Making Radioactive Ion Beams Detecting Reaction Products

Eur. Phys. J.
Plus (2016) 131: 362

DOI 10.1140/epjp/i2016-16362-5
Making Radioactive Ion Beams

Detecting Reaction Products
Riccardo Raabe
KU Leuven, Instituut voor Kern- en Stralingsfysica, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
Received: date / Revised version: date
Abstract. We present a didactical overview of the methods for the production of radioactive ion beams
(RIBs), discussing the main characteristics and associated advantages and drawbacks of the in-flight separa-
tion and isotope separation on-line methods. We include a short overview of present and planned facilities,
focusing on Europe. In the second part of the paper a brief introduction on the detection of radiation
is given, followed by a discussion of the specific problems related to radiation detection in measurements
involving RIBs. A few illustrative examples of detection setups are presented.
PACS. PACS-key discribing text of that key – PACS-key discribing text of that key
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Production of Radioactive Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 The ISOL Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.2 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 The In-Flight Separation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Comparison ISOL vs In-Flight Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.1 ISOL Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.2 In-flight Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Detection of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1 Types of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 General Characteristics of Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Types of Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.1 Ionisation Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.2 Scintillation Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.3 Semiconductors Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Detection Setups with RIBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.1 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.2 Inverse Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4.3 Examples of Setups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
List of Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1 Introduction
The research on the structure of nuclei, and how they behave in reaction processes, received an important impulse in
the second half of the eighties, with the first experiments employing a highly-energetic beam of unstable (radioactive)
ions. Beams of unstable ions had already been available at low energy for a long time (see section 2.4.1) and were used
to study the decay mode of nuclei. But with the break-though in the eighties, it became possible to realise collisions
22 Riccardo
Riccardo Raabe:
Raabe: Making
Making Radioactive
Radioactive Ion
Ion Beams Detecting Reaction
Beams Detecting Reaction Products
Products
208 209 209

