8 12 8 15 12 10 10 10 8
Sc nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm 3.32
Th 6 4 6 6 10 7 8 8 11 9 12.5
Pb 6 7 5 6 10 12 10 7 11 9 7
V 76 75 86 134 105 223 170 132 139 155 66
Zn 52 46 40 51 72 75 95 75 75 71 45
Y 27 28 26 30 33 35 46 47 32 37 30
Rb 80 93 61 54 95 82 111 99 101 105 107
Zr 209 156 172 150 279 178 204 236 216 148 188
Be nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm 3
Cs nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm 4.1
Hf nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm 4.6
Ta nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm udl
U nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm 4.7
Cd nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm nm 0.8
La nm 20.96 nm 23.84 nm nm nm nm nm 76.86 39.1
Ce nm 44.95 nm 48.98 nm nm nm nm nm 133.37 69
Nd nm 19.85 nm 23.30 nm nm nm nm nm 58.12 30
Yb nm 2.14 nm 2.72 nm nm nm nm nm 3.76 3.16
Lu nm 0.30 nm 0.35 nm nm nm nm nm 0.54 0.45
Eu nm 1.52 nm 1.50 nm nm nm nm nm 3.27 1.40
Sm nm 4.30 nm 5.04 nm nm nm nm nm 11.33 5.93
Tb nm 0.58 nm 0.72 nm nm nm nm nm 1.38 1.0
Nb 10 13 10 13 21 14 19 18 15 17 32

Second, the large stratovolcanoes and the monogenetic
volcanism in the Tuxtlas Volcanic Field were emplaced
in NNW–SSE structures with a right-lateral compo-
nent. Third, in the volcanism of the Tuxtlas there is a
migration of the active volcanic center from south to
north contrary to the volcanism in the Trans-Mexican
Volcanic Belt.
The geochemical, petrologic and tectonic analyses
from both the CVA and the Tuxtlas Field indicate
that the distribution of volcanism is likely the product
of two aspects: the magma is generated due the Cocos
Plate subduction and the distribution of volcanism
is dependent on structures associated to tectonic
activity.
Despite the fact that the CVA is in the dominion of
the Motagua–Polochic fault system, the volcanism is
preferentially aligned along NNW–SSE structures with
a right-lateral component that cut older structures. The
majority of the volcanic structures from the CVA have
been emplaced along one of these NNW–SSE faults that
66 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
Table 1 (continued )
IVD IVD IVD MVD MVD AVD AVD AVD SVD SVD
Sample VC-15d a VC-16d a AC-23jl a VC-18b-d b VC-18a-d a VC-13c-d b OX-12p-jl a VC-14jl c VC-20d b VC-19d a
wt.%
SiO2 63.47 61.15 61.48 56.94 55.10 60.87 60.60 61.76 58.67 56.75
TiO2 0.49 0.63 0.60 0.74 0.77 0.41 0.51 0.41 0.70 0.64
Al2O3 16.76 16.42 16.78 18.24 15.67 18.73 17.09 18.07 17.05 17.45
Fe2O3⁎ 4.93 5.92 5.36 7.68 8.16 5.32 5.43 5.13 7.78 7.17
MnO 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.11 0.13 0.09 0.16 0.16
MgO 1.17 1.97 1.55 2.82 3.64 1.70 1.28 1.68 2.76 2.75
CaO 5.26 6.00 5.75 7.36 8.46 6.94 5.51 6.78 7.43 8.46
Na2O 4.42 3.99 4.41 3.45 2.91 4.23 3.59 4.15 3.48 3.91
K2O 2.61 2.40 2.91 1.66 1.87 1.32 2.50 1.38 1.83 2.05
P2O5 0.20 0.22 0.25 0.19 0.23 0.17 0.19 0.17 0.20 0.26
LOI 0.52 1.25 0.85 1.12 3.12 0.49 3.19 0.31 0.37 0.58
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Trace elements ppm
