E-WASTE MANAGEMENT

A Term paper report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for

the completion of course

Bachelor of Technology

in the Discipline of

Mechanical Engineering

Submitted By

T. Siva Rama Krishna

19341A03F3

Under the esteemed guidance of

Dr. M. Vykunta Rao

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GMR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous institute, affiliated to J.N.T.University Kakinada)
NAAC “A” Graded, NBA Accredited, ISO 9001:2008 Certified
Institution
G.M.R. Nagar, Rajam – 532127, A.P
2021-2022

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the term paper report entitled “E-WASTE

MANAGEMENT” submitted by TUMMAPALLI SIVARAMA
KRISHNA , 19341A03F3 has been carried out in partial fulfillment for the
award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in the discipline of “
Mechanical Engineering” of GMR Institute of Technology ,An
Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University, Kakinada is a record of Bonafide work carried out under our
guidance and supervision. The results embodied in this report have not been
submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree or
diploma.

Signature of the supervision Signature of the H.O.D

Dr. M. Vykunta Rao, Dr. V. Rambabu,

Associate Professor, Professor & H.O.D,
Mechanical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
GMRIT, GMRIT,
Rajam. Rajam.

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 ACKNOLEDGEMENT

I take privilege to thank our Principal Dr. C. L.V. R. S.V. Prasad, who have made the atmosphere so
easy to work. I shall always be indebted to him.
I would like to sincerely thank Dr. V. Rambabu, Professor & HOD, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, for providing all the necessary facilities that led to the successful completion of my report.

It gives me an immense pleasure to express deep sense of gratitude to my guide Dr. M. Vykunta
Rao, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering of wholehearted and invaluable
guidance throughout the report. Without his sustained and sincere effort, this report would not have taken
this shape. He encouraged and helped me to overcome various difficulties that I have faced at various
stages of my report.
I would like to sincerely thank to Term paper Coordinator Dr. S. Chiranjeeva Rao, Senior
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for giving his direct and indirect support
throughout this term paper report.

I would like to thank all the faculty members of the Department of Mechanical Engineering for
their direct or indirect support and also for their valuable suggestions and providing excellent
opportunities in completion of this report.

Sincerely,
T. Siva Rama Krishna

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 ABSTRACT

The production of electric and electronic equipment is one of the fastest growing global manufacturing
activities. This development has resulted in an increase of waste electric and electronic equipment(WEEE).
Rapid economic growth, coupled with urbanization and growth, as demand for consumer goods ,has
increased both the consumption and production of electric and electronic equipment which can be a source
of hazardous wastes that pose a risk to the environment and to sustainable economic growth. To address
potential environmental problems that could generate from improper management of WEEE, many countries
and organizations have drafted national legislation to improve the reuse, recycling and other forms of
material recovery from WEEE to reduce the amount and types of materials disposed in landfills. Recycling
of waste electrical and electronic equipment is important not only to reduce the amount of waste requiring
treatment, but also to promote the recovery of valuable materials. Characterization of these wastes is of
paramount important for developing a cost-effective and environmentally sound recycling system. Here is an
overview of electrical and electronic waste introduction, sources of generation of e-waste, collection of e-
waste using cutting edge technologies, composition, environmental and health hazards and methods of
treatment.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO: CONTENTS PAGE NO:

CHAPTER-1: A comprehensive analysis of e-waste legislation 7-9

1.1. The Basel Convention. 8
1.2. Generic e-waste management model. 9

CHAPTER-2: Overview of unpredictable issues and challenges 11-13

2.1. Potential solutions to curb e-waste issues 11

CHAPTER-3: Electronic waste collection systems using IoT 12-15

3.1. Overview of system architecture 12
3.2. Smart e-waste collection box 13

CHAPTER-4: Application of deep learning in e-waste collection 16-17

4.1. Deep learning methods for waste identification 17

CHAPTER-5: Flame Retardants. 19-24

5.1. Materials and method. 20
5.1.1. Sample collection and pre-treatment. 20
5.1.2. Sample extraction. 22
5.2. Chemical analyses. 22
5.2.1. Bromophenols and HBCD. 22
5.2.2. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers. 22
5.2.3. Bromophenols. 23
5.3. Brominated flame retardants and plastic recycling. 23
5.4. Results and discussion. 24

CHAPTER-6: Selective sequential separation of ABS/HIPS 25-29

and PVC from automobile
6.0: Materials and methods 25
6.1. ASR and ESR polymer sample collection 26
6.2. Nano-Fe/Ca/CaO synthesis 27
6.3. Effect of nano-Fe/Ca/CaO ozonisation treatment 27
on the surface wettability of ASR/ESR polymers
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 6.4. Surface hydrophilicity characterization analysis 27
of ABS/HIPS and PVC

6.5. Selective separation of ABS/HIPS and PVC from 29

ASR/ESR polymers by froth flotation
6.6. Results and discussion 29

CHAPTER- 7: Material flow analysis as a strategic tool in 30 -31

E-waste management
7.1. Material flow analysis (MFA) 31

CONCLUSION 33
REFERENCE 33

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 INTRODUCTION

Recycling of plastic is one of the most prominent topics in today’s world, because of the enormous
accumulation of plastic wastes and depleting non-renewable resources. The current global production of
plastics is around 400 million tonnes and is expected to rise in the future years. The requirement of plastics
parts in electrical and electronic applications play a vital role due to its wider application in insulation, noise
reduction, sealing, housing, and interior structural parts. Further, it is to be noted that, variety of polymeric
materials are employed in the electrical and electronic equipment sectors and the waste generated from EEE
is called E-waste or waste electrical and electronic equipment.