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Neutron
Neutron capture
capture on
on 208 Pb forming
Pb forming 209 Pb, followed
Pb, followed by
by aa β − decay
decay towards
towards 209Bi.
Bi. The
The colour
colour of
of the
the squares
squares indicates
indicates
the dominant decay mode of the nucleus.
the dominant decay mode of the nucleus.
those famous experiments [1, 2] is told in a contribution to this volume [3]: their results were truly unexpected and
between
and markednuclei,
theby overcoming
beginning of anthe Coulomb
exciting repulsion
period that physics.
in nuclear exists due to the charge of the protons. The story behind
thoseInfamous experimentsthat
the measurements [1, 2] is told in
followed, a contribution
various to this were
peculiar features Focusdiscovered
Point [3]:intheir resultsofwere
a number truly nuclei.
unstable unexpected
The
and
termmarked
“exoticthe beginning
nuclei” is nowofwidely
an exciting
used toperiod
denote insuch
nuclear physics.
systems and their unusual properties. Large and dilute spatial
In the measurements
extensions, the so-calledthat followed,
“halos” variouscluster
[4]; marked peculiar features were
structures; unusualdiscovered in a number
decay patterns [5, 6];of modifications
unstable nuclei. in The
the
reaction
term process
“exotic [7]: is
nuclei” these
noware onlyused
widely few examples
to denoteofsuch the systems
findings andthattheir
cameunusual
with radioactive
properties.ion beams.
Large and dilute spatial
With the
extensions, theyears, theory
so-called has started
“halos” to catchcluster
[4]; marked up onstructures;
the experimentalunusualresults,
decay and various
patterns [5,models began to explain
6]; modifications in the
the surprising
reaction processfeatures
[7]: these of are
exotic
onlynuclei. In particular,
few examples it has become
of the findings that came clearwith
thatradioactive
the unusual ionratio
beams.of neutrons and
protons
With inthethese
years,nuclei,
theory withhasrespect
startedtotothe onesup
catch at on
stability, is responsible
the experimental for theand
results, enhancement
various models of certain
have terms
begun in to
the nucleon-nucleon
explain the surprisinginteraction
features of[8]. Suchnuclei.
exotic interaction – denoteditashas
In particular, “e↵ective”
become in thethat
clear nuclear
the medium
unusual –ratiodetermines the
of neutrons
sequence
and protonsof in
shells
theseoccupied
nuclei, by the nucleons,
compared to the which
ones at is stability,
thus modified in nuclei for
is responsible far the
fromenhancement
stability: thisoftranslates in the
certain terms in
emergence
the of new “magic
nucleon-nucleon numbers”
interaction [9–11],
[8]. Such the numbers
interaction of protons
– denoted or neutronsincorresponding
as “effective” to an increased
the nuclear medium stability
– determines the
of the nuclear
sequence configuration.
of shells occupied byThis the discovery
nucleons,has triggered
which is thusa modified
large e↵ort in of the nuclear
nuclei far fromphysics community
stability: in the whole
this translates in the
world, to develop and refine the techniques for the production and detection
emergence of new “magic numbers” [9–11], the numbers of protons or neutrons corresponding to an increased of radioactive nuclei. This article is a
stability
ofshort overviewconfiguration.
the nuclear of those e↵orts. This discovery has triggered a large effort of the nuclear physics community in the whole
world,There are twoand
to develop methods
refine forthe the production
techniques of radioactive
for the production ion and beams (RIBs),
detection the Isotope
of radioactive Separation
nuclei. On-Line
This article is a
(ISOL)
short and “in-flight”
overview separation techniques. They are illustrated in section 2, where the respective advantages and
of those efforts.
shortcomings
There are two are discussed,
methods for andthe an production
overview ofofthe main facilities
radioactive ion beamsis presented.
(RIBs), Atherecent
Isotopereview of this topic
Separation On-Line is
in Ref. [12], one of the lectures of the Nobel Symposium 152 “Physics with Radioactive
(ISOL) and “in-flight” separation techniques. They are illustrated in section 2, where the associated advantages and Beams” [13]. Section 3 is
dedicated to the
shortcomings are detection
discussed,setupsand an used in experiments
overview of the mainwithfacilities
RIBs. After a short summary
is presented. A recentofreview
the principles of radiation
of this topic is Ref.
detection,
[12], one of the
the specific
lecturesproblems
of the Nobel that Symposium
accompany the 152 use of RIBs
“Physics withareRadioactive
illustrated, followed
Beams” by a few
[13]. examples
Section of existing
3 is dedicated to
detectors
the andsetups
detection a shortusedoutlook on the mostwith
in experiments recent developments.
RIBs. After a short summary of the principles of radiation detection,
the specific problems that accompany the use of RIBs are illustrated, followed by a few examples of existing detectors
and a short outlook on the most recent developments.
2 Production of Radioactive Species
2Some radioactiveof
Production nuclei are produced
Radioactive in the decay chain (↵- or -decay) of the naturally occurring radionuclides (some
Species 235
isotopes of U, Th, and a few others). About 40 nuclides of 13 di↵erent elements are produced in the decay of U,
238 232 3 14
U and Th. Other radionuclides (for example H, C) are produced in the atmosphere
Some radioactive nuclei are produced in the decay chain (α- or β-decay) of the naturally occurring radionuclides by reactions induced by
(some
30
cosmic rays
isotopes of U,(high-energy
Th, and a few ↵ particles
others). and
Aboutprotons). The first
40 nuclides of 13artificially-produced
different elements are radionuclide
produced wasin theP,decay
obtained
of 235by
U,
Frédéric
238
U and and232 Iréne Joliot-Curie by irradiating aluminium
Th. Other radionuclides (for example 3 H, 14 C) withareprotons.
produced in the atmosphere by reactions induced by
Irradiation
cosmic of stable isotopes
rays (high-energy with and
α particles neutrons was the
protons). Thenext
firststep. Neutrons are produced
artificially-produced in specific
radionuclide wasreactions;
30 the first
P, obtained by
one to be used was the the capture of
Frédéric and Iréne Joliot-Curie by irradiating an ↵ particle (emitted
aluminium with byαone of the
particles. natural radioisotopes) by a nucleus of 9 Be,
which would become a highly-excited 13 C and emit a neutron. The notation of such a process is 9 Be(↵,n)12 C. Fission
Irradiation of stable isotopes with neutrons was the next step. Neutrons are produced in specific reactions; the first
reactions (splitting of a heavy nucleus into two fragments) are also a strong source of neutrons, and nowadays neutron
one to be used was the capture of an α particle (emitted by one of the natural radioisotopes) by a nucleus of 9 Be,
irradiation in nuclear fission reactors is the most common way of obtaining neutron-activated isotopes.
which would become a highly-excited 13 C and emit a neutron. The notation of such a process is 9 Be(α,n)12 C. Fission
When a stable isotope captures a neutron it may become unstable (in some cases more neutrons need to be
reactions (splitting of a heavy nucleus into two fragments) are also a strong source of neutrons, and nowadays neutron
captured) and decay via decay (transformation of a neutron into a proton accompanied by the emission of an
irradiation in nuclear fission reactors is the most common way of obtaining neutron-activated isotopes.
electron) towards an isobar (nucleus with the same mass) of the element with one proton more. This is depicted in
When a stable isotope captures a neutron it may become unstable (in some cases more neutrons need to be
Fig. 1 in a region of the chart − of nuclei, a graph where the nuclei are ordered by their neutron and proton number.
captured) and decay
Such a process via βin
is common decaywhere
stars, (transformation of a for
it is responsible neutron into a proton
the production accompanied
of about half of theby the emission
isotopes of an
heavier than
electron) towards
iron (the s-process). an isobar (nucleus with the same mass) of the element with one proton more. This is depicted in
Fig. If1 one
in a uses
selected region of the chart of nuclei, a graph where the nuclei are ordered by
highly-intense neutron sources, nuclei further from stability can be reached before a decay takes their neutron and proton
number.
place. WhenSuch applied
a processto isvery
common
heavy in stars,this
nuclei, where it is responsible
mechanism can leadfor to the production
nuclei of about
which have half of
a sizeable the isotopes
probability of
heavier than iron (the s-process).
ation. A movable beamstop at zero degrees stops the bulk of RFQs [19] allows one to build a high-resolving power iso-
the primary beam and selects the fraction of the large angle tope separator that still fits on a high-voltage platform.
scattered beam particles that is transported and focused The isotope separator [20] is designed to obtain a mass reso-
together with the reaction products. The reaction products lution of 20,000 using a matching section to prepare the
are thermalized in the gas catcher and extracted by a com- beam in a vertical slit geometry, an electrostatic doublet to
bination of DC fields, RF fields and gas flow. The radioac- magnify the beam in the dispersive plane, two high-homoge-
tivity extracted from the gas catcher is detected by a silicon neity magnetic dipoles (with an electrostatic multipole in
detector after transport
Riccardothrough
Raabe:a radio-frequency quadru- Ionbetween)
Making Radioactive providing a Reaction
Beams Detecting total deflection angle of 120!, followed
Products 3
Dy
108
Gd
106
Sm
92
Nd 104
Ce 102
100
Ba 98
Xe 94 96
92
Te
90
Sn 88
Cd 84 86
Pd 80 82 Extracted fission
78
Ru Product yield
Mo 74
76
(ions/second)
6
Zr 72 >10
70
Sr 5
Kr
66
68
r-process path 10 -10 6
64 4
Se 62 10 -10 5
60
Ge 58 3 4
56 10 -10
03
10 -10 3
Zn 54
52
Ni
28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
252
Fig. 2. Projected yields of2.fission
Fig. fragments
Calculated produced
mass separated byvarious
yield for the a 1-Ci Cf source
neutron-rich isotopes at the CARIBU
available at low-energy facility at the Argonne National
at CARIBU.
Laboratory. The path of the rapid neutron-capture nucleosynthesis process (r-process) is indicated (figure from Ref. [14]).
If one uses highly-intense neutron sources, nuclei further from stability can be reached before a β decay takes place.
When applied to very heavy nuclei, this mechanism can lead to nuclei which have a sizeable probability of decaying
by fission, thus producing two lighter fragments. Since the neutron-to-proton ratio is higher in the heavier nuclei than
in the stable isotopes of the lighter fragments, the nuclei produced by fission have an excess of neutrons. Some of
these are emitted in the process, but the remaining fragments are generally still far away from the stability line. One
remarkable example is that of 252 Cf (which has a half-life T1/2 = 2.645 y), which generates neutron-rich isotopes from
Z ≈ 30 to Z ≈ 70. Such a source is used in the RIB facility CARIBU [14] at the Argonne National Laboratory near
Chicago (USA), see Fig. 2. At CARIBU, a 1-Ci source (1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second) is placed in a
heavy-shielded ion source from which the ionised fragments are extracted and accelerated towards the experimental
areas.
The handling of such an intense, permanent source presents several safety and engineering issues. The problems
can be overcome by realising a source, that can be “switched” on and off at will: this is the idea of an “on-line” ion
source.
2.1 The ISOL Method
In the Isotope Separation On-Line (ISOL) method, a thick target is irradiated by an energetic beam of stable ions to
cause a number of nuclear reactions resulting in the production of a very large range of nuclei, among which many
radioactive species. The method requires thus a primary accelerator (injector) of intense beams of stable particles.
Depending on the primary beam and energy, and the choice of the target material, a number of reaction mechanisms
can occur:
– fission is the most universal mechanism used in ISOL production. A fissile target (U or Th) is irradiated by a light-
particle beam (protons or deuterons). A neutron converter may be used, a slab of material where the incoming
p or d beams induce neutron-producing reactions. The neutrons, in turn, impinge on the main target, producing
fragments at lower excitation energies which evaporate fewer neutrons and thus remain further from stability
than in the case of irradiation by protons. In a different scheme, fission is induced by the electromagnetic shower
(photofission [15]) initiated by a beam of electrons (typically at a few tens of MeV) slowed down in the target.
44 Riccardo Raabe:
Riccardo Raabe: Making
Beams Detecting
Detecting Reaction
ReactionProducts
Products
Fig.3.3.Schematic
Fig. Schematicview
viewof
ofthe
the stages
stages of
of the
the ISOL
ISOL method. Radioactive
Radioactive nuclei
nuclei are
are produced
producedbybyreactions
reactionsininthe
thetarget;
target;the
theatoms
atoms
diffuse to an ion source where they are ionised,
di↵use to an ion source where they are ionised, then are selected and
and guided to the experimental setup (figure from Ref.[18]).
guided to the experimental setup (figure from Ref. [18]).
– fusion is employed to reach neutron-deficient nuclei in a selective way. The target material and the impinging heavy-
– fragmentation [16] is the violent breakup of a small fragment from the heavy target nucleus, and requires high-
ion beam are chosen so that the compound nucleus is in the vicinity of the species of interest. Several channels are
energy beams (a few hundreds MeV/nucleon1 up to a few GeV/nucleon) of light ions2 or light nuclei3 . A few of
populated by the evaporation of ↵ particles, protons and especially neutrons, producing mostly neutron-deficient
these fragments, statistically, will have an excess of neutrons or protons.
nuclei.
– spallation [17] is the emission 3of a number of nucleons (mostly neutrons and some protons) following a sequence
– specific reactions like (p,2p), ( He,n) and several others may be used in some cases, especially when light nuclei
of nucleon-nucleon collisions in a heavy target nucleus, induced by relativistic light projectiles (mostly protons at
are involved, to reach a certain nucleus.
500 MeV/nucleon or higher). The residual nucleus is mostly a neutron-deficient, unstable and rather heavy nucleus.
– fusion
After is employed the
the production, to reach neutron-deficient
nuclei have to leave thenuclei in a and
target selective
thenway. The target
be ionised material
in order andavailable
to be the impinging heavy-
for successive
ion beam are
manipulations by chosen
the usesoofthat the compound
magnetic nucleus
and electric is in
fields. Onethehas
vicinity of thethat
to realise species of interest.
the nuclei Severalare
of interest channels
only a are
tiny
populated
fraction by theproduction,
of the whole evaporationwhich
of α particles, protons
is dominated and especially
by nuclei neutrons,
close or at producing
the stability. mostly
The main neutron-deficient
characteristics of an
ISOLnuclei.
facility are thus its selectivity (the capacity of eliminating the “contaminants”) and its efficiency (the capacity
of –preserving
specific reactions like (p,2p),
and transmitting (3 He,n)
most of theand several
nuclei others may be used in some cases, especially when light nuclei
of interest).
are involved, to reach a certain nucleus.
After the production, the nuclei have to leave the target and then be ionised in order to be available for successive
2.1.1 Stages
manipulations by the use of magnetic and electric fields. One has to realise that the nuclei of interest are only a tiny
fraction of the whole production, which is dominated by nuclei close or at the stability. The main characteristics of an
AISOL
scheme illustrating
facility are thustheits devices involved
selectivity at each of
(the capacity stage is shownthe
eliminating in “contaminants”)
Fig. 3. Here we describe them briefly.
and its efficiency (the capacity
of Production
– preserving andtarget transmitting most of the nuclei of interest).
We have listed above the reactions that can take place in the target. Geometrically, two main configurations are
used. In classic ISOL the target is thick, and the products of the reaction recoil within the target material itself.
2.1.1
TheStages
nuclei di↵use through the material and then e↵use out of it towards the ion source. These processes are
governed by the physical and chemical properties of each produced atom in combination with the target material.
A The
scheme illustrating
typical the devices
times may involved
vary widely, fromat fraction
each stage of isseconds
shown to in Fig.
more3.thanHerehours.
we describe
To helpthem briefly.and e↵usion,
di↵usion
the target is
– Production target kept at high temperatures (more than 2000 C), and porous geometries can be used. Another factor
4
that needs to be taken into account when designing the target is the high power
We have listed above the reactions that can take place in the target. Geometrically, two main configurations deposited through the energy
are
loss of the beam, a few kW in most current ISOL system.
used. In classic ISOL the target is thick, and the products of the reaction recoil within the target material itself.
InThe
a second
nuclei approach a thin the
diffuse through target is used,
material anda foil
thenofeffuse
the material
out of itof towards
choice. The nuclei
the ion produced
source. Theseinprocesses
the reactions
are
recoil into by
governed a catcher, usually
the physical and achemical
gas-filledproperties
volume where
of eachthe nuclei thermalise.
produced This samewith
atom in combination volume is in most
the target cases
material.
also
Thethe ion source,
typical see below;
times may with this
vary widely, fromconfiguration, evacuation
fraction of seconds to moretimes arehours.
than much Toshorter.
help diffusion and effusion,
– Transfer
1
The
The transfer of the neutral
unit MeV/nucleon, atomsoftothethe
the energy ionion source
divided by (only in the
its mass, caseused
is often of thick
because target)
p is mostly
it identifies through
ions having thea same
tube,
which(squared).
velocity is often kept at high temperatures
The non-relativistic to avoid
velocity can that the
be calculated as atoms
v [m ns−1may stick
] = 1.4 to−2theEwall
× 10 of the tube.The
[MeV/nucleon]. Alternatively,
relativistic
−1 −1
p
relation
4 is v [m ns ] = 3 × 10 1 − 1/(E [MeV/nucleon]/931 + 1).
2 The deposited power can be calculated as the energy loss of the beam (for example in MeV) times the beam intensity (for
example“Light
in ions” are
pµA). A ions with
beam of 30a MeV,
mass smaller
200 µA than or equal
protons to 4, i.e.
completely up to αinparticles.
stopped a target would deposit 6 kW of power.
3
“Light nuclei” are not defined in a precise manner, but in most
Particle-µA (pµA) is a current unit that eliminates the dependence on the cases the charge
term is state
used to
byindicate
dividingspecies up tocurrent
the actual about oxygen
(in µA)
isotopes.
by the charge state itself. The result is the number of ions per second divided by the unit charge. Thus, for example, 1 pµA
corresponds to 6.25 ⇥ 1012 ions s 1 . Obviously, for H isotopes µA and pµA are equivalent.
Riccardo Raabe: Making Radioactive Ion Beams Detecting Reaction Products 5
Fig. 4. The table of Mendeleev, with colours indicating the different ion source types at ISOL facilities. The plus and minus
signs of the surface ionisation (blue) indicate the creation of a positive or negative ion (figure taken from Ref. [12]).
the target is kept at high temperatures (more than 2000 ◦ C), and porous geometries can be used. Another factor
that needs to be taken into account when designing the target is the high power4 deposited through the energy
loss of the beam, a few kW in most current ISOL system.
In a second approach a thin target is used, a foil of the material of choice. The nuclei produced in the reactions
recoil into a catcher, usually a gas-filled volume where the nuclei thermalise. This same volume is in most cases
also the ion source, see below; with this configuration, evacuation times are much shorter.
– Transfer
The transfer of the neutral atoms to the ion source (only in the case of a thick target) is mostly through a tube,
which is often kept at high temperatures to avoid that the atoms may stick to the wall of the tube. Alternatively,
it is possible to cool it to let only the very volatile elements through, realising a first selection if those are the
elements of interest.
– Ion source
The technology of ion sources has been developed for more than sixty years now: it is based on the combined use of
physics and chemistry to selectively ionise only the species of interest at the highest possible efficiency. Fig. 4 shows
the table of Mendeleev, with colours indicating the different ion source types used presently at ISOL facilities.
The surface ion source relies on ionisation when an atom impacts on a hot surface. It can be used for elements
with a low ionisation potential (alkalis and alkaline earth metals) or a large electron affinity (halogens). Because
the process depends strongly on the difference between the ionisation potential (or electron affinity) and the work
function of the wall material (energy to remove an electron), it can be very selective.
In plasma ion sources the atoms are ionised through the impact of electrons, kept at high temperature (a few tens
of eV to keV) in a plasma environment. This process is universal, thus it can be used for all species at the cost of
a strong contamination. For this reason it is mostly used in combination with cool transfer lines. A special kind
of source in this class is the Electron-Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) ion source [19] which allows reaching multiple
charge states in contrast to most other systems where the charge state is typically 1+ .
Finally, laser ion sources employ lasers to selectively excite and then ionise the species of interest. The energy
of a first laser is exactly tuned to match the energy difference of a chosen atomic excitation state in the element
of interest. A second laser has just enough energy to promote the excited electron to the continuum, ionising the
atom. Other non-excited atoms cannot be ionised by the second laser. Sometimes a scheme with three lasers is used
as well. The method is clearly very selective and potentially universal, however there are limitations due to the
difficulty of realising efficient schemes for the noble gases and some light elements with a high ionisation potential.
4
The deposited power can be calculated as the energy loss of the beam (for example in MeV) times the beam intensity (for
example in pµA). A beam of 30 MeV, 200 µA protons completely stopped in a target would deposit 6 kW of power.
Particle-µA (pµA) is a current unit that eliminates the dependence on the charge state by dividing the actual current (in µA)
by the charge state itself. The result is the number of ions per second divided by the unit charge. Thus, for example, 1 pµA
corresponds to 6.25 × 1012 ions s−1 . Obviously, for H isotopes µA and pµA are equivalent.
6 Riccardo Raabe: Making Radioactive Ion Beams Detecting Reaction Products
When a thin-target configuration is used, ions survive in the (gas) catcher or are re-ionised using for example lasers.
A gas flow drives them to an exit hole where an ion guide (usually a combination of rapidly changing electric fields)
leads them to the following stage.
– Separator
Ion sources provide a first selection based on the atomic number (element). In the following step, magnetic and
electric fields are used for the isobaric separation (mass). The ions are extracted from the source at low energies,
typically 30 to 50 keV (this is realised by keeping the target-ion source system on a platform at a potential of few
tens of kV). A first separation is obtained in a dipole magnet (more rarely two dipoles), where ions with a given
mass A are selected (all ions have charge state 1± ). If ∆A is the minimum difference between two masses that
can be separated in the magnet, its resolving power is defined as the ratio A/∆A: this number can vary between
a few hundreds and a few thousands. Such a dipole will thus select all the ions with a given A, but it will not be
able – except in some favourable cases – to separate different isobars, since the mass differences are of a few MeV
compared with a total mass of several tens of GeV. If ions of a contaminant species survive from the ion sources
(as it is often the case, because nuclei close to stability are produced in overwhelming quantities and a fraction of
them will not neutralise), we will still have this isobaric contamination after the magnetic separation.
Other very refined systems can be used to further manipulate and possibly separate the ions: cooler-bunchers
[20, 21], multi-reflection time-of-flight devices [22], and various sorts and combinations of ion traps [23, 24]. Some
of these devices may in fact belong to experimental setups, where they are used to study the properties (mass,
radii, spins) of the ground state of nuclei.
The beams obtained with the devices listed above are generally rather pure and have good optical properties (small
divergence, good energy definition), thanks to the manipulations which are possible at these low energies. At the same
time, if one needs to perform nuclear reaction studies, an increase in energy is necessary. This can be achieved by
post-accelerating the ions. This involves two steps:
– Charge-state breeder
Ions in a 1+ state cannot be accelerated efficiently. Applying the same potential difference, more energy can be
given to the ions if their charge state is higher. A simple, universal and fast method is to use a stripper foil (usually
a very thin carbon foil): the 1+ ions are first accelerated to a sufficient energy to allow them to traverse the foil
(150 keV/nucleon), lose part of their electrons in the foil and then continue towards the successive sections of the
accelerator. Higher charge states can be reached by using electron-impact ionisation sources such as the Electron
Beam Ion Source (EBIS) and the already mentioned ECR (a description and comparison of the two can be found
in Ref. [25]), which work directly with the 1+ ions. Very high currents can be reached by these devices, but a
trade-off is necessary between the highest charge states and the breeding time necessary to reach them (which is
of the order of few tens of milliseconds).
– Post-accelerator
Different post-accelerators are currently used at ISOL facilities: linear accelerators, cyclotrons and tandems. They
can also be used for a further purification of the beam, possibly at the expense of efficiency. The energy reached
by these machines is currently of the order of 3 to 10 MeV/nucleon (higher energies are possible for light nuclei),
sufficient to perform reaction studies (mainly elastic scattering, Coulomb excitation and transfer) around and
sightly above the Coulomb barrier. Like the low-energy beams, the post-accelerated ISOL beams are characterised
by good optics and a good degree of purity.
2.1.2 Efficiency
The total efficiency of the ISOL system is defined as the ratio of the number of nuclei per second (intensity of the
beam) delivered at the experimental station with respect to the nuclei produced in the primary reaction in the ISOL
target. This efficiency is the product of a number of terms, from each stage of the process: they are specified in
Table 1 along with, for most of them, a range of typical values. For delay and ion it is not possible to give general
numbers. Ionisation efficiencies depends on the element and the ion source used; it may reach 50% or more in the most
favourable cases. The survival efficiency delay depends on the half life of the nucleus (from few ms up to minutes) as
compared to the delay it takes for nuclei to leave the ion source. The latter can range from ms in the case of gas-catcher
and ion-guide systems, to several hours in the worst cases when using thick targets.
In general, for experiments aiming at studying the most exotic nuclei, the efficiency for the low-energy part (delay ×
ion ×trans ) does not exceed a few percent. If post-acceleration is needed, a further cool−bunch ×breeder ×accelerator ≈ 1%
to 5% has to be factored in. It is clear that a great effort has to be put in optimising the efficiency for all stages in
order to obtain usable beam intensities. The same is true concerning the selectivity. These optimisations involve, as
mentioned, both the physics and the chemistry of the elements of interest and the materials used for the target, the
transfer line and the ion source.
Table 1. Efficiencies of an ISOL system (adapted from Ref. [12]).
delay Survival of the nucleus against radioactive decay

ion Ionisation efficiency
trans Manipulation and transport to the setup > 80%
cool−bunch Cooling and bunching 20% to 60%
breeding Charge-state breeding 2% to 15%
accelerator Post-acceleration > 90%
Riccardo Raabe:
Total, product
Making of the above
Radioactive Ion Beams Detecting Reaction Products 7
Fig. 5. Schematic view of the in-flight separation technique (figure from Ref. [18]).
Fig. 5. Schematic view of the in-flight separation technique (figure from Ref. [18]).
2.2 The In-Flight Separation Method
A schematic view of the in-flight separation method is presented in Fig. 5. In this scheme, a high-energy beam of
heavy ions impinges on a thin (as compared to the ISOL method) target of light material, the products keep a forward
momentum and are identified and separated in a large fragment separator prior to arrival at the experimental station.
2.2.1 Stages
We review each stage briefly.