Sr 578 566 669 471 372 598 582 565 457 638
Ba 761 713 785 691 442 608 762 698 518 566
Co 8.3 13.4 10.6 31 24.2 46 8.5 38 37 20.3
Cr 8.1 18.0 14.4 37 39.8 4 15.0 b2 29 41.9
Cu 13 14 12 134 36 40 54 14 30 55
Ni 22 13 10 20 24 13 26 11 24 23
Sc 5.65 10.3 6.80 nm 16.7 nm 6.24 nm nm 13.9
Th 8.8 9.2 11.4 6 5.7 5 9.6 6 7 7.2
Pb 13 8 10 5 11 6 12 6 5 10
V 82 118 105 186 162 67 82 89 142 147
Zn 59 56 61 114 55 68 60 56 63 61
Y 23 26 27 35 26 24 23 22 30 26
Rb 95 81 90 58 52 51 96 65 65 76
Zr 170 178 187 150 146 161 165 129 166 155
Be 2 2 2 nm 2 nm 2 nm nm 2
Cs 3.5 3.2 4.0 nm 3.6 nm 3.7 nm nm 1.0
Hf 3.8 4.2 4.5 nm 3.3 nm 3.8 nm nm 3.8
Ta udl udl 1.5 nm udl nm 1.2 nm nm 1.0
U 3.6 3.7 4.0 nm 2.2 nm 4.2 nm nm 2.1
Cd 1.8 1.7 0.6 nm 1.7 nm 1.8 nm nm 0.7
La 26.8 29.8 39.2 nm 23.2 nm 30.1 18.27 nm 30.0
Ce 49 57 66 nm 43 nm 53 34.48 nm 54
Nd 22 27 30 nm 21 nm 26 16.07 nm 25
Yb 2.35 2.45 2.61 nm 2.39 nm 2.56 1.34 nm 2.44
Lu 0.35 0.35 0.36 nm 0.35 nm 0.38 0.18 nm 0.37
Eu 1.07 1.21 1.44 nm 1.16 nm 1.16 1.20 nm 1.23
Sm 4.31 5.06 5.76 nm 4.49 nm 4.70 3.25 nm 4.79
Tb 0.7 0.8 1.0 nm 0.7 nm 0.9 0.40 nm 0.7
Nb 24 23 29 10 15 8 24 12 9 23
Abbreviations: jl, juvenile lithics; d, dome rocks; nm, not measured; ud, under detection limit; ACS, Apas Collapse Structure; NEC, Navenchauc Explosion
Crater; HVD, Huitepec Volcanic Dome; TzDC, Tzontehuitz Domic Complex; IVD, La Iglesia Volcanic Dome; MVD, Mispía Volcanic Dome; AVD,
Amahuitz Volcanic Dome; SVD, Santoton Volcanic Dome; VCVD, Venustiano Carranza Volcanic Dome; LOI: Loss on ignition. Note: Fe2O3⁎ as total iron.
Note: Fe2O3⁎ as total iron. The quality of these analyses is realized in methodoly.
a
The analysis was realized in Canada Ontario Laboratories.
b
The analysis was realized in Laboratorio Universitario de Geoquímica Isotópica (LUGIS; UNAM).
c
The analysis was realized in Laboratorio Universitario de Geoquímica Isotópica (LUGIS) Instituto de Geofísica.
we name the “Venustiano Carranza-Tzontehuitz Fault”. presence mainly of large stratovolcanoes which have
In this way the volcanic structures, type and intensity of experienced large plinian eruptions.
volcanism in the CVA are very different than that of the The CVA is composed mainly of small volcanic
TMVB or the CAVA which are characterized by the domes with associated pyroclastic flow deposits. These
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72 67

Fig. 15. Chemical composition of analyzed rocks. (A) TAS diagram proposed by Le Bas et al. (1986), with the curve line that subdivide into alkaline and
subalkaline series of Irvine and Baragar (1971). The analyzed rocks fall in the subalkaline serie and vary in composition andesite, trachyandesite, dacite,
and trachydacite, gray area. (B) AFM diagram (A, Alkalis (Na2O+ K2O); F, Fe oxides (FeO+ Fe2O3); and M, MgO) showing the boundary between the
calc-alkaline field and the tholeiitic field of Irvine and Baragar (1971). (C to F) Harker diagrams, major elements vs. silica content of all analyzed rocks.