E-waste refers to all electronic components and sector such as IT and communication requires
major components like computers, laptops and related accessories, which plays a major percentage in E-
waste due to rapid technological innovation. E-waste is considered to be hazardous due to presence of
various brominated flame retardant and heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, lead and etc. Thus
recycling of E-waste plastics plays an important role to bring a sustainable environment with its maximum
utilization of waste plastics generated. There are various available technologies for recycling of waste
plastics such as chemical, thermal and mechanical procedures, with all these effective techniques and
healthy collection systems the effect of e-waste can be reduced to a higher extent.

LITERATURE

1. A comprehensive analysis of e-waste legislation worldwide [1]

Technological advances have generated considerable e-waste and their amounts are increasing at an
alarming rate as the demand for a tech-savvy life is on the rise. The onset of the twenty-first century has
witnessed an enormous increase in the consumption of electronic and electrical equipment (EEE) as a result
of economic development and industrialization, advances in electronics, communication and information
technologies, and consumers’ affordability. Most households have multiple home appliances such as
refrigerators, washers, ovens, blenders, televisions, and air conditioners. Almost half of the world’s
population are connected to the Internet that has led to a huge consumption of information and
communication technology (ICT) devices such as computers, smartphones, and tablets. Due to the rapidly
evolving electronics technology, these devices become obsolete in a short span of time and the new device

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generations replace the old, generating e-waste at alarming rates. Along with the domestically generated e
waste, the e-waste imported from the developed countries is processed using crude and unsafe techniques
such as open burning, coal-fired grill heating, and leaching using acid baths to extract high-value metals. In
addition to causing harm to the local environs and human health, the improper disposal and processing of e
waste also contribute to global warming and climate change as a result of significant carbon emissions.

The adverse effects of informal e-waste processing on the environment and human health are
discussed in this section: to highlight the need for a formal and safe e-waste management system through
effective implementation of regulations.

The improper disposal of e-waste and crude processing methods for the extraction of precious
metals have resulted in dangerous levels of environmental pollution. Key environmental components such as
soil, air, and water are being continuously contaminated with hazardous substances released from e-waste.
Disposal of e-waste consisting of hazardous chemicals such as acids and heavy metals (for example, lead,
mercury, cadmium, lithium, and beryllium) along with general waste in landfills results in leaching of
hazardous substances into the soil, contaminating other biodegradable waste. This also affects the biome in
the landfill vicinity resulting in toxic contamination of the food chain. In addition to this, residues resulting
from open burning of e-waste and draining of toxic acids also degrade the soil fertility.

E-waste legislation across the world: Policy design and implementation often constitutes a major portion
of the strategic framework that aids a country in addressing its national issues. It ensures a systematic
approach to address a problem both legally and uniformly throughout the country. As an important step
towards sustainable e-waste management, around two-thirds of the world’s population are covered under the
e-waste legislation. Among the countries with e-waste legislation, the policies and regulations of the major
players in e-waste generation and management such as the European Union (EU), the UK, the USA,
Oceania
are discussed in this section.

1.1 The Basel Convention

Awareness was created against the transboundary movement of hazardous waste due to incidents
such as the Khlian Sea waste disposal case (1986) at Haiti beach and the Koko case (1988) in Nigeria.
Hazardous waste and ashes from developed countries were illegally shipped to developing countries in Asia
and Africa. To address this issue, the United Nations brought together 186 countries, at the Basel
Convention to sign the treaty titled “Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal,”.
The underlying objective of this treaty was environmental protection. This treaty banned the trade of
hazardous waste from/to the member countries. Most of the members signed the treaty and enforced

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legislation, prohibiting the import and/or export of hazardous waste in their respective countries. The EU
was a pioneer in implementing such legislation in their member nations. However, the USA has not ratified
the treaty, even to date. After the Basel Ban, though the transboundary movement of hazardous waste has
reduced, the treaty initiative has not been able to eliminate it completely. The illegal shipment of e-waste
from developed to developing countries persists.

E-waste legislation in Europe:

As soon as the Basel treaty came into existence, the EU Commission introduced the Waste Shipment
Regulation (WSR) in 1993. This prohibited the export of hazardous e-waste to the non-Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (non-OECD) countries. Nearly a decade later, they introduced the
Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive 2012/95/EC.