– Heavy-ion
Fig. 6. accelerator
The fragment separator at the GSI facility in Darmstadt, Germany. The length of the device is 75 m.
Various accelerators are used: cyclotrons, linear accelerators (LINAC), synchrotrons. In all cases, those are remark-
able machines capable of delivering beams of stable nuclei up to uranium, at very high intensities and energies.
Figures
ions range
impinges on in the (comparably
a thin few pµA beam withintensity,
the ISOLatmethod)
energiestarget
of a few hundreds
of light MeV/nucleon
material, the products forkeep
cyclotrons
a forwardand
momentum
LINACS; and are identified
intensities and separated
at synchrotrons are in a large
lower, fewfragment
tens of separator
pnA, butprior higherto arrival
energiesat can
the experimental station.
be reached, exceeding
1 GeV/nucleon.
– Production target
2.2.1 Stages all reaction processes discussed in the ISOL case can take place in this configuration, too. Depending
In principle
on the choice of the target material, the most common ones are fragmentation (beryllium and carbon targets),
Wespallation
review each stage targets)
(proton briefly. and fission (for all target materials). With the in-flight method there is a much more
–direct relationaccelerator
Heavy-ion between the cross section (probability of a reaction to occur) and the secondary beam intensities
than in the
Various ISOL case.
accelerators areThe products
used: escape
cyclotrons, theaccelerators
linear target with(LINAC),
a velocitysynchrotrons.
similar to that In of
allthe primary
cases, beam
those are (minus
remark-
the
ableenergy lossescapable
machines in the oftarget), the process
delivering beams of is extremely
stable nucleifastupand there is noatdependence
to uranium, on the chemistry.
very high intensities and energies.
Targets
Figuresare required
range in thetofewdissipate
pµA atvery high
a few powers,MeV/nucleon
hundreds of the order of fora cyclotrons
few hundreds and kW. The energy
LINACS; deposited
intensities at syn-by
achrotrons
beam canare locally
lower,heat the material
few tens to temperatures
of pnA, but higher energiesexceeding 104 K [26].
can be reached, To dissipate
exceeding all this energy, usually
1 GeV/nucleon.
–rotating wheelstarget
Production are utilised [27].
– Fragment
In principleseparator
all reaction processes discussed in the ISOL case can take place in this configuration, too. Depending
The separator
on the choice (see
of theFig. 6 formaterial,
target an actualtheexample)
most commonconsists
onesin are
a series of large dipoles
fragmentation (berylliumperforming
and carbona selection
targets),in
spallationrigidity
(proton 5 targets) and fission (for all target materials). With the in-flight method there is a much more
magnetic Bρ. In between the dipoles a degrader is placed (a foil of material) to introduce an energy
direct
loss relation on
dependent between the cross
the atomic section
number (probability
Z of the ion, and of athus
reaction to degeneracy
lift the occur) and the secondary
in A/Q (Q = beam intensities
Z as the ions are
than in the ISOL case. The products escape the target with a velocity similar to that of the primary beam (minus
5
The
theLorentz
energy force
lossesdictates that the the
in the target), curvature
processradius ρ is the same
is extremely fast andfor all ionsis having
there Bρ = Av/Q,
no dependence where
on the A is the mass, Q
chemistry.
the charge
Targetsstate
areand v the velocity
required of thevery
to dissipate ion high
(about the same
powers, for all
of the ions).
order of a few hundreds kW. The energy deposited by
a beam can locally heat the material to temperatures exceeding 104 K [26]. To dissipate all this energy, usually
rotating wheels are utilised [27].
– Fragment separator
The separator (see Fig. 6 for an actual example) consists in a series of large dipoles performing a selection in
magnetic rigidity5 B⇢. In between the dipoles a degrader is placed (a foil of material) to introduce an energy
loss dependent on the atomic number Z of the ion, and thus lift the degeneracy in A/Q (Q = Z as the ions are
. The average primary beam type events following the implantation of a beam particle.
gments were separated by the The calculation requires knowledge of the "-detection
16] operating with full momen- efficiency, background rate, daughter and granddaughter
sensitive plastic scintillator at half-lives, including those reached by "-delayed neutron
ocus was used to determine the emission, and branchings for "-delayed neutron emission
rticle at typical
8 rates of 10 =s.5
Fig. 5. (P
Riccardo n )Raabe:
for all
Schematic relevant
Making
view nuclei separation
Radioactive
of the in-flight inIonthe decay
Beams chain.(figure
Detecting
technique ReactionfromProducts
Ref. [18]).
For 75 Ni, 76 Ni, 77 Cu, and 78 Cu the statistics were suffi-
c Al degrader was also placed
f the separator to provide in- cient to determine the "-detection efficiency by comparing
fitted decay curves with the total number of implanted
ondary beam was individually species of that isotope. The resulting efficiencies agree
uring energy loss and time of very well and range from 40% to 43% with no systematic
900 momentum measurement. trends in the deviation. For 77 Ni and 78 Ni, an average
ured between two scintillators efficiency of &42 % 1'% was adopted. The background
ne located at the intermediate was determined for each run (typical duration of 1 h) and
the other located inside the in each detector pixel by counting all decay events that
occur outside of a 100 s time window following an im-
am was stopped in a stack of
plantation. Because of the low implantation rate, the back-
Beta Counting System (BCS)
ground is constant over the 5 s time window used to
ured in the first Fig. two 6.Si The
detec-
Fragment Separatorat atthe
theGSI
GSIfacility
facilityininDarmstadt,
Darmstadt,Germany.
Germany.The The length
fragment separator
correlate decays to an implantation. Experimental Plength
n val-
of the
of the device
device isis 75
75m.
m.
by a passive Al degrader of
ader thickness was adjusted to
ions impinges on a thin (comparably with the ISOL method) target of light material, the products keep a forward
double-sided
momentum Si stripanddetector
are identified and separated in a large fragment separator prior to arrival at the experimental station.
gmented into 40 1 mm strips 550
nd vertically on the other, re-
e beam was 2.2.1continuously
Stages im-
Energy Loss [a.u]
hich registered the time and

We review each stage briefly. 500
ypical total implantation rate
– Heavy-ion accelerator
under 0.1 perVarious
second.accelerators are used: cyclotrons, linear accelerators (LINAC), synchrotrons. 77
In all cases, those are remark-
bility of the ableBCSmachines
electronics, Cu
capable of delivering beams of stable nuclei up to uranium, at very high intensities and energies.
he time and position
Figures rangeof any in "the few pµA450 at a few hundreds MeV/nucleon for cyclotrons 75 and LINACS; intensities at syn-
Niexceeding 1 GeV/nucleon.
ntation of a chrotrons
nucleus. are This al- few tens of pnA,78but
lower,
Ni
higher energies can be reached,
decay event – Production
with a previously target 73
In principle all reaction processes discussed in the ISOL case can take Coplace in this configuration, too. Depending
us. Additional Si detectors in
on the choice of the target material,400 the most common 450 ones500are fragmentation
550 (beryllium and carbon targets),
D were used to veto(proton
spallation eventstargets) and fission (for all target materials).
Time of Flight [a.u] With the in-flight method there is a much more
secondary beam direct that canbetween
relation be the cross section (probability of a reaction to occur) and the secondary beam intensities
. With this Fig.than in the
7. Ion
setup, theISOL case.using
identification
total The products
FIG.energy lossescape
1 (color vs timethe
online). of target with
flight. These
Particle adata
velocity
weresimilar
identification obtained
using to in
energythat
theofmeasurements
loss the primary that beamidentified
(minus
78
Nithe
at energy
the National
lossesSuperconducting
in the target), theCyclotron
process Laboratory
is extremely of the Michigan
fast State
and there is University
no dependence(East on Lansing, Michigan, USA).
the chemistry.
e associated withfrom
Figure
Targets
an are
implanted
Ref.required
[29]. vs time of flight for a subset of the data.
to dissipate very high powers, of the order of a few hundreds kW. The energy deposited by
a beam can locally heat the material to temperatures exceeding 104 K [26]. To dissipate all this energy, usually
rotating wheels are utilised [27].
112501-2
– Fragment separator
completely stripped). The system is completed by higher-order optical devices (quadrupoles, hexapoles) for further
The separator (see Fig. 6 for an actual example) consists in a series of large dipoles performing a selection in
corrections [28]. The acceptance of the separator is an important parameter, and new devices are designed with
magnetic rigidity5 B⇢. In between the dipoles a degrader is placed (a foil of material) to introduce an energy
an increased acceptance as compared to the present ones in order to increase the efficiency for the transmission of
loss dependent on the atomic number Z of the ion, and thus lift the degeneracy in A/Q (Q = Z as the ions are
fission fragments, which emerge from the reaction target with a non-negligible transverse momentum.
5 The magnets of in-flight separators are much larger than those of ISOL systems because of the much higher
The Lorentz force dictates that the curvature radius ⇢ is the same for all ions having B⇢ = Av/Q, where A is the mass, Q
velocities
the charge ofand
state the vion
thebeams;
velocityhowever,
of the ionthe “separation”
(about the same achieved in in-flight separators does not allow to physically
for all ions).
eliminate the contaminants from the beam. Instead, an identification is performed on each ion.
– Tracking and identification
Usually the separator is tuned to allow most of the nuclei of interest to reach the measurement setup, compensating
for the spread in energy at the exit of the production target (this is the achromatic mode). If nuclei from two different
species reach the experimental setup with the same energy, either they have different masses and thus velocities,
or different atomic number Z. The velocity of each ion is measured by using detectors with good timing resolution
placed at some early point and at the end of the separator (at these energies, thin solid or gaseous detectors do not
alter the beam significantly). This is expressed as the time of flight (TOF)6 of the ion. To characterise the atomic
number Z an energy loss detector is used, i.e. the energy deposited by the ion as it goes through a detector is
measured. The two pieces of information are combined in a “∆E-TOF” spectrum where the different nuclei appear
at separate loci; an example is given in Fig. 7. The method allows setting a condition on the events of interest by
6
Some orders of magnitude: an ion with an energy of 500 MeV/nucleon has a velocity of 2.3 × 108 m s−1 , thus the time of
flight on a basis of 100 m is 440 ns. For a resolving power A/∆A ≈ 100 we need a resolution ∆v/v ≈ 1/200 and thus a timing
resolution of about 2 ns. Notice that the time of flight can be measured for each ion separately because the beam intensity is
very low – there is only one ion at a time in the separator.
selecting the appropriate nucleus. It also allows measuring reactions and/or decay with many different incoming
nuclei during a single experiment.
2.2.2 Efficiency
In the terms used in section 2.1.2, only delay and trans are present in the in-flight method to determine the total
efficiency. Because of the high velocity of the ions, the former approaches unity and is not relevant. The transport
efficiency depends on the kinematic conditions of the reaction producing the ions of interest, which determine the
emittance of the beam, and the acceptance of the different elements of the separator. The latter can be strongly
modified (using slits for example) to suppress the presence of unwanted contaminants. In favourable conditions the
transport efficiency can exceed 50%.
The computer code LISE++ [30] has been developed for the simulation of fragment separators: after the definition
of the primary beam and production target, it allows setting the parameters of the separator elements (dipoles,
degraders, slits) to find the optimal configuration for the transmission of a selected ion species.
2.3 Comparison ISOL vs In-Flight Separation
We summarise here for convenience the main differences, advantages and drawbacks of the two methods. Both have to
face challenges represented by low production cross sections for the species of interest; an overwhelming contamination
of unwanted species; and (very) short half lives for the species of interest.
The main advantage of the ISOL method is the good quality of the delivered beams in terms of small emittance,
small energy spread and purity. This is due to selection and manipulation of the ions at low energy. It strongly
depends on the chemistry of the atoms and ions of interest, offering ways to select the species of interest; however,
a long development is necessary for each species to optimise those chemistry-dependent procedures. On the negative
side, it is a slow method. Also, for reaction studies a post-accelerator is needed. The ISOL technique is thus more
adapted for detailed spectroscopic studies of isotopes which can be produced in reasonable quantities (typically 103
to 106 ions s−1 ).
The in-flight separation method, on the other hand, is very fast and universal; it does not depend on chemistry.
The separation takes place at high energy (very large magnets) and is not complete; often, the species of interest are
a fraction of the total beam. Ion-by-ion identification, however, is possible, overcoming the problem of contamination.
The radioactive beams are directly available at high energy; reaction studies can be performed if the intensities allow
them. The method is thus more adapted to produce and identify new isotopes (their masses, half lives), pushing the
boundaries of the observed ones by increasing the primary beam intensity and the sensitivity of the detection. The
discovery of new species can take place with rates lower than one ion per day; in the case of the discovery of the new
superheavy elements, less than one event per month was observed.
We finally mention a new development, that aims at combining the two methods and exploits the advantages of
both. The idea is to place a gas catcher to stop and thermalise the ions produced by an in-flight facility: the very
exotic ions could then be evacuated (in a timescale of the order of ms) and manipulated at low energy, recovering the
assets of the ISOL method.
2.4 Facilities
Fig. 8 presents a world view of the ISOL and in-flight facilities, present or planned (updated to 2010). We present
here very briefly only a selection, focusing on the most relevant ones for European researchers and completing with a
few of the new facilities currently under construction. References are provided for further details on each facility.
2.4.1 ISOL Facilities
The first ISOL system was realised in 1951 at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen [31]. A deuteron beam from a
cyclotron was directed on a neutron converter, from which the neutrons irradiated an uranium target; neutron-rich
isotopes of krypton, 89,90,91 Kr, were extracted. More than a decade later, at Orsay, the protons from the synchro-
cyclotron were sent on a stack of carbon foils to produce the isotopes 6,7,8,9 Li [32]. Just one year earlier, in 1964, the
ISOLDE project was started, to use the 600-MeV protons from the Synchro-Cyclotron of CERN for the production
of radioisotopes through fission [33].
Fig. 8. World view of present and planned ISOL (black) and in-flight separation (magenta) facilities. (after B. Sherrill, 2010).
Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Schematic
Schematic view of the ISOLDE facility in
at CERN. The
The two
two target
target stations
stations and
and separators
separators are
are highlighted.
highlighted.
2.4.1 ISOL Facilities