68 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72

Fig. 16. Normalized elemental abundance diagrams. (A) Spider diagram normalized to the primitive mantle (Wood et al., 1979). (B) Rare Earth
Elements normalized to the chondrite values (Nakamura, 1973).

volcanic structures were emplaced in a zone where are
two types of stress with different directions. The first is a
SW–NE oriented compressive stress associated with the
subduction of the Cocos plate under the North American
plate, and the second is a left-lateral stress, associated
with the Motagua–Polochic Fault System (SE–NW),
caused by the relative motions of the Caribbean and
North American plates. The interaction of these two
stresses form a zone of transpressional stress with left
lateral faults (WNW–ESE) and right lateral recent
NNW–SSE faults.
The CVA is characterized by the type of volcanic
structures (volcanic domes), the type of volcanism
(effusive accompanied by explosive events), the chemical
composition of the products (andesitic–dacitic), and the
presence of an aquifer that generated a water-magma
interaction to produce explosive volcanism as exempli-
fied by the ACS and NEC. The basement in the region is
characterized by carbonaceous rocks with clear evidence
of dissolution and doline formation (short-lived aquifers),
which may have interacted with the magmatism. This
process also formed domes (IVD, LVD, MVD, SVD,
AVD, TzDC, and VCVD) that were later destroyed by
resurgent activity. The growth and subsequent destruction
of the volcanic structures, generated block-and-ash-flow,
ash flow, fall deposits, and phreatomagmatic activity.
The majority of the volcanism in the CVA is
associated with volcanic dome structures that present
clear associations with flows and pyroclastic deposits
that are evidence of their explosive character. The
change in the mode of volcanism from dome-building to
explosive eruptions is related to the interaction between
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
water and magma. The intense faulting associated with
transpressional stress does not permit the fast eruption
of the magma, permitting the magmatic differentiation of
andesitic–dacitic magmas. The eruption of the magmas
is generated by movement of the faults and by the inter-
action water-magma. These give to the formation of
volcanic domes and later explosive eruptions.
19. Discussion of geochemical data
The mineral composition of the CVA samples is
plagioclase ± amphibole ± clinopyroxene ± ortopyroxene ±
Fe–Ti oxides, and is very similar to the mineral com-
position reported in andesitic and dacitic rocks in different
volcanoes from the TMVB and CAVA (i.e. García-Palomo
et al., 2006; Carr et al., 1982; Mora et al., 2004). A com-
parison of the geochemical data obtained in the CVA to
that from the TMVB and CAVA shows some differences
and similarities that merit discussion.
The whole-rock chemical composition of the CVA
belong to the sub-alkaline series, of the calc-alkaline
type with a medium to high content of potassium and
vary in composition from andesites to dacites with silica
range between the 54 and 64 wt.%. The major elements
concentration in the CVA analyzed samples are similar
to the reported concentrations in the calc-alkaline rocks
from the TMVB and CAVA (Fig. 17).
Fig. 17. TAS diagram (Le Bas et al., 1986) classification diagram where is the comparison in the alkalis content between the TMVB, CVA, and
CAVA.
69
The fluid-mobile and fluid-immobile elements are
excellent geochemical fingerprints of subducted slabs, and
mantle wedges, and the ratios of these elements are used in
this paper to highlight significant differences in geochem-
ical characteristics of volcanism between CVA and CAVA.
Ba is fluid mobile and, therefore, indicative of slab
contributions; and La is a relatively fluid immobile ele-
ment, and therefore, indicative of mantle wedge sources.
The Ba/La ratio is thus considered an excellent sub-
duction signal (Carr et al., 1990). The Ba/La ratio from
all subduction-related samples shows a variation from 5
to 46 (Fig. 18A). The Ba/La ratio in the CVA is 11 to 37,
intermediate in value between the minimum (5) and
maximum (46) observed in the CAVA (Fig. 18A).
La is also a light REE highly incompatible element,
and Yb element is a heavy REE and is a less
incompatible element, although both are relatively
fluid-immobile elements. The La/Yb ratio is an
excellent indicator of degree of enrichment or degree
of melting of mantle sources (Fig. 18B). The CAVA
show a La/Yb ratio between 3 to 22, whereas CVA
varies from 8 to 21, this ratio has a behavior similar to
Ba/La ratio, that is, showing significant overlap with
CAVA compositions (Fig. 18B).