E-waste legislation in Asian countries:

Asian continent represents a mix of countries at different stages of economic development. The
economic condition of the countries influences their domestic e-waste production and management. For
instance, China is the highest producer of e-waste in Asia and also a major destination for globally produced
e-waste. Most of the Asian countries have been struggling with the illegal import of e-waste and informal e-
waste processing for decades. Recently, many countries in Asia such as China, India, Japan, Korea, and
Singapore have implemented e-waste legislation in order to regulate the e-waste management. EU Directives
have been an inspiration to Asian countries in developing the framework for e-waste legislation. As a
developing country, China was used as a dumping yard of used EEE and e-waste from developed countries
such as the USA. Handling imported e-waste along with the growing domestic waste became a major
concern. As the Basel Ban and WSR in the EU came into existence, China imposed a ban on the e-waste
imports. The Government of China then implemented laws to manage the domestically produced e-waste as
listed in Table These regulations also targeted reduction in the generation of WEEE and enabled recycling.
The main objective of these laws was to check informal practices and standardize the e-waste recycling
process through national and provincial management programs. Recently, in 2012, like most European
nations, China also adopted the EPR law to legally bind the manufactures in recycling the discarded
equipment and using the recycled resources in their products.
1.2. Generic e-waste management model:
There is no standard model with fixed regulations to manage the e-waste for both developed and
developing countries as each country’s scenario differs from others. However, it is necessary to implement a
holistic e-waste legislation and make amendments regularly to address the shortcomings learned from
systematic regular assessments. The foremost rule in any e-waste policy has to be a strict ban on the
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import/export of e-waste and heavy penalty on illegal shipments. The ban on any transboundary movement
of e-waste allows focusing on effective domestic e-waste management.
Here is a closed-loop model as shown in Figure 1.2.1 that includes all the isolated stakeholders of the
e-waste management, namely, the government bodies and law enforcement network, producers and
consumers responsible for the e-waste generation, the formal e-waste recycling industry, and the informal
waste processing sector. Such a system that strategically connects all the stakeholders requires cooperation
and coordination at all levels ranging from the government, manufacturing industries, and the recycling
sector to consumers. To effectively manage domestic e-waste, the legislation should encourage both
reducing and recycling the generated e-waste. Reduction in the amount of e-waste generated is possible
when “repair and reuse” principle is embraced. This can be enforced though the legislation as guidelines.

Fig 1.2.1 Generic e-waste management model

Implementation of the generic e-waste management model:

To demonstrate the implementation of the proposed model, we have considered all the countries
with e-waste legislation issues. By doing so, we get to discuss and address a variety of issues prevalent in
the developed counties of Europe and Australia as well as the numerous problems of e-waste management in
developing economies such as China, India, and other Southeast Asian countries. Although both cases
contrast each other in e-waste management issues, our model provides clarity in understanding the e-waste
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legislation–related issues and helps find solutions in each case. This provides a holistic view of different e-
waste management issues and the stakeholders responsible for each of them. The major e-waste
management issues in European countries are due to weak law enforcement as the e-waste legislation is
quite comprehensive (includes various aspects of e-waste management). A lack of strict law enforcement
decreases the effectiveness of the implemented law.

2. Overview of unpredictable issues and challenges [2]

E-waste handling and processing have the potential to release a complex blend of contaminants in
various environmental matrices. These releases can be more or less significant, depending on the processes
used and the protective measures implemented. Contaminants in e-waste are released in highly
heterogeneous mixtures, whose composition varies according to e-waste types and age, as well as handling
and processing. The physical state of the released contaminants varies with the nature of the handling
process, and includes particulate matter, gas, vapours, aerosols, solid residues left after a smelting or
leaching process, liquids (spent acid or waste water) or semi-liquids (sludge from leaching solutions). Three
large categories of contaminants may be discharged different classes of primary contaminants, which are
mostly metals and persistent and bioaccumulative organic substances used as part of e-waste composition,
generally during pre-processing activities (e.g., manual dismantling, shredding, and crushing), end
processing activities (e.g., open burning of e-waste or pyrometallurgical/ hydrometallurgical routes for
extracting precious materials), and incineration of e-waste (both integral and residual), and landfill leachates.

secondary contaminants, which are mostly persistent and bioaccumulative organic substances that derive
from the combustion of primary contaminants such as PCBs or other ingredients (e.g., polyvinyl
chloride/PVC in plastic or cabling), or during e-waste open burning, smelting or incinerating operations.
Human exposure to e-waste contaminants may be occupational or environmental, affecting both workers and
the general population. As mentioned before, informal e-recycling sectors may involve not only adult
workers but also children, teenagers and older adults, who are mainly involved in outdoor activities,
including dismantling and open burning. While most formal e-recycling facilities show a particular concern
for worker protection and are more able to invest in safe practices and disposal, workers involved in
informal e-recycling activities are generally untrained and not equipped with personal protective equipment.
They tend to use risky practices and sometimes work in unsafe conditions with no efforts to protect
themselves, mainly due to the lack of knowledge of or access to protective measures

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2.1. Potential solutions to curb e-waste issues:

Solving e-waste issues is a long-term, challenging and costly task and calls for the full
collaboration of all stakeholders involved (e.g., government, scientific community, chemical manufacturers,
e-product designers, retailers and collectors, e-recyclers and end consumers). However, any action taken to
address e-waste problems could benefit from a firm governmental position in terms of tighter laws,
regulations and policies, including surveillance of the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) system,
awareness initiatives, sustained financial, technical, logistical, and training support, and even international
cooperation. The aim should be to steadily increase the engagement and adhesion of other stakeholders. That
being said, the gaps have widened between rapidly evolving technological markets, high consumption of e-
products and, hence, high generation of e-waste, on the one hand, and the resources available to deal
adequately with the potentially hazardous e-waste flow, on the other. For instance, despite three decades of
intense research, the performance and stability of substitute materials for e-product manufacturing are still
problematic Yet, given the serious human health risks and environmental burden, it is imperative that the e-
waste problem-solving process gain momentum. A comprehensive approach is suggested here that involves
working on two fronts – at the upstream and downstream.