– ISOLDE at CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
TheThe
firstfirst
ISOL system was at
measurements realised
ISOLDEin 1951
[34] at theplace
took NielsinBohr
1967.Institute in Copenhagen
Since then, the ISOLDE[31]. A deuteron
complex beam
[35] went from aa
through
cyclotron
numberwas directed on
of upgrades anda transformations,
neutron converter, from which
among which the
the move
neutrons irradiated
in 1992 an uranium target; neutron-rich
to the Proton-Synchrotron Booster (PS
89,90,91
isotopes
Booster)of krypton,
delivering protons Kr,atwere extracted.
1.4 GeV. More than
An overview a facility
of the decade islater,
shown at in
Orsay,
Fig. 9.the protons
There fromtarget
are two the synchro-
stations,
6,7,8,9
cyclotron
coupledwere sent on a to
respectively stack
the of carbon foils to produce
General-Purpose Separatorthe(GPS)
isotopes Li [32]. Just one
and High-Resolution year earlier,
Separator (HRS). in The
1964,most
the
ISOLDE projectis was
used target the started, to use the
fissile uranium 600-MeV
carbide (UCxprotons from thesorts
). The different Synchro-Cyclotron of CERN in
of ion sources discussed forsection
the production
2.1.1 are
of radioisotopes through fission [33].
– ISOLDE at CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
The first measurements at ISOLDE [34] took place in 1967. Since then, the ISOLDE complex [35] went through
a number of upgrades and transformations, among which the move in 1992 to the PS Booster delivering protons
at 1.4 GeV. An overview of the facility is shown in Fig. 9. There are two target stations, coupled respectively
to the General-Purpose Separator (GPS) and High-Resolution Separator (HRS). The most used target is the
all employed and continuously developed; in fact, the 50-years long beam-development programme has provided
ISOLDE with the widest range of RIBs available worldwide. To date, more than 600 isotopes of almost 70 elements
(Z = 2 to 88) have been produced, with half lives as short as milliseconds. The beams are directly available for
research and applications in the low-energy part of the facility.
Post-acceleration is available for reaction studies since 2001, first with the REX-ISOLDE facility [36, 37] and
very recently with the new HIE-ISOLDE superconducting linear post-accelerator [38], that has brought the beam
energy from 3 MeV/nucleon to 5 MeV/nucleon with another upgrade planned for 2018 when the energy will become
10 MeV/nucleon. The key feature of the ISOLDE post-acceleration is the charge-breeding scheme, which employs
bunching in a trap (REXTRAP) and successive injection in the REXEBIS charge breeder where high charge states
can be reached. The rich programme of nuclear reaction studies via Coulomb excitation and transfer reactions
started at REX-ISOLDE will be broadened at HIE-ISOLDE, thanks to beam energies above the Coulomb barrier
also for the heaviest nuclei.
– The Cyclotron Research Facility at Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium)
Historically, the first post-acceleration of a beam from an ISOL target took place at the CRC in Belgium in the early
90s [39]. The RIB facility was called ARENAS3 . A first cyclotron accelerated protons at 30 MeV which impinged
on a LiF target (liquid during irradiation). The light products, in particular 13 N in that first experiment, were then
post-accelerated in a second larger cyclotron which also acted as a powerful mass separator. In the years, several
measurements on the halo nucleus 6 He and a number of nuclear astrophysics measurements have been performed
at the CRC [40]. Unfortunately, the RIB part of the facility has been discontinued.
– SPIRAL and SPIRAL2 at GANIL, Caen (France)
In the SPIRAL facility [41] a thick graphite target is irradiated by the heavy-ion beams provided by the coupled-
cyclotrons complex of GANIL [42]. Products, mainly from the fragmentation of the incoming beam, are ionised in
a 1+ ECR source, providing beams of noble gases, O and F. Post-acceleration is performed by the CIME cyclotron
that also acts as a mass separator. The energies of the final beams can reach 25 MeV/nucleon, the highest of current
ISOL facilities. An overview of the results obtained at SPIRAL is given in Ref. [43].
The SPIRAL2 project [44] is also located at the GANIL site. It will use a LINAC primary injector (already built)
to shoot a 5-mA deuteron beam on a neutron converter before a thick fissile target, where about 1014 fissions
per second will occur. The projected figures for the low-energy beam intensities are improved of about one to two
orders of magnitude compared to ISOLDE for fission fragments. Post-acceleration will still be performed by CIME.
The construction of the ISOL facility (target and ion source), however, has been postponed.
– SPES at the Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Italy
Together with ISOLDE and SPIRAL, SPES [45] at LNL in Italy [46] is the third large ISOL installation in Europe,
and is currently under construction. The injector is a proton cyclotron; the beam (40 MeV, 200 µA) will impinge
on one of two fissile targets; products will then be accelerated by the existing superconducting PIAVE-ALPI linear
accelerator complex. The start of operations is foreseen for 2019.
– ISOL@MYRRHA at SCK• CEN, Mol (Belgium)
The facility [47] relies on the construction of MYRRHA [48], an Acceleration Driven System (ADS) featuring a
5-mA, 600-MeV proton linear accelerator. Part of the intensity, about 200 µA, would be deviated from the main
beam towards a ruggedised target-ion source ensemble similar to that of ISOLDE or TRIUMF (see below). Only
low-energy RIBs are foreseen, with a programme focusing on experiments that can exploit the long, uninterrupted
production ensured by the linear accelerator, which needs to have extremely high standards of reliability. At present,
the plan is to start with a 100-MeV, full intensity (5 mA) accelerator to test its performances, and build an ISOL
facility that could, in principle, use the full intensity since the reactor of the ADS will be built in a successive
phase.
– ISAC and ARIEL at TRIUMF, Vancouver (Canada)
ISAC [49] uses a 500-MeV, 100-µA proton beam7 from the TRIUMF cyclotron to produce radioactive nuclei (mainly
via spallation, fission and target fragmentation) in one of two thick targets. The radioactive nuclei are either used
in the low-energy part of the facility or sent for post-acceleration: after an initial acceleration to 150 KeV/nucleon,
a stripper foil is used to increase the charge state. One between the ISAC-I (up to 5 MeV/nucleon) and ISAC-II
(5 to 10 MeV/nucleon) linear post-accelerators can then be chosen for reaction studies.
The new facility ARIEL [50], currently under construction, will add two more targets that will be operated in
parallel to the existing ones. One target will be irradiated by protons from the cyclotrons through a new beam line.
On the second, however, fission will be induced by the Bremsstrahlung photons created by slowing down a beam
of electrons (50 MeV, 10 mA) in a suitable converter [51]. The use of a converter is necessary to reduce the power
in the target: the electron beam will deposit 340 kW in the converter, the remaining 160 kW will be transported
by photons and scattered electrons.
7
To date, the maximum proton beam current used at ISAC has been 50 µA, for a total dissipated power of 25 kW (the beam
is fully stopped in the target).
Fig. 10. Schematic view of the EURISOL concept.
– EURISOL
EURISOL [52] is the “ultimate” ISOL facility for Europe. The concept is shown in Fig. 10: a superconducting
LINAC would accelerate H− ions up to 1 GeV energy; the full 4 MW power would be delivered to one target
station (actually a combination of several targets working in parallel). It would also be possible to split part of the
main beam using stripper foils, to irradiate one of the smaller 100-kW targets. After ionisation in an ECR source,
products would be guided through a high-resolution mass spectrometer towards a charge breeder and then a linear
post-accelerator. The energy of the latter (150 MeV) would allow performing secondary fragmentation reactions of
the exotic nuclei on a thin target, producing nuclei much further from stability than nowadays possible.
2.4.2 In-flight Facilities
As mentioned in the introduction, the first RIBs at energies sufficient to perform nuclear reactions were produced with
the in-flight separation technique.
– Bevalac at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley (California, USA)
The first in-flight facility [53] was realised at the Bevalac, an accelerator built a few years earlier by coupling the
Super-HILAC low-energy heavy-ion linear accelerator with the Bevatron, a proton synchrotron. The two machines
together allowed acceleration of heavy ions up to 800 MeV/nucleon. Modification were made to the machine in order
to build a secondary beam line which featured a Be target and some separation stages. The first measurements
with neutron-rich isotopes of He and Li [1, 2], from the fragmentation of 11 Be and 20 Ne, led to the discovery of
a large interaction cross section and thus a large matter radius, which was successively interpreted a signature of
a halo structure: it was the beginning of reaction physics with exotic nuclei. The story of those experiments is
recalled in this Focus Point in Ref. [3].
– GANIL at Caen (France)
At GANIL [42], besides SPIRAL, the heavy-ion stable beams from the coupled cyclotrons (100 MeV/nucleon)
are also used for the in-flight production of radioactive species. The SISSI superconducting solenoid [54] was
placed after the reaction target to focus the fragments (this was necessary because of the relatively low energy
of the primary beam) and increase the intensity of the RIBs. Selection was performed in the “Alpha” complex of
magnetic dipoles, to deliver the beams to the GANIL complex of experimental areas. After the breakdown of SISSI
in 2008, the LISE beam line [55, 56] (one of the experimental lines) and magnets have been adapted to continue
the research programme with in-flight separated beams.
Riccardo
RiccardoRaabe:
Raabe:Making
Radioactive Ion BeamsDetecting
DetectingReaction
ReactionProducts
Products 13 13
Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. Schematic
Schematicview
viewofofthe
theRIKEN
RIKEN facility
facility for for radioactive
radioactive ion beams.
beams.
providing beams up to uranium (200 MeV/nucleon, 2 mA) impinging on a fast rotating graphite target. After a
large-acceptance separator, fast, slow and reaccelerated beams will be made available to several experimental areas.
The reaccelerated beams will be realised by first stopping the beams in a gas stopper (see section 2.3), extract
them with ISOL techniques and injecting them in a superconducting LINAC for energies up to 3 MeV/nucleon.
– RIBF at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
– GSIThe RIBF
and FAIRfacility
at in Japan [62] is
Darmstadt the first new-generation facility to become operational, delivering beams since
(Germany)
At 2007. A view
the “GSI of the facility is shown
Helmholtzzentrum in Fig. 11. Three cyclotrons
für Schwerionenforschung” [57] the(fRC, IRC and
primary beamtheofsuperconducting SRC) are in
stable ions is accelerated
thecombined
UNILAC tolinear
accelerate ions up to
accelerator, 350 MeV/nucleon,
followed by the SIS18withsynchrotron.
design intensities
All species, ⇥ 1012
around 5from H particles
to U, perbesecond
can for
accelerated
238
up to U2 and 1015 particles
GeV/nucleon. Thepervery
second
high
48
forenergy
Ca. After the BigRIPS
partially separator,
compensates the lower
for the three spectrometers ZDS, SHARAQ
intensity as compared to other
and SAMURAI
facilities provide
(1010 particle percomplete ways of
spill, about analysing
1 spill the products
per second): afterofthe
reactions induced
production by thethe
target radioactive species at
very78forward-focused
+ 66 72
products are analysed in the FRS fragment separator (see Fig. 6), and the selected exotic species canusing
secondary targets. One of the recent highlights is the measurement of 2 states in Cr, Fe and Ni the in
be used
MINOS proton tracker [63]. Among the planned upgrades there is SCRIT, an electron-radioactive ion scattering
experiments using thick targets. Among the highlights of the facility are the production and identification of the
facility, and the Rare 100RI ring, to store78 ions after stopping in a gas catcher.
doubly-magic nuclei Sn [58] and Ni [59], and the impressive high-precision spectroscopic data obtained by
storing selected nuclei in the ESR storage ring [60].
FAIR [61] is the new-generation European fragmentation facility. 238 U ions will be accelerated in the very large
3SIS100
Detection of Radiation
synchrotron with an increase of 2 to 3 orders of magnitude with respect to GSI. Experiments are planned
on hadrons
We open thisand quarks
section withinacompressed nuclearabout
short introduction matter,theon atomic,
working plasma of
principles physics and applications,
instruments used for the on antiprotons,
detection of
radiation, and a very brief review of the main detector types. Good 4references for this part are the books of separator,
and on nuclear structure. The latter is the NUSTAR facility for RIBs and will feature the Super-FRS W. R.
delivering
Leo [64] anda G.
range of beams
F. Knoll [65].with
Suchan improvement
principles in intensity
are of course of 10 to
not related compared
the use oftoRIBs
the present GSI. Several
in the experiment; dedicated
however,
experimentalwith
experiments setups
RIBsarerequire
being constructed for measurements
special arrangements to cope with of reactions,
the low beamdecay,intensities
laser spectroscopy, mass
and possibly measure-
di↵erent
ments andwith
kinematics electron-ion
respect toscattering.
measurements A modularised startupThese
with stable beams. of theaspects
facility will
will be first focus in
presented onsection
the antiproton physics
3.4 along with
and the
some construction of the Super-FRS. In addition, some of the new, dedicated setups are already completed and
examples.
will be temporarily used at the present GSI facility before being moved to FAIR at a second stage.
– NSCL and FRIB at MSU, East Lansing (Michigan, USA)
3.1 Types
In the USAof Radiation
the main in-flight facility is at the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory of MSU. At
present, two coupled cyclotrons provide the primary stable beam; the reaction products are identified in the A1900
The principle
fragment for the detection
separator. of radiation
But construction has isalready
that allstarted
or a part of the
of the newradiation energy[62]:
FRIB facility is transferred
the drivertowill
thebe
detector
a LINAC
mass. This beams
providing can occur up by
to di↵erent
uranium mechanisms, which mostly
(200 MeV/nucleon, 2 mA)involve
impingingthe interaction of the incoming
on a fast rotating graphiteradiation
target. with
After a
the electrons of theseparator,
large-acceptance material offast,
the slow
detector. Electrons can beams
and reaccelerated be either released
will be made andavailable
collectedtoonseveral
electrodes after drifting
experimental areas.
in an electric field (ionisation detectors and semiconductors); or be re-absorbed, releasing photons in the de-excitation
The reaccelerated beams will be realised by first stopping the ions in a gas stopper (see section 2.3), extracting
process which are in turn measured in some light-sensitive device (scintillation detectors).
them with ISOL techniques and injecting them in a superconducting LINAC for energies up to 3 MeV/nucleon.
– For charged
– RIBF at RIKEN, particles the main
Tokyo (Japan)process is inelastic collisions with the electrons of the detector material (plus
TheBremsstrahlung
RIBF facility for electrons
in Japan [63]and positrons).
is the The interactions
first new-generation are very
facility frequent,
to become with a small
operational, energy exchange;
delivering beams since
theyAare
2007. viewthusofgoverned by statistical
the facility is shown laws.
in Fig. Results of measurements,
11. Three cyclotrons (fRC,as wellIRCas formulas
and thefor the specific energy
superconducting loss are
SRC)
dE/dx in any relevant material are available for ions and electrons in a wide range
combined to accelerate ions up to 350 MeV/nucleon, with design intensities around 5 × 10 particles per second for of energies.
12 Likewise, there
238 are programs capable per
of fully simulating
U and 1015 particles second for 48 Ca.the interactions
After such separator,
the BigRIPS as SRIM [66]. the Essentially, the probability
three spectrometers of any
ZDS, SHARAQ
andinteraction
SAMURAI of provide
ions with the detector
complete ways isof 100%, so that
analysing the the detection
products efficiencyinduced
of reactions only depends
by theupon the minimum
radioactive species at
secondary targets. One of the recent highlights is the measurement of 2+ states in 66 Cr, 72 Fe and 78 Ni using the
MINOS proton tracker [64]. Among the planned upgrades there is SCRIT, an electron-radioactive ion scattering
facility, and the Rare RI ring, to store ions after stopping in a gas catcher.
3 Detection of Radiation
We open this section with a short introduction about the working principles of instruments used for the detection of
radiation, and a very brief review of the main detector types. Good references for this part are the books of W. R. Leo
[65] and G. F. Knoll [66]. Such principles are of course not related to the use of RIBs; however, experiments with RIBs
require special arrangements to cope with the low beam intensities and possibly different kinematics with respect to
measurements with stable beams. These aspects will be presented in section 3.4 along with some examples.
3.1 Types of Radiation
The principle for the detection of radiation is that all or a part of the radiation energy is transferred to the detector
mass. This can occur by different mechanisms, which mostly involve the interaction of the incoming radiation with
the electrons of the material of the detector. Electrons can be either released and collected on electrodes after drifting
in an electric field (ionisation detectors and semiconductors); or be re-absorbed, releasing photons in the de-excitation
process which are in turn measured in some light-sensitive device (scintillation detectors).
– For charged particles impinging on a detector, the main process is inelastic collisions with the electrons of the
detector material (plus Bremsstrahlung for electrons and positrons). The interactions are very frequent, with a
small energy exchange; they are thus governed by statistical laws. Results of measurements, as well as formulas
for the specific energy loss dE/dx in any relevant material are available for ions and electrons in a wide range of
energies. Likewise, there are programs capable of fully simulating the interactions such as SRIM [67]. Essentially,
the probability of any interaction of ions with the detector is 100%, so that the detection efficiency only depends
upon the minimum energy (threshold) that the setup can record. For incoming electrons, however, the detection
efficiency can be lower because of the possibility of backscattering on the surface of the detector.
– Photons interact much more rarely, thus their detection efficiency is generally lower than 100% and can be as low
as a few %. They can be fully absorbed through the photoelectric effect (the full energy is then recorded). But
they can also scatter off an electron (Compton scattering) depositing only part of their energy and then leave
the detector. If their energy is above 1022 keV, they can produce an electron-positron pair; the positron then
immediately annihilates producing two γ rays of 511 keV, which are a typical feature of nuclear γ-ray spectra.
– Neutrons are much more challenging to detect, because they do not interact with electrons. Their energy needs to
be first transformed into a different sort of radiation. Slow (few eV) neutrons are captured by nuclei (some specific
nuclei have a large capture cross section), which then β-decay back to stability by emitting detectable radiation.
Fast (keV to MeV) neutrons can scatter off the nuclei of the detector: to achieve the highest energy transfer,
protons are the best target, thus fast-neutron detectors are often scintillators with a large content of protons. Fast
neutrons can also be first slowed down in a moderator, undergoing multiple scattering events in a very thick slab of
material, and then be captured. The energy of neutrons cannot be measured directly with good accuracy; instead,
one relies on the measurement of their velocity through the time of flight between the reaction point (as signalled
by some coincident radiation) and the neutron detector. To achieve a good resolution, usually distances of several
meters are necessary, requiring very large arrays to still obtain a sufficient geometric efficiency.
3.2 General Characteristics of Detectors
Very briefly, the main characteristics of detectors are the following [65].
– Sensitivity: it is the capability of the detector to produce a usable signal for a given type of radiation and energy.
It depends on the probability for interaction and the detection threshold (due to inherent noise and due to the
possible presence of protective layers).
– Response Function: it is the relation between the energy of the incoming radiation and the signal recorded by the
detector. Ideally, the signal should be always the same for a given energy, and possibly it should vary linearly with
the radiation energy. However, this is often not the case: even if linearity can be usually achieved within a certain
given range, a partial energy deposition (as in the case of photons) can produce a complex spectrum even for a
monochromatic radiation.
– Resolution: it is the minimum energy difference that can be distinguished in the detector. Because of statistical
fluctuations and noise, a monochromatic radiation always results in a peak with a finite width: the full width at
half maximum (FWHM) of the peak is usually taken as a measure of the resolution (we cannot separate two energy
sources that produce peaks lying closer than their FWHM). Usually it is expressed in percent, as a ratio to the
corresponding energy: Resolution = ∆E/E.
Riccardo
Riccardo Raabe: Making Radioactive
Raabe: Making RadioactiveIon
IonBeams
BeamsDetecting
Detecting Reaction
Reaction Products
Products 15 15
Fig.
Fig.12.
12.Number
Numberofofions
ions(ion-electron pairs) collected
(ion-electron pairs) collectedininaagaseous
gaseousdetector
detector
asas a function
function of theofapplied
the applied voltage,
voltage. for incoming
The figure shows α
particles and electrons.
the di↵erent regimes atThe figure
which shows detector
a gaseous the different
can beregimes at (adapted
operated which a gaseous
from Ref.detector
[67]). can be operated (adapted from Ref.
[68]).
place within a small volume around the anode wire, where the field is more intense. Finally, if the created charge in the
avalanches is too large, the field is distorted and proportionality is lost. Photons emitted in secondary ionisations travel
–toEfficiency:
other areasitinisthe thedetector
ratio ofcreating
the number of registereduntil
more avalanches, events
a fulltodischarge
the number takesofplace:
eventsthis
emitted by the
is a Geiger source.and
counter, It can
be factorised
only into geometric
provides information on the efficiency
number and intrinsicevents.
of incoming efficiency. As mentioned above, the intrinsic efficiency strongly
depends
Gaseousondetectors
the typecan of incoming
be configured radiation.
as position-sensitive devices. The invention of the Multi-Wire Proportional
–Chamber
Timing (MWPC)
properties:[68], thefor
response
which G. time tells usreceived
Charpak how quickly a detector
the Nobel prize in reacts
1992,tohasthebeen
incoming radiation.
the first, key stepThis is also
in this
a measure
direction. TheofMWPC
the timinguses resolution
several anode that a detector
wires placed incan achieve.
a planar The dead
geometry at atime
closemeasures
distance (1 theto time
2 mm) that
froma each
detector
needsbetween
other, to process twoan event and
cathode fully
plates. Therecover, to be ready
gap between for the
the plates following
is less than 1one.cm. This
Withisthis
often, but not always,
configuration, related
the field
lines are response
to the essentiallytime.parallel and constant, except in the immediate neighbourhood of a wire. When a charged particle
traverses the volume, the charges drift to di↵erent wires providing information in one direction (perpendicular to the
wires). Information on the other direction can be obtained from a second plane of wires.
In theof
3.3 Types most recent developments, the MWPC have been replaced by Micro-Pattern Gaseous Detectors (MPGD)
Detectors
[69] such as Micromegas [70] and GEM [71]. With these devices, resolutions of the order of a few microns or better
can Ionisation
3.3.1 be obtained, with additional advantages concerning robustness and reliability.
Detectors
Another very used detector configuration is the Time-Projection Chamber (TPC) [72], which provides a full three-
Asdimensional reconstruction
the name suggests, of the tracks
in ionisation of charged
detectors the signal particles traversing
is provided its volume.
by electrons TPCs from
removed have their
a large driftor
atoms volume,
molecules
bywhere the ionisingwith
the interaction particles generate radiation.
the incoming electrons; Thetheseelectrons
electronsthen driftdrift
towards
in a an amplification
field towards a zone zone,where
whichthey can generate
be a
wire
the planeTypically,
signal. – usually the placed close tomaterial
detection a pad plane where
in these positive
cases induction
is a gas: chargesfinding
this allows provideinexpensive
two-dimensionalsolutionsposition
for very
information
different – or a and
geometries MPGD device. Information on the third dimension is reconstructed from the drift time of the
applications.
electrons in the gas
In the simplest volume.
configuration, the cathode is a cylinder containing the gas, and the anode is a wire at a high voltage
running through the axisare
TPCs and MWPCs of largely used, especially
the cylinder. The signals in high-energy
are recordedand by particle
directingphysics. In nuclear
measuring physics,
the current important
collected on the
limitations
wire. Dependingariseof due
thetovalue
the dynamic range offield,
of the electric the signals generated
this2detector canin the in
work gas,different
becauseregimes,
the specificsee energy
Fig. 12. loss
If dE/dx
the field is
depends upon the square of the number of protons Z of the incoming ions. As a consequence, the amplitude of the
low, the ionisation electrons are simply collected on the anode: this is the ionisation chamber mode, and the produced
signals can vary by several orders of magnitude between light ions and heavier species; however, read-out systems can
currents are very small. At higher field values, electrons acquire enough energy to ionise other molecules. This is
only handle a limited range (typically the dynamic range of a read-out system is less than 100). Another limitation is
the
theproportional
dead time ofcounter
a gaseous regime:
detector:the while
number of electrons
ionisation electronsis multiplied
are collected bywithin
very large
a few factors (up to much
microseconds, 106 ) remaining
longer
proportional to thetooriginal
times are needed evacuate signal. In the cylindrical
the corresponding geometry
ions drifting described
to the cathode. above, the multiplication
Typically, this limits the(avalanche)
counting ratetakes
place within
of these a smalltovolume
detectors about around
104 eventsthe per
anode
secondwire,(depending
where the on fieldtheis geometry).
more intense. Finally,
Several if thehave
systems created
beencharge
adopted in the
avalanches is too large, the field is distorted and proportionality
to circumvent this problem, and higher rates can presently be achieved with MPGDs. is lost. Photons emitted in secondary ionisations travel
to other
For these reasons, in nuclear physics gaseous detectors have found their main applications as beam profile monitors, and
areas in the detector creating more avalanches, until a full discharge takes place: this is a Geiger counter,
only provides
especially forinformation
low-intensityonbeamsthe number
such as of incoming
RIBs. If the events.
energy of the beam is sufficiently large (a few MeV/nucleon)
Gaseous
the detectors
detection can be configured
is non-destructive and the as position-sensitive
monitors can be useddevices. The inventionofofthe
in the reconstruction thetrajectories
Multi-Wireof Proportional
the ions
Chamber
involved (MWPC)
in reactions. [69], for which
Another use ofG. Charpak
gaseous received
detectors the
is for theNobel prize in of1992,
identification has particles
charged been thethrough
first, keythe step in this
specific
direction. The MWPC uses several anode wires placed in a planar geometry at a close distance (1 to 2 mm) from each
other, between two cathode plates. The gap between the plates is less than 1 cm. With this configuration, the field
lines are essentially parallel and constant, except in the immediate neighbourhood of a wire. When a charged particle
traverses the volume, the charges drift to different wires providing information in one direction (perpendicular to the
wires). Information on the other direction can be obtained from a second plane of wires.
In the most recent developments, the MWPC have been replaced by Micro-Pattern Gaseous Detectors (MPGD)
[70] such as Micromegas [71] and GEM [72]. With these devices, resolutions of the order of a few microns or better
can be obtained, with additional advantages concerning robustness and reliability.
Another very used detector configuration is the Time-Projection Chamber (TPC) [73], which provides a full three-
dimensional reconstruction of the tracks of charged particles traversing its volume. TPCs have a large drift volume,
where the ionising particles generate electrons; these electrons drift towards an amplification zone, which can be a
wire plane – usually placed close to a pad plane where positive induction charges provide two-dimensional position
information – or a MPGD device. Information on the third dimension is reconstructed from the drift time of the
electrons in the gas volume.
TPCs and MWPCs are largely used, especially in high-energy and particle physics. In nuclear physics, important
limitations arise due to the dynamic range of the signals generated in the gas, because the specific energy loss dE/dx
depends upon the square of the number of protons Z 2 of the incoming ions. As a consequence, the amplitude of the
signals can vary by several orders of magnitude between light ions and heavier species; however, read-out systems can
only handle a limited range (typically the dynamic range of a read-out system is less than 100). Another limitation is
the dead time of a gaseous detector: while ionisation electrons are collected within a few microseconds, much longer
times are needed to evacuate the corresponding ions drifting to the cathode. Typically, this limits the counting rate
of these detectors to about 104 events per second (depending on the geometry). Several systems have been adopted
to circumvent this problem, and higher rates can presently be achieved with MPGDs.
For these reasons, in nuclear physics gaseous detectors have found their main applications as beam profile monitors,
especially for low-intensity beams such as RIBs. If the energy of the beam is sufficiently large (a few MeV/nucleon)
the detection is non-destructive and the monitors can be used in the reconstruction of the trajectories of the ions
involved in reactions. Another use of gaseous detectors is for the identification of charged particles through the specific
energy loss dE/dx. In this case, they are mounted as a first stage (“∆E”) of a telescope system, where the second
stage is typically a solid state detector where the ions are stopped, providing the full residual energy (“E”). Of course
this technique only works if the particles to be identified have not too different charges, for example to identify the
different light ions emitted in a reaction. Within the limits described above, the efficiency of a gaseous detector for
charged particles is potentially 100%.
3.3.2 Scintillation Detectors
Scintillators are materials that emit light when struck by the incoming radiation. The scintillator is surrounded by
reflecting material on all sides except one, where a device collects most of the photons and converts them into a readable
current: photomultiplier tubes are still widely used, but recently more compact devices such as silicon photomultipliers
(SiPMs) [74] and others have been introduced.
Most scintillation materials are quite cheap and can be built into detectors in a variety of shapes, making them
extremely versatile devices. Other important features are the following.
– Linearity: the light produced in the material is proportional to the energy deposited, and the photomultiplier
response is also linear. This makes them suitable to measure the energy of the incoming radiation, however they
are not the best instruments for this purpose because the light collection is never perfect. By choosing appropriate
materials, energy resolutions from a few percent to 10% can be reached for charged particles and γ rays.
– Fast time response: the processes governing the energy absorption and re-emission are of the order of 10−8 s or
less. These detectors can thus determine the time of an event with great precision. They also recover very fast,
allowing high counting rates.
– Pulse shape discrimination: since for certain scintillator materials the light-emission mechanism is different for
different types of incoming radiation, the shape of their signals can be used for the identification. A typical
example is the separation between signals induced by γ rays and neutrons.
There is a large variety of scintillator materials, organic and inorganic, gaseous, liquid and crystals. Each has
special advantages and is used for specific applications.
Organic scintillators (mostly liquid ones), containing a large fraction of protons, are used for the detection of
neutrons. As mentioned above, the neutron energy is usually reconstructed by the time-of-flight from the position
of the neutron source. These detectors have pulse discrimination capabilities to filter out the signals induced by
background γ rays.
Plastic (solid) scintillators are used in the detection of charged particles, usually when information on the energy
is not essential. This is the case, for example, of beam detectors specialised in timing, to measure the time-of-flight
of ions. Another application is the detection of β particles in decays, which is only used as a coincidence condition
to select events of interest in other detectors. Plastic scintillators are quite cheap and can be easily shaped into any
form, realising a good geometric coverage also in difficult conditions. The low Z ensures that the detectors are not
very sensitive to γ-ray radiation.
To detect γ rays it is necessary to use high-Z materials, as in inorganic crystals. The most widely used has been
for a long time NaI(Tl) (Tl is an impurity activator8 ) which has a (mediocre) energy resolution for γ rays of about
7% but has the advantage of a much larger efficiency than semiconductors (see below). NaI are thus used when γ rays
at few energies only, possibly known ones, are expected in a reaction with a low yield. Another important inorganic
crystal is Bismuth Germanate (BGO), with a worse energy resolution but an even higher efficiency. It is typically used
in anti-Compton shields: BGO crystals are placed around the main detector (NaI or semiconductor) to intercept those
γ rays which only left a fraction of their energy in the main detector in a Compton scattering. Those events are then
eliminated from the analysis, cleaning up the γ-ray spectra.
A very active research, often driven by medical applications [75], is looking for new scintillation materials, especially
inorganic crystals, with better resolution performances than NaI without compromising on efficiency. For example,
since about ten years LaBr3 (Ce) [76], with a resolution of 3% or better and an intrinsic efficiency 1.3 times that of
NaI, is commonly used in spectroscopy measurements.
One drawback of most inorganic scintillators is that they are hygroscopic, i.e. damaged when exposed to moisture
in the air: they need to be permanently enclosed in air-tight capsules.
3.3.3 Semiconductors Detectors
The basic operating principle of semiconductor detectors is the same as for ionisation detectors: the passage of radiation
creates electron-hole pairs (instead of electron-ion pairs) which are then driven by an electric field onto electrodes where
they are measured. Compared to gases, a much lower energy is necessary to create the pairs. The larger number of
pairs translates in a much narrower distribution of the number of created charges for a given incoming energy, and
thus a more precise signal – a higher resolution. Typically, resolution for charged particles and γ rays can reach a
few parts per thousand. For this reasons they are the detectors of choice to perform high-resolution spectroscopy in
nuclear physics. Drawbacks of semiconductors are mainly their very high cost and the fragility.
For charged-particle detection, silicon (Si) is used. Wafer thickness cannot exceed 1 mm (1.5 mm is also possible
but complete depletion may become an issue), as a consequence high-energy light ions are not stopped in a single
layer (protons with more than 12.5 MeV energy would “punch through” a 1 mm-thick Si detector). In those cases
other detectors are used in a telescope configuration, such as the semiconductors Si(Li), up to 5 mm thick, and/or the
inorganic scintillators CsI(Tl). For heavy ions the stopping power grows very fast with Z and Si detectors are usually
sufficient. Si detectors can be made in a variety of shapes and with different configurations of the electrodes on their
surfaces. A common choice is that of strip electrodes to achieve position resolution. Strips can be implemented on
both sides, in perpendicular directions, to have a two-dimensional resolution. Si detectors are used in vacuum, close
to the source or reaction point (in high-energy and particle physics they are usually referred to as “vertex detectors”)
as any material in between would affect the energy of the charged particles. Because of the limited size, their timing
properties are good, with a resolution of the order of one nanosecond.
For γ rays, germanium (Ge) is used for its higher Z and thus stopping power, which, however, remains much lower
than that of NaI. State-of-the-art high-purity germanium detectors (HPGe) have a resolution of 2 keV for energies
around 1 MeV (this is the FWHM; the position of the peak can be determined with a higher precision if the peak has a
good statistics). Germanium, however, needs to be cooled at liquid nitrogen temperature to work as a semiconductor.
The detection material (few cubic centimetres of Ge) is thus enclosed in capsules connected to large reservoirs (dewars)
of liquid nitrogen. The detectors are placed in air, as close as possible around the radiation source (nuclear decay or
reaction). Even in the best cases it is difficult to obtain a total efficiency better than 15% at 1 MeV energy. Also, the
large size of the detectors is the cause of a poor timing resolution, a few tens of nanoseconds.
3.4 Detection Setups with RIBs
3.4.1 General Remarks
Experiments with RIBs are first and foremost conditioned by the low intensity of the incoming beam. While with
stable beams one has currents of the order of 1011 -1012 particles per second (pps), the intensities of RIBs can be even
down to few pps. Clearly, the detection setup must then have the following characteristics:
8
Impurities in inorganic crystals create local extra energy levels which allow radiation to be emitted at different wavelengths
from the ones typical of the crystal, decreasing the probability of re-absorption.
– Efficiency: it has to record the largest number possible of events of interest. Since the intrinsic efficiency is deter-
mined by the type of detectors, one tries to maximise the geometric efficiency by realising arrays of detectors that
surround the source of radiation covering as much as possible of the total solid angle.
– Sensitivity: besides recording the events of interest, the setup has to allow to identify them as such among the
possible background sources. For example, if we want to measure a reaction induced by the RIB, we have to deal
with the decay of the primary beam, which is, in that case, an unwanted source of radiation. If even a fraction of
the beam is stopped in the vicinity of the reaction vertex, the intensity of the background will be several orders of
magnitude larger than the number of reactions of interest (each nucleus from the beam decays, while the probability
of reactions is in the order of one every 105 beam particles or less!).
– Resolution: both energy and position resolution are of primary importance. In fact, position resolution is crucial
because the reconstruction of the kinematics of the event is often necessary to calculate the energy balance of the
process. Resolution and efficiency are usually conflicting requirements, and a compromise needs often to be chosen.
It is not possible to cover here all the different detection configurations used in nuclear physics experiments with
RIBs. Instead, we will focus on reactions, because the characteristics of reaction setups are also mostly shared by decay
setups, too. In both cases we need to detect radiation from a source which is almost always localised (the reaction
vertex, or the position where the radioactive ion of interest is stopped and will decay). In the case of reactions the
range of energies and radiation types are broader as they may include beam-like particles or, in general, radiation
at higher energies than those involved in nuclear decays. There are also different classes of experiments such as the
measurement of masses in traps or rings, or laser spectroscopy which utilises the hyperfine interaction between the
nucleus and the surrounding electrons to derive the properties of nuclei from atomic effects. We will not treat them in
detail, and we refer the reader to more specific introductory texts such as those in Refs. [77, 78].
When the physics of reactions with exotic beams started, thirty years ago, the available RIBs were those of light
nuclei (at very high energies, at in-flight facilities), impinging on a variety of targets, mostly to induce breakup and
measure the fragments and their correlations. Detection setups consisted of arrays of charged-particle and neutron
detectors, placed at forward angles where the reaction products were emitted. Identification of the products took place
in charged-particle telescopes or magnetic spectrometers, which also provided a measurement of the energy and angles
(thus the momentum) of the fragments. Thanks to the forward-focused kinematics of these reactions, the arrays could
be arranged to cover a small solid angle in the forward direction.
Later, in the mid-90s, ISOL beams of the same light nuclei started to be available, and measurements of elastic
scattering and other reactions at energies around the Coulomb barrier became possible. In this case the light RIBs
would scatter off heavier targets, and be deflected in all directions. The detection setups required the use of charged-
particle arrays with a large solid angle coverage all around the target. Typically, identification of charged particles
would be required to identify the reaction channels (elastic, breakup, fusion); this was achieved either with ∆E-E
telescopes, with time-of-flight techniques, or with smart methods to identify the heavier reaction product (usually
based on its decay modes) after partial or total fusion with the light projectile. Here we should mention a method for
the measurement of excitation functions, i.e. the cross section for a reaction channel as function of the collision energy.
In order to maximise the use of RIBs, a stack of targets and degraders was used (see for example Ref. [79]), through
which the beam would lose energy, thus allowing the simultaneous measurement at a different beam energy on each
of the targets.
At about the same time, RIBs were for the first time used in reaction of astrophysical interest, typically fusion
and resonant reactions on light ions, especially protons and α particles. The challenges faced by those experiment are
the same that we have at present, when using RIBs in reactions aimed at detailed spectroscopic measurements. In
the following, we will focus on these kinds of reactions, because they are among the main goals of the new-generation
RIB facilities, where direct and resonant reactions on a simple probe (a light ion) are employed to populate states in
the heavy, exotic nuclei of interest and derive spectroscopic information on their structure. Those measurements have
to be carried out in inverse kinematics: the incoming ion has a larger mass than the target ion. This has a series of
consequences on the detection setup.
3.4.2 Inverse Kinematics
Fig. 13 shows a schematic, generic setup that is used in reaction studies in inverse kinematics. The target, usually
a foil of material containing a light ion or a thin gas target, is surrounded in close geometry (within the reaction
chamber) by an array of charged-particle detectors, like Si detectors, often arranged in multiple-stage telescopes. This
array catches the light products of the reactions; it has to be finely segmented to provide position information – the
scattering angles of the outgoing particles – together with energy and particle identification. A good resolution is
crucial (see below), but it is in conflict with the requirement of a close geometry.
Outside the reaction chamber, an array of γ-ray detectors measures the prompt radiation emitted by the reaction
products. Mostly, γ-rays are emitted by the heavy beam-like nucleus, travelling forward at about the beam velocity,
Fig. 13. Schematic view of a generic setup for the study of reactions in inverse kinematics.
Fig. 13. Schematic view of a generic setup for the study of reactions in inverse kinematics.
(thus the momentum)