Sr/Ce (Fig. 18C) and Ba/Zr (Fig. 18D) ratios are
sensitive indicators of melting related to subduction (Sr is
a fluid-mobile LILE, Ce is a relatively fluid-immobile
70 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
REE; Ba is a fluid-mobile LILE, and Zr is a fluid-
immobile HFSE). Rocks from CVA show a variation
between 6 and 20 for Sr/Ce, and 2 to 6 for Ba/Zr, whereas
Fig. 18. In this figure compare the Ba/La (A), La/Yb (B), Sr/Ce (C),
and Ba/Zr ratios in volcanic rocks with silica range between the 54 and
64 wt.%. from CAVA and CVA. This relationship was carried out by
the proximity between these.
the CAVA rocks show a much larger span of both ratios;
from 8 to 36 for Sr/Ce, and 4 to 13 Ba/Zr (Fig. 18C–D).
Here it is possible to be observed that the CVA rocks have
values that are slightly lower than those from the CAVA.
Similarly, on multielement normalized diagram (Fig. 15),
rocks from CVA, show HFSE depletion (Nb, Ta, and Th).
The CAVA samples come from volcanoes from
Guatemala to Costa Rica and clearly reflect the
incorporation of a subducted-slab component in the
mantle wedge before its melting (Carr et al., 1990). The
CVA rocks have a similar chemistry to CAVA rocks
(Figs. 16 and 17), although CVA samples show much
less variation, and are thus significantly related to
subduction-related processes.
20. Conclusions
The central area of the CVA covers an area of 4900 km2,
and is composed of at least 10 volcanic structures: one
explosion crater (Navenchauc), one collapse structure
(Apas), one dome complex (Tzontehuitz) and seven
volcanic domes (Huitepec, Amahuitz, La Iglesia, Mispía,
La Lanza, Venustiano Carranza and Santotón). These
structures were formed by several episodes of resurgence
with the formation of several domes within the same
structure, with the destruction of older domes or with the
formation of new explosion craters or collapse structures.
Volcanic deposits associated with the volcanic structures
are unwelded block-and-ash-flow deposits, ash flow (with
accretionary lapilli) and fall deposits.
The volcanic activity is mainly effusive, accompanied
of explosive episodes originated from depressurization of
magma during eruption (as in the case of volcanic dome
structures) or by water-magma interactions producing
total or partial destruction of pre-existing dome (as in the
case of TzDC). The ACS and NEC were formed in zones
of limestone dissolution and doline formation by the
partial and total destruction of the preexistent structures
by phreatomagmatic activity which produced block-and-
ash-flow, fall, and semi-compact ash flow deposits.
The whole-rock chemical composition of the CVA
belongs to the sub-alkaline series, of the calc-alkaline type
with a medium to high content of potassium and varies in
composition from andesites to dacites with silica ranging
between the 57 and the 66 wt.%. These petrographic and
chemical characteristics indicate that the rocks were
generated in a typical subduction environment, similar
to that of the CAVA.
The CVA magma was emplaced in NNW–SSE R′
structures from the Motagua–Polochic system, and on
rare occasions follow WNW–ESE faults. The study area
corresponds to a zone with transpressive effects from the
 J.C. Mora et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162 (2007) 43–72
Upper Miocene to the present; where the σ1 has a main
NE–SW direction. The volcanism of the CVA is different
from the volcanism in the TMVB and CAVA because the
magmatism was emitted in a zone characterized by
compressive and lateral stress, with left-lateral long-lived
faults (WNW–ESE) and right-lateral recent faults NNW–
SSE, in a basement characterized by carbonaceous rocks
with clear evidences of dissolution and formation of
dolines (short-lived aquifer).
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by grants from CON-
ACYT (48506-F to J.C. Mora;), from NSF (EAR-0408800
to P.W. Layer), and from PAPIIT of the Universidad
Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (IN109705, to J.C. Mora).
We thank for the received support of chemistry analyses
FRX of the Química. Patricia Girón García. The authors
extends many tanks to reviewers Dr. Chiara M. Petrone
and Dr. Robert I. Tilling significantly improved the
manuscript.
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