3. Electronic waste collection systems using Internet of Things (IoT)[3]

3.1. Overview of system architecture

Fig 3.1.1.Overview of system architecture

Within the smart city concept smart systems have been designed and employed in conventional solid
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waste management to keep and maintain cleaner cities. The picture depicts the overall architecture of the
proposed system. A mobile application was developed to guide the users (i.e. people who dispose their e-
waste) to the nearest e-waste collection box, based on their current global positioning system (GPS)
location. Smart e-waste collection boxes are installed at designated locations.
The collection boxes are equipped with microcontrollers with ultrasonic sensing and wireless
capabilities in order to exchange information with a centralised cloud database server. In the administrative
server, data are retrieved from the cloud database server in order to calculate the level of e-waste (i.e.
volume of disposed e-waste) at each collection box. If a certain threshold has achieved (e.g. collection box is
80% filled), an automated email will be sent to the collection company. The company can then send the e-
waste collection truck to collect e-waste from the relevant boxes.

3.2. Smart e-waste collection box.

The existing design of the e-waste collection box installed by Meriahtek (M) Sdn Bhd at Monash
University, Malaysia is shown in figure a, while figure b illustrates the smart e-waste collection box. It is
noticeable that the volume and the opening size of the smart collection box is smaller. The small opening
prevents any unauthorised access to the e-waste deposited in the collection box. The small volume of the
collection box is for testing purposes as the volume of the collection box can always be changed according
to the design requirements.

Fig 3.2.1 Smart e-waste collection box

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In order to enable wireless connectivity and sensing capability, a microcontroller is installed on each of the
collection box. The three main components, as shown in figure 3.2.2, are the (a) HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor,
(b) Arduino board and (c) Wi-Fi module board.

Fig 3.2.2 Hardware used to operate the smart e-waste collection box
The ultrasonic sensor is capable of determining the level of the collection box. The Arduino board is
to supply power for the ultrasonic sensor and allow customised program to control the sensor and Wi- Fi
module. In our test environment, a portable power bank was used to power-on the Arduino board. Due to the
battery-powered supply for the smart e-waste system, the program needs to be tweaked to improve battery
efficiency. In best case scenario, if the Arduino board is connected to a stable power source, the ultrasonic
sensor can be turned into the always-on mode (i.e. constantly calculate the level at 0e1 s interval). However,
it was not the case in this work (it is not required as well) and here it mimics an energy-efficient way to
operate the smart e-waste collection box.

Fig 3.2.3. General workflow of the proposed energy-efficient operation of the smart e-waste collection box.

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 Fig 3.2.3 illustrates the workflow of the proposed energy-efficient operation mode. By default, the
system is set to sleep mode to improve the battery efficiency. Users are required to scan the QR code on the
collection box to register the location code of the box. This feature is used as a validation mechanism to
ensure that the user is indeed disposing e-waste at the right collection box. Since users must scan the QR
code, it can be used as the trigger to wake the Arduino board and sensor up. Whenever a registered user
scans a valid QR code on the collection box, the backend server will capture this event and send a wake-up
signal to the system. The ultrasonic sensor will then operate and scan for any changes in the level of the
collection box. By default, we pre-set the ultrasonic sensor to operate at an interval of 3 s and the maximum
wake-up duration was set at 5 min. Based on several trial runs and it was found that a new user would
typically spend less than 5 min to complete the whole process, hence the 5 min threshold was employed. If
the collection box level indeed changed, it means that the users had successfully deposited the e-waste. The
system will then be put into sleep mode again. If the level of the collection box did not change, the system
will check if the 5 min threshold is met. If Yes, it will be turned into sleep mode again. Otherwise, it will
continue to sense for changes in the collection box level. As for the Wi-Fi module board, it serves to connect
the Arduino board with the Wi-Fi network and the database server to store the level measured via the
ultrasonic sensor. The average overall current consumption of the proposed smart system during wake-up
period is determined to be 80 mA (measured using a digital multimeter), though the same during the sleep
mode is assumed to be 20 mA Assuming that on average, there are two e-waste disposal activities every 1 h
period (i.e. 10 min of wake-up period and 50 min of sleep mode), when connected to a power bank with
battery capacity of 10000 mAh (battery self-discharge percentage is 15%), power bank is expected to last for
26.5 days with sleep mode operation. On the other hand, the power bank will only last for 4.4 days without
the implementation of sleep mode.

Fig 3.2.4 Illustration of e-waste disposal and recycling process.

In terms of the costs for the development of the smart e-waste collection system, about 37.59 USD
were spent for the sensors (cost of the collection box is fixed). This smart collection system must be
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operated in a Wi-Fi enabled environment. It is supposed that the costs for Wi-Fi will be cheaper or free of
charge due to the initiatives proposed by the Malaysian communications and multimedia commission
(MCMC) to promote the transition towards smart cities. In addition, the electricity consumption of the smart
system was calculated (two e-waste disposal activities per hour) as 0.072 kWh per month and costs 3
Malaysian ringgits (0.7 USD)

4. Application of deep learning object classifier to improve e-waste collection planning [4]

The purpose of object detection based on image recognition is to identify whether specific objects
appear in an image. After the object is identified, the next step is to determine its location and size using a
special adjustable frame. Object detection and identification have been widely used in artificial intelligence
systems for robotics, electronics, road safety, autonomous driving, intelligent transportation systems, and
content identification.