a measurable fractionofofthethe fragments.
speed of lightThanks to the forward-focus
(5 MeV/nucleon corresponds to kinematics
10% of c).ofThe these reactions,
emitted γ ray thewill arrays
then becould
be Doppler-
arranged shifted,
to coveranda small solid of
knowledge angle in the forward
the emission angle isdirection.
necessary for a correction. For this reason, the γ-ray array
also
Later,needs
aboutto behalf of the 990’s,
segmented . ISOL beams of the same light nuclei started to be available, and measurements of
In the forward direction,
elastic scattering and other reactions the unreacted beam around
at energies particlesthe and the reaction
Coulomb products
barrier became travel with very
possible. In thislittle spatial
case the light
separation. A spectrometer may be used to separate the two, identify the reaction products
RIBs would scatter o↵ heavier targets, and be deflected in all directions. The detection setups required the use of and measure their momen-
tum. This is a challenging
charged-particle arrays withtask, and with
a large solidpresent
angle devices
coverage it can
all be achieved
around thewith goodTypically,
target. efficiency only if the mass of
identification of the
charged
incoming beam does not exceed A ≈ 50. With larger masses the kinematics is very forward
particles would be required to identify the reaction channels (elastic, breakup, fusion); this was achieved either with focused and a spectrometer
will have
E-E to employ
telescopes, withslits, inevitably reducing
time-of-flight its acceptance
techniques, or with and smartthusmethods
the overallto efficiency
identify of thetheheavier
detection setup. For
reaction product
this reason, in many cases a spectrometer is not used.
(usually based on its decay modes) after partial or total fusion with the light projectile. Here we should mention a
Not shown in the figure are possible beam-monitor detectors, typically gaseous detectors placed upstream of the
method
reactionfor target.
the measurement
If the energy of andexcitation functions,
the intensity i.e. the
of the beam cross
allow section
it, they can for a reaction
be used to track channel as function
each incoming ion toof the
collision
correct for a possible divergence of the beam and dramatically improve the resolution on the scattering angles. example
energy. In order to maximise the use of RIBs, a stack of targets and degraders was used (see for
Ref. [78]), through which the beam would lose energy, thus allowing the simultaneous measurement at a di↵erent beam
energyWhenon each we of
speak
the about
targets. the kinematics of a reaction, we refer to the relations between the energy and scattering
angles
At about the same time, RIBsforwere
of the reaction products, a given beam
for the energy
first timeand usedQ-value (energyofbalance)
in reaction of the interest,
astrophysical reaction. Usually
typicallywefusion
consider binary reactions, with two particles in the outgoing channel. Subsequent breakup
and resonant reactions on light ions, especially protons and ↵ particles. The challenges faced by those experiment of one of the products can are
be calculated in a successive step. The kinematic relations can be derived from the principles of conservation of energy
the same that we have at present, when using RIBs in reactions aimed at detailed spectroscopic measurements. In
and momentum, and can be found in a number of textbooks (see for example Ref. [80]). One result, relevant to this
thediscussion,
following, concerns
we will focus on these kinds of reactions, because they are among the main goals of the new-generation
the ratio of the velocity of the recoil in the centre-of-mass reference frame v30 to the velocity of
RIBthefacilities,
centre of mass of the systemresonant
where direct and reactions
vCM (obviously, in on
thealaboratory
simple probe
frame).(a light
It canion) are employed
be shown to populate
that for small Q-valuesstates
as in
thecompared
heavy, exotic nuclei of interest and derive spectroscopic information
10 on their
to the total available energy in the centre-of-mass system , the ratio is approximately structure. Those measurements have
to be carried out in inverse kinematics: the incoming ion r
has a larger mass than the target ion. This has a series of
consequences on the detection setup. v30 m2 m4
≈ .
vCM m1 m3
3.4.2 Inverse
Here m1 isKinematics
the mass of the incoming beam ion, m2 the mass of the target, m3 and m4 those of the reaction products.
We will assume here that m3 is the mass of the light product and m4 that of the heavy product.
Fig. 13Referring
shows a schematic,
to Fig. 14a,generic
in directsetup that is itused
kinematics is min reaction
1 < m2 : thestudies in inverse kinematics.
light (beam-like) The target,
ejectile is scattered at allusually
angles, a foil
of material containingnucleus
and the target-like a lightrecoils
ion orin a thin gas target,
the forward is surrounded
direction with a lowinvelocity.
close geometry (within
One can derive thefrom
this reaction chamber)
the figure, by by
0
lettingofthe
an array centre-of-mass scattering
charged-particle detectors,angle
like Sivary betweenoften
detectors, 0 andarranged
π. We see in also that if m1
multiple-stage 3 v
m2 it is vThis
telescopes. CM and
array catches
thethus ≈ θCM . of the reactions; it has to be finely segmented to provide position information – the scattering angles
lightθ3products
of the In inverse particles
outgoing kinematics, when the with
– together light energy
target nucleus is much
and particle lighter than the
identification. beamresolution
A good m1 ) (see
particle (mis2 crucial we can
below),
assume m 1 ≈ m 4 ; the relation becomes
but it is in conflict with the requirement of a close geometry. r
0
Outside the reaction chamber, an array of -ray vdetectors 3
≈
m2measures the prompt radiation emitted by the reaction
,
products. Mostly this is the heavy beam-like nucleus, v m3 forward at about the beam velocity, a measurable
CM travelling
fraction of kinematics
thus the the speed depends
of light solely
(5 MeV/nucleon
on the ratio corresponds to 10%of of
between the masses thec). The
light emitted
target and theraylightwill then be Doppler-
recoil.
shifted, and knowledge of the emission angle is necessary for a correction. For this reason, the -ray array also needs
9 9
This is actually
to be segmented . useful with HPGe detectors, where the resolution is better than the broadening due to the Doppler effect.
With
In NaI detectors the correction
the forward direction, the isunreacted
less crucial.beam particles and the reaction products travel with very little spatial
10
This is very often the case: Q-values are in the few hundreds of keV, while centre-of-mass energies are in the MeV/nucleon.
separation. A spectrometer may be used to separate the two, identify the reaction products and measure their mo-
mentum. This is a challenging task, and with present devices it is possible with good efficiency only if the mass of the
9
This is actually useful with HPGe detectors, where the resolution is better than the broadening due to the Doppler e↵ect.
With NaI detectors the correction is less crucial.
20 Riccardo Raabe:
Riccardo Raabe: Making
Making Radioactive
Radioactive Ion
Ion Beams
Beams Detecting
Detecting Reaction
Reaction Products
Products 19
Fig. 14.
Fig. 14. Kinematics
Kinematics of
of binary
binary reactions:
reactions: velocity
velocity vectors
vectors of
of outgoing
outgoing particles
particles in
in the
the centre-of-mass
centre-of-mass system
system (in
(in red,
red, denoted
denoted
with a prime) and in the laboratory system. a): direct kinematics; b) inverse kinematics, with the mass of the
with a prime) and in the laboratory system. a): direct kinematics; b) inverse kinematics, with the mass of the recoil light ion mrecoil light ion
3
m3 lighter
lighter thanthan the mass
the mass of light
of the the light target
target m2inverse
m2 ; c) ; c) inverse kinematics,
kinematics, with with
m3 >mm 3 >
2 . m
For2 .all
For all
cases cases
we we
chose chose
m 3 < m
m 3 .<Inminverse
4
4 . The
0
centre-of-mass
kinematics the scattering anglescattering
centre-of-mass is measured from
angle the beam-like
is measured with particle, thus,
respect to the in inverse kinematics,
beam-like particle andfrom
thusthe
thevector
vectorvv 4 .0 .
4
incoming beam does not exceed A ⇡ 50. With larger masses the kinematics is very forward focused and a spectrometer
will have to employ slits, inevitably reducing its acceptance and thus the overall efficiency of the detection setup. For
this reason, in many cases a spectrometer is not used.
Not shown in the figure are possible beam-monitor detectors, typically gaseous detectors placed upstream of the
reaction target. If the energy and the intensity of the beam allow, they can be used to track each incoming ion to
correct for a possible divergence of the beam and dramatically improve the resolution on the scattering angles.
When we speak about the kinematics of a reaction, we refer to the relations between the energy and scattering
angles of the reaction products, for a given beam energy and Q-value (energy balance) of the reaction. Usually we
consider binary reactions, with two particles in the outgoing channel. Subsequent breakup of one of the products can
be calculated in a successive step. The kinematic relations can be derived from the principles of conservation of energy
and momentum, and can be found in a number of textbooks (see for example Ref. [79]). One result, relevant to this
discussion, concerns the ratio of the velocity of the recoil in the centre-of-mass reference frame v 03 to the velocity of
the centre of mass of the system v CM (obviously, in the laboratory frame). It can be shown that for Q-values small
with respect to the total available energy in the centre-of-mass system10 , the ratio is approximately
r
v30 m2 m4
⇡ .
vCM m1 m3
Here m1 is the mass of the incoming beam ion, m2 the mass of the target, m3 and m4 those of the reaction products.
Fig.will
We 15. assume
Laboratoryhereenergies
that mand angles of the light recoil emitted in reactions in inverse kinematics, induced by 16 C at 560 MeV
74 3 is the mass of the light product and m4 that of the heavy product.
(left) and Krto
Referring atFig.
900 MeV (right).
14a, in directFigure adapteditfrom
kinematics is mRef. [81].
1 < m2 : the light (beam-like) ejectile is scattered at all angles,
and the target-like nucleus recoils in the forward direction with a low velocity. One can derive this from the figure, by
letting the centre-of-mass scattering angle varying between 0 and ⇡. We see also that if m1 ⌧ m2 it is v30 vCM and
thus ✓3 ⇡ ✓CM .
If m
In 3 < m2kinematics,
inverse , see Fig. 14b, for example
when the lightfor (d,p) nucleus
target reactions, is the
much light (target-like)
lighter than therecoil
beam canparticle
be emitted
(m2 in⌧allmdirections.
1 ) we can
The heavy beam-like particle,
assume m1 ⇡ m4 ; the relation becomes on the other hand, carries most of the momentum of the system. The centre-of-mass
0 r
scattering angle is measured from the velocity vector v30 v4 of them2 beam-like particle: thus, small centre-of-mass angles
(the interesting ones in case of direct reactions) correspond ⇡ to light , particles emitted in the backward hemisphere.
vCM m3
Finally, if m3 > m2 , see Fig. 14c, for example for (p,d) reactions, the whole kinematics is forward focused and
thus the light
also the kinematics depends
recoil is confined solely
in aon the ratio
forward between
cone. For eachthe admissible
masses of the light
value target
of the andθ3the
angle of light recoil.
the light recoil in the
If m3 < frame
laboratory m2 , seethere
Fig. 14b, for example
are two possiblefor (d,p) reactions,
solution the light (target-like)
of the scattering, recoilθcan
at two different CM be emitted
angles, for in all directions.
which the light
The
recoilheavy
has twobeam-like
differentparticle,
energies. on the other hand, carries most of the momentum of the system. The centre-of-mass
scattering angle is measured
The conclusion from the withabove respect to the
analysis velocity
is that, v 04 of the
in inverse beam-like the
kinematics, particle: thus, small
scattering anglescentre-of-mass
of the recoil do angles
not
(the interesting ones in case of direct reactions)
depend much on the mass or energy of the incoming ion; they correspond todepend
light particles
mostly emitted in the
on the kind backwardThis
of reaction. hemisphere.
is shown in
Fig.Finally,
15, where if m 3 >
the m2 , see
energy Fig.light
of the 14c,recoil
for example
is plottedforagainst
(p,d) reactions,
the emission theangle
wholeinkinematics
the laboratoryis forward focused
frame for and
a number
also the light recoil is confined
16 in a forward 74cone. For each admissible value of the angle ✓3 of the light recoil in the
of reactions induced by a C (left) and a Kr beam (right). We see that the kinematic lines are similar for (p,d),
laboratory
(p,t), (d,t), frame
(p,3 He)there
on oneare side
two (at
possible
forwardsolution
angles),of and
the (d,p)
scattering,
on theat two (at
other di↵erent
backward✓CMangles).
angles, for which the light
recoil has two di↵erent energies.
By studying Fig. 15 in detail we can derive some important characteristics related to the charged-particle detection
setup
10
This surrounding
is very oftenthethetarget.
case: Q-values are in the few hundreds of keV, while centre-of-mass energies are in the MeV/nucleon.
– A universal setup
We notice that the energies of all particles emitted for small centre-of-mass angles (where the cross sections are
largest and most structured) are rather low, around 5 MeV, and do not exceed 30 MeV in the full angular range of
interest. This feature suggests that the array of charged-particle detectors surrounding the target may be built in a
rather “universal” way, and used in a wide range of reaction studies. At forward angles it should be able to identify
light ions in order to select events in the channel of interest, and stopping them for energies up to about 30 MeV:
for protons this would correspond to 5 mm Si, thus other detectors need be used in a telescope configuration. At
backward angles, only protons are emitted in (d,p) reactions. It would be thus sufficient to have one detection stage;
however, discrimination of background electrons (β electrons from decay of the beam particles stopped around the
setup, δ electrons knocked out by the high-energy beam particles) makes it desirable to have two stages.
– Kinematical compression
We turn now our attention to the energy difference between the recoil light ions when reactions produce particles
in their ground state, and reactions for which the heavy product is left in an excited state. Such differences are
only a fraction of the excitation energies of the product, see for example the backward protons in 16 C(d,p) or the
forward tritons in 16 C(d,t), in the regions were the kinematic lines are “horizontal” (small centre-of-mass angles).
This is the so-called kinematical compression of the energies of the detected ions. As a consequence, the resolution
in the the Q-value of the detected event, and thus in the excitation energy of the populated state, is only a fraction
of the energy resolution that is achieved in the detector itself. For example a resolution of 50 keV in the detector
placed at very backward angles for the 16 C(d,p) reaction in the left panel translates in a resolution of 200 keV in
excitation energy. This is clearly a problem when the density of states in the populated nucleus is high.
– Angular resolution
Finally, consider the regions where the kinematic lines become more “vertical”, beyond 30 degrees in the centre of
mass for (d,p) reactions and beyond 20 degrees for the others. There, a small uncertainty in the scattering angle
(from the finite solid angle covered by a detector strip, or from the positioning of the detector) translates in a
very large uncertainties in the Q-value and the centre-of-mass angle of the detected event. In these regions, the
construction of the angular distributions of the cross sections for each excited state becomes very difficult.
The problems discussed above are aggravated by the weak intensities of RIBs. The cross section for the reactions
of interest (mb for transfer reactions, higher for elastic scattering) dictates that, in order to realise a measurement
in a reasonable time (a week) with intensities of the order of 104 -105 pps, the use of targets with a thickness around
100 µg cm−2 or more is required. The heavy incoming beam loses a sizeable amount of energy in the target (for example
a 68 Ni ion at 5 MeV/nucleon loses about 4 MeV in 100 µg cm−2 of polyethylene). Since the reaction may take place at
any point in the target, there is an uncertainty on the energy available at the reaction vertex. As a result, the energy
of the outgoing light ion will be broadened11 , with a direct effect on the determination of the Q-value of the reaction,
worsened by the kinematical compression. In practice, it is difficult to achieve resolutions in excitation energy better
than about 150 keV.
The coincident detection of γ rays from the decay of the heavy excited product can potentially provide a much
better resolution, of the order of a few keV, on the energy of the excited states (only if, of course, γ rays are emitted
in the process: for reactions populating the ground state this is not the case). However, the efficiency of γ-ray arrays is
low, 15% in the best case for HPGe arrays. It is then necessary to use much thicker targets to achieve sufficient yields,
with consequences on the resolution of the light charged particles. In recent measurements this has been the trend,
see for example Refs. [82, 83]. Angular distributions of the light recoils for a populated state can be constructed by
requiring a coincidence with a γ ray from the de-excitation of the state.
Detection of the full momentum (angle and energy) of one of the reaction products is in principle sufficient to
reconstruct the full kinematics of the reaction. Nevertheless, the use of a spectrometer for the detection of the heavy
beam-like product (see Fig. 13) may help to alleviate the problems illustrated for the detection of the light recoil
and improve the resolution, but only in certain cases. To measure the momentum of the nuclei, magnetic and electric
fields are used to bend their trajectories. Gaseous detectors (see section 3.3.1) are used to measure the ion position
(bending angle) at different locations on the track, complemented by arrays of solid-state detectors to measure the
energy. Different configurations of fields are used, according to the aim of the setup, that could be oriented towards
high resolution or towards a high acceptance.
In Ref. [84], the authors considered some examples of neutron-transfer reactions in inverse kinematics, and cal-
culated the effect of various contributions to the final resolution of the measurement. Their results show that a
spectrometer is useful when the incoming beam nuclei are not too heavy, for example in the 12 Be(p,d)11 Be reaction in
inverse kinematics. In such case, the uncertainty in the resolution of the Q-value when calculated from the momentum
of the light recoil is dominated by the uncertainties on the energy loss of the beam particle and light recoil in the
target. The resolution on the Q-value improves (by a factor 3 or 4) if the momentum of the heavy ion is measured in
a spectrometer. However, when the incoming beam particle is heavier (the authors of Ref. [84] considered 76,77 Kr on
11
The light ion will also lose energy in the target: this has to be taken into account especially for large laboratory angles.
22 22 Riccardo Raabe:
Riccardo Making
Raabe: Radioactive
Making Ion Beams
Radioactive Detecting
Ion Beams Reaction
Detecting Products
Reaction Products
Fig.Fig.
16. 16.
Counterclockwise fromfrom
Counterclockwise top left: the MUST2
top left: the MUST2 charged-particle array;array;
charged-particle a view of theofelements
a view in a MUST2
the elements telescope;
in a MUST2 the the
telescope;
VAMOS
VAMOSbeam line,line,
beam withwith
the EXOGAM
the EXOGAM arrayarray
at the
at target position
the target in front
position of theofmagnetic
in front spectrometer.
the magnetic spectrometer.
deuterons and protons), the differences in angle between the forward-focused heavy products become too small, and
the uncertainty on their determination in the spectrometer are large. In that case, the detection of the light recoil,
even with the associated large uncertainties, is preferable.
3.4.3 Examples of Setups
We conclude this part with few examples of detection setups. The aim is not to make a list of the existing setups,
but rather to show some representative detectors, especially developed for measurements with RIBs, to illustrate the
implementation of the concepts discussed in the previous section.
The MUST2 charged-particle array [85] (see Fig. 16) can be configured according to the reaction of interest to cover
forward or backward angles. It is composed of a number of identical large telescopes, each featuring a 100 × 100 mm2
double-sided silicon strip detector with 128 strips on each side, a Si-Li stage and a CsI scintillator array. It can thus
Fig. 17.
perform full Left: Schematic by
identification, view of the T-REX/Miniball
stopping all light recoils detection
in the energy setup.range
Right:ofa interest
photographfor of the reactions
direct -ray detectors around the
in inverse
target chamber.
kinematics. It has been used in several measurements [86], at GANIL and at RIKEN.
At GANIL, MUST2 has often been coupled to the VAMOS magnetic spectrometer [87] (see Fig. 16). The latter is a
very versatile instrument, employing ray-tracing to reconstruct the trajectories of particles. It can be used in a number
with three
of ways, such as six-folded
to maximisesegmented detectors, perform
the acceptance, to performa veryDoppler correction.
effective Recent examples
beam separation of results accurately
and suppression, with this setup
are in Refs. [82, 94].
measure the momentum of particles, identify a vast range of products in fusion-fission reactions, and others [88].
TheAt setup is completed
TRIUMF, at thebyISAC-II
an arrayRIBof HPGe γ-ray
facility, thedetectors.
SHARC [95] EXOGAM [89, 90], composed
charged-particle of segmented
array is used, “clover”
very similar Ge to
in design
detectors,
T-REX, has been used
coupled to theuntil recently,[96]
TIGRESS in combination with eitheris MUST2
-ray array. TRIUMF also hostingor another
the EMMAcharged-particle array, TIARA
[97] spectrometer: by adopting
[91].a At present,
di↵erent the Demonstrator
philosophy from VAMOS, of theEMMA
new-generation
employs AGATA
electrostaticarray [92] to
fields is maximise
installed at theGANIL
primary onbeam
the VAMOS
suppression,
beam line: it employs highly-segmented HPGe detectors, digital sampling
and allow the detection of the heavy products in very forward-focused reactions such as of the signals and132 track reconstruction
Sn(d,p).
algorithms to minimise Compton background. Similar to AGATA, the GRETINA array [93] is in operation in the
Among
laboratories of thethe USA.
most interesting developments for new-generation arrays we mention the possibility of performing
charged-particle
At ISOLDE-CERN, identification based
the workhorse foron
thepulse-shape
detection ofanalysis
nuclear in silicon detectors.
reactions Encouraging
is the Miniball γ-ray arraytests[94],
haveusedbeen
in per-
formed for the development of the FAZIA [98] and GASPARD [99, 100] arrays.
Coulomb excitation and transfer reaction measurements. For the latter, Miniball is coupled to the T-REX charged-
particle array [95] (see Fig. 17). The T-REX covers the full solid angle around the target with silicon strip detectors,
arranged In in
parallel
a 4-side with“barrel”
the approach
arounddiscussed
90 degreesso far
and(charged-particle
in two disc-shaped arrayarrays
surrounding a solidforward
at the most foil target),
and other
backwardsolutions
have been devised to deal with the problems arising from the use of RIBs.
angles. The forward detectors have two stages for particle identification. Miniball is composed of eight HPGe modules,
each withThethree
HELIOS spectrometer
six-folded segmented [101, 102], fortothe
detectors, detection
perform of thecorrection.
Doppler light charged-particle
Recent examplesrecoils,ofuses a large
results withmagnet
this of
the MRI type to
setup are in Refs. [83, 96]. create a strong, uniform magnetic field, up to 3 tesla, around the target (see Fig. 18). The charged
particles
At TRIUMF, emittedat thefrom the target
ISAC-II RIB are confined
facility, within the
the SHARC [97]magnet by the Lorentz
charged-particle array force,
is used,designing helicoidal
very similar trajectories
in design to
and eventually
T-REX, coupled to coming back to[98]
the TIGRESS the γ-ray
beam array.
axis atTRIUMF
a distance is zalso
from the target.
hosting the EMMAThe distance z is related by
[99] spectrometer: to adopting
the scattering
angle (itphilosophy
a different is proportional to cos ✓CMEMMA
from VAMOS, ). The interesting feature of the
employs electrostatic configuration
fields to maximise is the
that,primary
for a given
beam Q-value, the energy
suppression,
andof the the
allow detected particle
detection hasheavy
of the a linear dependence
products in veryupon z; and a change
forward-focused in Q-value
reactions such asproduces
132
Sn(d,p).a shift of the same value
in the particle energy. In other words, the detector resolution is preserved when the Q-value is calculated from the
Fig. 17. Left: Schematic view of the T-REX/Miniball detection setup. Right: a photograph of the γ-ray detectors around the
target chamber.
Fig. 18. Schematic view of the working principle of a solenoidal spectrometer (adapted from Ref. [103]).
Among the most interesting developments for new-generation arrays we mention the possibility of performing
charged-particle identification based on pulse-shape analysis in silicon detectors. Encouraging tests have been per-
formed for the development of the FAZIA [100] and GASPARD [101, 102] arrays.
In parallel with the approach discussed so far (charged-particle array surrounding a solid foil target), other solutions
have been devised to deal with the problems arising from the use of RIBs.
The HELIOS spectrometer [103, 104], for the detection of the light charged-particle recoils, uses a large magnet of
the MRI type to create a strong, uniform magnetic field, up to 3 tesla, around the target (see Fig. 18). The charged
particles emitted from the target are confined within the magnet by the Lorentz force, designing helicoidal trajectories
and eventually coming back to the beam axis at a distance z from the target. The distance z is related to the scattering
angle (it is proportional to cos θCM ). The interesting feature of the configuration is that, for a given Q-value, the energy
of the detected particle has a linear dependence upon z; and a change in Q-value produces a shift of the same value
in the particle energy. In other words, the detector resolution is preserved when the Q-value is calculated from the
particle energy, avoiding the problem of the kinematical compression due to the inverse kinematics. The HELIOS
device is in use at the Argonne National Laboratory, in the USA.
HELIOS does not solve the worsening of the resolution due to the energy loss of the beam and recoil ions in a
thick target. To lift this problem, it would be necessary to know the interaction point within the target. This is the
idea motivating the construction of active target detectors. Active targets, Fig. 19, are essentially TPCs (see section
3.3.1), where the nuclei of the detection gas also play the role of targets for the reactions of interest. By reconstructing
the tracks of all particles in the gas volume, the reaction vertex is found and the energy of the beam particle at that
position can be calculated from dE/dx relations. With pressures of hydrogen or helium gases of the order of 1 bar,
a resolution of 1 mm on the position translates in an energy uncertainty ten times smaller than by using a solid foil
of 100 µg cm−2 ; at the same time, the total target thickness for a length of the active volume of 20 cm is 20 times
larger, with a large gain in luminosity. The use of an active target has to deal with the problems of gaseous detectors,
in particular that of the dynamic range of the signals, and the very large amount of data when a plane of several
Fig. 19. Arrangement and working principle of an active target detector.
thousands pads is used. The ACTAR TPC project [105] is leading the efforts in Europe for the construction of this
kind of devices, employing micro-pattern gas detectors and a specially-developed electronics [106] to counter those
problems.
Another radical approach to nuclear reactions with RIBs is the use of storage rings. In principle, recirculation of the
beam in a ring allows to increase the total beam intensity by about 6 orders of magnitude (the value of the revolution
frequency). However, only very thin gas-jet targets can be used in the ring, to preserve the ultra-high vacuum necessary
to avoid charge-exchange reactions (electron stripping and pick-up) of the beam particles with the residual gas. In fact,
the luminosity of a reaction in a ring depends on a number of factors (half life of the stored nucleus, cross section for
charge-exchange reactions), and can be larger or smaller than that of an “external target” arrangement. In some cases,
however, a clear advantage is present. In addition, the excellent beam optics that can be achieved by “cooling” the
beam particles in the ring, and the very thin gas-jet target (no energy loss of the beam or recoil ions), can provide a
very good angular and energy resolution of the reaction products. A programme to measure reactions in storage rings
has started at the ESR at GSI [107], and plans are being made to move the Test Storage Ring of the MPIK Heidelberg
to HIE-ISOLDE [108]: this would realise a unique combination with the ISOL post-accelerated beams of ISOLDE,
allowing a broad physics programme, beyond nuclear structure and reactions, to be addressed by using RIBs.
List of Acronyms
ACTAR TPC ACtive TARget and Time-Projection Chamber

ADS Accelerator-Driven System
AGATA Advanced GAmma Tracking Array
ALPI Acceleratore Lineare Per Ioni at LNL, Legnaro (Italy)
ARENAS3 Accelerated Radioactive Elements for Nuclear, Astrophysical and Solid-State Studies at CRC (Belgium)
ARIEL Advanced Rare IsotopE Laboratory at TRIUMF, Vancouver (Canada)
BGO Bismuth Germanate Oxide (a scintillation material)
BigRIPS Big RIKEN Projectile fragment Separator at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
CARIBU CAlifornium Rare Isotope Breeder Upgrade at Argonne National Laboratory, Illinois (USA)
CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research at Geneva (Switzerland)
CIME Cyclotron pour Ions de Moyenne Energie at SPIRAL-GANIL, Caen (France)
CRC Centre de Ressources du Cyclotron at Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium)
EBIS Electron-Beam Ion Source
ECR Electron-Cyclotron Resonance ion source
EMMA ElectroMagnetic Mass Analyzer at TIRUMF, Vancouver (Canada)
ESR Experimental Storage Ring at GSI, Darmstadt (Germany)
EURISOL EURopean ISOL radioactive ion beam facility
EXOGAM EXOtic nuclei GAMma ray spectrometer at GANIL, Caen (France)