Fig 4. Resident and waste company priorities for WEEE collection.

Deep learning techniques have enabled advanced feature recognition directly from image data, leading
to considerable progress in general image detection and object classification. In 2012, Alex Krizhevsky
proposed a deep learning convolutional neural network (CNN) called Alex Net, which demonstrated
exceptional image classification precision in the Large-Scale Visual Recognition Challenge. Additional
applications have since been introduced for visual and voice recognition systems, image processing, and the
analysis of medical data.
There are several techniques for detecting objects using deep machine learning, a technique in which
the aspects of an image that are required for detection tasks are automatically learned. Recent studies have
focused on using deep learning CNNs to detect specific objects, such as faces, pedestrians, vehicles, and

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road signs. The ability to detect and track vehicles is required from many autonomous driving applications,
such as collision warning, adaptive cruise control, and automatic lane maintenance. Other deep learning
CNNs have focused on general image recognition.

4.1 Deep learning methods for waste identification from images

Deep learning is a field of machine learning that teaches computers to learn from experience.
Machine learning algorithms use computational methods to ‘‘learn” information directly from data without
relying on a predetermined equation as a model. The proposed waste identification model uses a deep
learning CNN convolutional classifier, as shown in figure. The model inputs were images containing
selected categories of e-waste. In this study, we selected three types of electrical and electronic equipment
from households that are commonly disposed of: refrigerators, washing machines, and monitors or TV sets.
Each of the objects had some distinctive features that were utilized in the learning procedure. Further
development of the system would include additional categories of waste equipment. The output of the model
was information about three classes of objects represented by the images. A deep learning CNN can be
divided into two main functional modules: the feature-learning module and the classification module.

Fig 4.1.1 E-waste collection using image recognition and visual classification of waste equipment

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 Fig 4.1.2 Deep learning CNN classifier (r = refrigerator, w = washing machine, m = monitor )

Fig 4.1.3 Examples of pictures from a learning set.

The proposed network was trained using 180 training images (60 for each class) and was then tested
on 30 test images (10 for each class). The test images were not part of the training set. For training and
testing, square images cropped from the photographs of waste equipment were used. Each image contained
one waste item (a refrigerator, a washing machine, or a TV set/monitor), and the images were scaled to 128
pixels. Various configurations of the convolutional network were applied. The tested deep learning network
architectures contained three CNN layers. The network accuracy was determined by the number of correctly
recognized equipment images. Modifications to the deep learning CNN layer organization were conducted
in three areas: the number of filters, the size of the filters, and the method of scanning inputs. A systematic
approach was used to determine the required filter sizes, which were 7 x 7, 9 x 9, and 11 x11 for the first
layer (C1), 7 x 7, 5 x 5, and 3 x 3 for the second layer (C2), and 3 x3 for the third convolutional layer (C3).
The filter size was gradually changed, and each new configuration was trained. The number of filters was
chosen from the set {16, 32}, and the stride size was varied from 1 to 4. The training was repeated five
times, and the results of the estimation were evaluated. The set of filters with the best performance was
selected.

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 This research presents a novel approach to photographic identification and categorization of e-waste
by using CNN to classify the type of e-waste, and using R-CNN to detect the category and size of waste
equipment in images. The classification and detection algorithms utilized showed high identification
efficiency. Recognition accuracy could be increased further by increasing the number of images in the
learning set to several hundred or even several thousand. The application of deep learning CNN and faster
R-CNN resulted in waste equipment identification with an accuracy of 90–96.7%. On average, the R-CNN
network provided lower accuracy (90%) than the best CNN, but allowed for the identification and
determination of the size of the object in the image

Fig 4.1.4 Examples of objects in images detected using faster R-CNN detection.

This new method for identifying waste enables the development of a ready-made digital solution to
recognize the equipment reported for collection based on customer images. As an essential tool for
collection planning, it allows for the potential valorization of the secondary raw material content. It also
takes advantage of the widespread use of smartphones and the commonplace ability to take and upload
photos, which was an unrealistic expectation until recently. The proposed system of taking, uploading, and
recognizing pictures to prepare a waste collection plan can also be utilized in municipal collection centers or
in electronic marketplaces where e-waste is stored. In such cases, more waste equipment could be identified
using faster R-CNN, as shown in this study. Further research should consider other categories of equipment
submitted for collection to verify the effectiveness of the classification and detection. This method could
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also be applied to other bulky waste categories for which similar challenges are encountered in waste
collection.

5. Recycling of plastic waste: Screening for brominated flame retardants (BFRs) [5]

Flame retardants are chemicals vital for reducing risks of fire and preventing human casualties and
property losses. Due to the abundance, low cost and high performance of bromine, brominated flame
retardants (BFRs) have had a significant share of the market for years. Physical stability on the other hand,
has resulted in dispersion and accumulation of selected BFRs in the environment and receiving biota. A
wide range of plastic products may contain BFRs. This affects the quality of waste plastics as secondary
resource: material recycling may potentially reintroduce the BFRs into new plastic product cycles and lead
to increased exposure levels, e.g. through use of plastic packaging materials. To provide quantitative and
qualitative data on presence of BFRs in plastics, we analysed bromophenols (tetrabromobisphenol A
(TBBPA), dibromophenols (2,4- and 2,6-DBP) and 2,4,6-tribromophenol (2,4,6-TBP)),
hexabromocyclododecane stereoisomers (a-, b-, and c-HBCD), as well as selected polybrominated diphenyl
ethers (PBDEs) in samples of household waste plastics, virgin and recycled plastics. A considerable number
of samples contained BFRs, with highest concentrations associated with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS, up to 26,000,000 ng TBBPA/g) and polystyrene. Abundancy in low concentrations of some BFRs in
plastic samples suggested either unintended addition in plastic products or degradation of higher molecular
weight BFRs. The presence of currently restricted flame retardants (PBDEs and HBCD) identified in the
plastic samples illustrates that circular material flows may be contaminated for extended periods.

There are indisputable benefits of flame retardants in relation to life saving and reducing property
damages as the result of fires. Flame retardants are partially responsible for reduced fire incidents across the
globe. There is a plethora of different types of flame retardants currently available on the market; these are
commonly divided into four main classes: halogenated organic (bromine or chlorine containing),
phosphorous-containing, nitrogen-containing, and inorganic. Among the halogenated organics, bromine-
based chemicals have prevailed due to bromine’s higher free radical trapping efficiency and lower
decomposition temperature. Furthermore, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) can be subsequently divided
into five main classes: brominated bisphenols, diphenyl ethers, cyclododecanes, phenols, and phthalic acid
derivatives; the first three represent the majority of the BFR market. Driven by more stringent fire safety
measures in developing economies and increasing use of plastics in the construction sector, the market for
flame retardants is expected to grow. Phosphorous-based substances were forecast to be the fastest-growing
types, surpassing BFRs in market size in 2015. While, global market shares for BFRs decreased from

20
approximately 36% in 2004 to 25% in 2014, introduction of novel halogenated retardants could support
partial gains

5.1. Materials and methods

5.1.1. Sample collection and pre-treatment

A schematic representation of a generic plastic product lifecycle is provided in the figure. The figure
also indicates the sources of plastic samples addressed in this study (e.g., virgin plastics). Samples of waste
plastics were collected from residual and source-segregated household waste from a Danish municipality in
April 2013. The waste stream derived from at least 100 households and represented waste generation and
collection over two weeks for each household. Details of the sampling campaign can be found elsewhere.
After being sampled, waste plastics were manually sorted into plastic packaging and other plastics, in total
14 fractions. Sorting and identification of polymer types followed the internationally accepted classification
system, which includes marking plastic packaging with a code 1–7 (ASTM D7611). Plastic items not
bearing the classification code were combined in a single fraction (non-specific plastics (NSPs)), which
could potentially contain any plastics commonly used in households.

Fig 5.1.1.1. Schematic representation of a generic plastic product lifecycle

21
 Metal-coated and uncoated plastic foils were categorized in separate fractions; commonly made of
polyethylene, PP or polyvinyl chloride plastic resins. After being sorted into the individual fractions, the
waste plastics were coarsely shredded , and then finely shredded after being treated with liquid nitrogen to
increase the material brittleness. The particle size of the finely shredded plastics was <1 mm. Samples of
processed plastics (virgin and recycled) were collected from a variety of plastics producers and recyclers in
China, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands. Obtained samples were not anticipated to represent plastics
composition on the global market or in the respective countries, but provide quantitative and qualitative
screening of BFRs in samples from a variety of suppliers in different countries. The samples of processed
plastics were not pre-treated but were analysed as received in the form of flakes, granules or pellets.

5.1.2. Sample extraction

Sample extraction and analysis were performed in accordance with a modified accredited method. A
subsample of 1 g was taken from each of the samples. The influence of particle size on release of the
substances of interest was not assessed in the present work. The plastic samples were added to 20 ml of
extraction solvent composed of n-hexane and isopropanol (1:1 v/v). The extraction was performed in a
microwave sample preparation system involving heating to 100 _C for 60 min, followed by a gradual
cooling. After this, sample and extraction solvent were centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 5 min. The liquid phase
was decanted, a mixture of deuterated 13C12-a-HBCD and 13C12-TBBPA (Wellington laboratories,
Guelph, Canada) was added as an internal standard, and the volume reduced to 1.5 ml in a water-bath rotary
evaporator at 40 _C. The final extracts were filtered using Mini uniprep 0.2 lm polypropylene filter vials
(Whatman, UK) before being analysed on a high-performance liquid chromatographer (HPLC) coupled to a
tandem mass spectrometer (MS/MS) or a gas chromatographer coupled to a quadrupole time-of-flight mass
spectrometer (QTOF/MS).