FAIR Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research at Darmstadt (Germany)
FAZIA Four-pi A and Z Identification Array
fRC fixed-frequency Ring Cyclotron at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
FRIB Facility for Rare Isotope Beams at East Lansing, Michigan (USA)
FRS FRagment Separator at GSI, Darmstadt (Germany)
FWHM Full Width at Half Maximum
GANIL Grand Accélérateur National d’Ions Lourds at Caen (France)
GASPARD GAmma Spectroscopy and PARticle Detection
GEM Gas Electron Multiplier
GPS General-Purpose Separator at ISOLDE-CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
GRETINA Gamma-Ray Energy Tracking In-beam Nuclear Array
GSI (formerly) Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung at Darmstadt (Germany)
HELIOS HELIcal Orbit Spectrometer at ARGONNE, Illinois (USA)
HIE-ISOLDE High Intensity and Energy ISOLDE post-accelerator at ISOLDE-CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
HPGe High-Purity Germanium detectors
HRS High-Resolution Separator at ISOLDE-CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
IRC Intermediate-stage Ring Cyclotron at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
ISAC Isotope Separator and ACcelerator at TRIUMF, Vancouver (Canada)
ISOL Isotope Separation On-Line
ISOL@MYRRHA Isotope Separation On-Line facility at MYRRHA, SCK• CEN, Mol (Belgium)
ISOLDE Isotope Separation On-Line DEvice at CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
LINAC LINear ACcelerator
LISE Ligne des Ions Super-Epluchés – Beam-line for highly-stripped ions at GANIL, Caen (France)
LNL Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro (Italy)
Micromegas Micro-MEsh GAseous Structure
MINOS MagIc Numbers Off Stability – Detector for reactions in inverse kinematics
MPGD Micro-Pattern Gaseous Detectors
MPIK Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik at Heidelberg (Germany)
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MUST2 MUr de STrips 2 (charged-particle detector)
MWPC Multi-Wire Proportional Chamber
MYRRHA Multi-purpose hYbrid Research Reactor for High-tech Applications at SCK• CEN, Mol (Belgium)
NSCL National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory at East Lansing, Michigan (USA)
NUSTAR Facility for the study of NUclear STructure, Astrophysics, and Reactions at FAIR, Darmstadt (Germany)
PIAVE Positive Ion Accelerator for Very low Energy at LNL, Legnaro (Italy)
REXEBIS Electron-Beam Ion Source of REX-ISOLDE, Geneva (Switzerland)
REX-ISOLDE Radioactive beam EXperiments at ISOLDE-CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
REXTRAP Ion Trap of REX-ISOLDE, Geneva (Switzerland)
RIB(s) Radioactive Ion Beam(s)
RIBF Radioactive Isotope Beam Factory at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
RIKEN Rikagaku Kenkyusho – Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, Tokyo (Japan)
SAMURAI Superconducting Analyzer for Multi-particles from Radioisotope beams at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
SCRIT Self-Confinement RI Target at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
SHARAQ Spectroscopy with High-resolution Analyzer of RadioActive Quantum beams at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
SHARC Silicon Highly-segmented Array for Reactions and Coulex at TIRUMF, Vancouver (Canada)
SISSI Superconducting Intense Source for Secondary Ions at GANIL, Caen (France)
SPES Selective Production of Exotic Species at LNL, Legnaro (Italy)
SPIRAL(2) Systeme de Production d’Ions Radioactifs Accélérés en Ligne (2) at GANIL, Caen (France)
SRC Superconducting Ring Cyclotron at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
SRIM Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter
TIARA Transfer and Inelastic All-angle Reaction Array, charged particle detector at GANIL, Caen (France)
TIGRESS TRIUMF-ISAC Gamma-Ray Escape-Suppressed Spectrometer at TIRUMF, Vancouver (Canada)
TOF Time Of Flight
TPC Time-Projection Chamber
T-REX Transfer at REX, charged particle detector at ISOLDE-CERN, Geneva (Switzerland)
TRIUMF (formerly) TRI University Meson Facility at Vancouver (Canada)
TSR Test Storage Ring
VAMOS VAriable MOde Spectrometer at GANIL, Caen (France)
ZDS Zero-Degree Spectrometer at RIKEN, Tokyo (Japan)
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Making Radioactive Ion Beams Detecting Reaction Products