5.2. Chemical analyses

5.2.1. Bromophenols and HBCD

The quantitative analyses were performed on a HPLC coupled to a MS/MS. The separation took
place on a reverse phase chromatographic column, using a gradient of methanol and 0.01% acetic acid at 0.2
ml/min. The source and desolvation temperatures were 120 _C and 380 _C, respectively. The collision
energy was 35 eV and the Argon collision gas pressure was kept at 2.3e_3 mbar. The quantification was
22
made using the external calibration method (r2 > 0.99) with compensation for recovery of the internal
standard. Certified calibration standards of TBBPA, a-, b-, and c-HBCD were purchased from Wellington
laboratories (Ontario, Canada), while 2,4-DBP, 2,6-DBP, and 2,4,6-TBP were from Sigma-Aldrich .The
limit of detection (LOD) was calculated from analysis of four blank samples, as the average plus three times
the standard deviation Method recoveries, i.e. ratios of measured analyte concentrations to spiked
concentrations of the analyte in a sample of plastics, were calculated to be 113% and 117% for 2,4,6-TBP
and a-HBCD, respectively. Concentrations reported in this work were not compensated for the method
recovery. Extraction and analysis of replicates for four waste plastic samples resulted in following relative
standard deviations: 31% (DBPs), 10% (2,4,6-TBP), 10% (TBBPA), 9% (a-HBCD), 8% (b-HBCD) and
19% (c-HBCD).

5.2.2. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Detection was performed on a GC coupled to a QTOF/MS with a PAL injector. The carrier gas was
helium with a flow rate of 1.2 ml/min and the programmed temperature vaporizing (PTV) injection with
volume of 1 ml. The PTV temperature programme was 50 _C for 0.8 min, increasing 480 _C/min to 290 _C
hold 2 min, and 720 _C/ min to 330 _C hold for 10 min. The initial GC temperature was 70 _C for 3 min,
increasing 20 _C/min to 310 _C, hold for 10 min. The gas separation was performed on two DB5 MS
columns 15 m (Agilent J&W GC columns). The quadrupole was set to allow masses between 50 and 500 Da
to pass and reach the time-offlight mass analyser. A technical PBDE congener mix was purchased from
Cambridge Isotopes Laboratories Inc. (Andover, MA, USA). The Most of the substances were identified
with higher frequency in waste plastics when compared to the processed plastics. The BFRs identified most
often in waste plastics (approx. 50% of the samples) were DBPs and a-HBCD. The remaining bromophenols
were found in 40% of the samples, while 35% of waste plastics contained b- and c-HBCD. In contrast, the
most common BFRs identified in processed plastics were TBBPA and BDE-99 (37%), followed by BDE-47
(29%), a-HBCD (26%), DBPs and 2,4,6- TBP (20%), and the remaining BFRs in less than 10% of the cases

5.2.3. Bromophenols

By far the highest concentrations of bromophenols were found in a sample of recycled ABS. TBBPA
was measured to be 26,000,000 ng/g (2.6% w/w), followed by 2,4,6-TBP (340,000 ng/g) and DBPs (8000
ng/g). The use of TBBPA and 2,4,6-TBP as the first and second most prevalent flame retardants in ABS has
been documented previously. ABS is one of the most common polymers found in WEEE and contains
TBBPA as flame retardant. Concentrations of TBBPA in ABS have been reported as high as 10–20% (w/w)
in certain applications. Among the bromophenols analysed in waste plastics, TBBPA was present in higher
concentrations ranging from 20 to 4400 ng/g. The highest concentrations were associated with samples of
23
PS (4400 ng/g), PP (3000 ng/g) and NSP (2200 ng/g) from residual household waste. These values are
somewhat lower than 8100 ng/g of TBBPA found in plastics used for TV housings. On the other hand,
TBBPA was not identified in any of the virgin plastic samples analysed; only measurable concentrations of
DBPs and a-HBCD were found in two PS samples. DBPs and 2,4,6-TBP were predominantly identified in
the samples of waste plastics rather than in the processed plastics.

5.3. Brominated flame retardants and plastic recycling

Plastic recycling processes are not designed to remove chemical contaminants embedded in the
plastic waste materials. Hence, BFRs as well as other chemical contaminants contained in obsolete plastic
products can remain in the materials after re-processing and thereby be re-introduced into the plastic
material loop. This
means that chemicals included in one type of plastic products (e.g., part of electric and electronic
equipment) may subsequently be introduced into plastics used for other applications, potentially resulting in
additional health risks and jeopardising consumer

5.4. Results and discussion

PBDEs in e-waste
PBDEs in housing plastics

The housing plastics samples were categorized into five types of e-waste, including CRT TVs (n =
3), washing machines (n = 6), LCD monitors (n = 6), PCs mainframes (n = 3), and refrigerators (Rft) (n = 1).
All 19 samples were found to contain the PBDEs, which indicated a high frequency in the use of PBDEs in
these plastics. Previous studies also reported PBDEs were detected in 40% and 51% of all BFRs containing
housing samples.[6]
The 100% detection rate in this study could be due to the relatively fewer samples. presents the mean
concentrations of PPBDEs in five types of e-waste in China. Among all the plastic samples in this study, the
concentrations of PPBDEs in CRT TV plastics were higher than others, up to 11.31 mg/kg, followed by
refrigerators (6.63 mg/kg) and desktop mainframes (2.81 mg/kg). The housing plastics of LCD monitors
were found to have the lowest concentrations of PPBDEs in this study. This study explores the
characterization of extremely hazardous substances (PBDEs and TBBPA) in e-waste. Results show that
most of the plastics and PCBs samples were found to contain the PBDEs and TBBPA in different types of e-
waste, indicating a high frequent use of PBDEs and TBBPA in e-waste.