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Eur. Phys. J.

Plus (2016) 131: 362

Making Radioactive Ion Beams

Received: date / Revised version: date

208 209 209

2.1 The ISOL Method

Table 1. Efficiencies of an ISOL system (adapted from Ref. [12]).

delay Survival of the nucleus against radioactive decay

2.2 The In-Flight Separation Method

We review each stage briefly.

hich registered the time and

2.3 Comparison ISOL vs In-Flight Separation

2.4.1 ISOL Facilities

2.4.1 ISOL Facilities

Fig. 10. Schematic view of the EURISOL concept.

2.4.2 In-flight Facilities

3.1 Types of Radiation

3.2 General Characteristics of Detectors

3.3.2 Scintillation Detectors

3.3.3 Semiconductors Detectors

3.4 Detection Setups with RIBs

3.4.1 General Remarks

3.4.2 Inverse Kinematics

(thus the momentum)

3.4.3 Examples of Setups

Fig. 19. Arrangement and working principle of an active target detector.

ACTAR TPC ACtive TARget and Time-Projection Chamber

EXOGAM EXOtic nuclei GAMma ray spectrometer at GANIL, Caen (France)

53. I. Tanihata, Hyperfine Interact. 21, 251 (1985).

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delay Survival of the nucleus against radioactive decay