24
 Fig 5.4.1 PBDEs concentrations in five types of e-waste housing plastics

However, the concentrations of PBDEs and TBBPA are trending down when compared with previous
studies. It is worthy to note that low total amounts of BFRs do not necessarily mean low releases of these
compounds. If these e-wastes are not treated properly, there is still a high potential for environmental and
health risks. This study also found that the PBDEs in housing plastics and PCBs will be transferred into new
products, and the new products could have higher enrichment capacities on PBDEs. Hence, further work
should be directed towards a systematic examination of the release mechanism of PBDEs from e-waste to
environmental medium, especially in informal sectors. Most importantly, plastics and PCBs materials with
high PBDEs and TBBPA levels should be separated from other recycling materials before being sent for
further recycling and treatment.

25
6. Selective sequential separation of ABS/HIPS and PVC from automobile and electronic waste
shredder residue by hybrid nano-Fe/Ca/CaO assisted ozonisation process[7,8&9]

The separation of plastics containing brominated flame retardants (BFR) like (acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene (ABS), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)) from automobile
and electronic waste shredder residue (ASR/ESR) are a major concern for thermal recycling. using a hybrid
nano-Fe/Ca/CaO assisted ozonation treatment has been found to selectively hydrophilize the surface of
ABS/HIPS and PVC plastics, enhancing ABS wettability and thereby promoting its separation from
ASR/ESR by means of froth flotation. The water contact angles, of ABS/HIPS and PVC decreased, about
18.7_, 18.3_, and 17.9_ in ASR and about 21.2_, 20.7_, and 20.0_ in ESR respectively. SEM-EDS, FTIR,
and XPS analyses demonstrated a marked decrease in [Cl] and a significant increase in the number of
hydrophilic groups, such as CAO, C@O, and (C@O)AO, on the PVC or ABS surface. Under froth flotation
conditions at 50 rpm, about 99.1% of combined fraction of ABS/HIPS in ASR samples and 99.6% of ABS/
HIPS in ESR samples were separated as settled fraction. After separation, the purity of the recovered
combined ABS/HIPS fraction was 96.5% and 97.6% in ASR and ESR samples respectively. Furthermore, at
150 rpm a 100% PVC separation in the settled fraction, with 98% and 99% purity in ASR and ESR plastics,
respectively. Total recovery of non-ABS/HIPS and PVC plastics reached nearly 100% in the floating
fraction. Further, this process improved the quality of recycled ASR/ESR plastics by removing surface
contaminants or impurities.

6. Materials and methods

6.1. ASR and ESR polymer sample collection

ASR polymer samples were systematically collected at three intervals on the same day at an
automobile recycling/shredding plant in Pohang (South Korea). The collected ASR polymer samples (about
1 kg) were homogenized . Shredded post-consumer plastic samples were collected from two different E-
waste recycling plants, one in Ulsan (South Korea) and another in Philadelphia (USA), and were combined
to create a homogenous mixture of 1 kg . Usually, shredded ASR/ESR plastics are of nonuniform size and
shape, however, the plastic sample particles typically being 5 _ 5 mm and 1 mm thick. 50 pieces each plastic
material was analyzed with regard to its main polymer type (PVC, ABS, PET, PS, HIPS, PA, PMMA, and
POM), using FT-IR spectrometry (Perkin-Elmer, Spectrum One), which was also used to quantify polymer
composition in the combined ASR/ESR plastic mixture. A pycnometer was employed to measure the
specific gravity of plastics in water. The sample plastic types used for these tests were of different colors,
which made it easier to manually sort them before and after each experiment (fig 6.1.1 c and d). The samples
used for each test consisted of 10 pieces of one type of plastic or 100g of mixed ASR/ESR plastic.

26
Fig. 6.1.1. Typical shredded polymer samples: (a) ASR, (b) ESR, (c) individual plastic types in ASR and (d)
individual plastic types in ESR.

6.2. Nano-Fe/Ca/CaO synthesis

A dispersed mixture of nano-Fe/Ca/CaO, was prepared through planetary ball-milling. Granular

particles of metallic Ca (99%, 2–2.5 mm particle size distribution; 0.43– 0.48 m2 g_1 surface area) and iron
(0.15 mm diameter) and finegrade CaO were purchased from Kishida Chemical Co. Ltd. The dry
nano-Fe/Ca/CaO system was prepared by combining Fe, Ca, and CaO in a mechanochemical process. Dry
CaO (pre-heated at 825 _C for 2 h) and dry Fe, Ca, and CaO (Fe/Ca/CaO = 2/2/5 ratio) at room temperature
were introduced in an Ar atmosphere into a planetary ball mill along with 20 pieces of steel use stainless
(SUS), 32 g/ball. Milling was conducted for 1 h at 600 rpm with a rotation-to-revolution ratio of 1 to _2
(doubling thus the inverse rotation force compared to the direction of the orbital motion). The maximum
observed size of the solid, porous, spherical, and amorphous particles was 206 nm.

6.3. Effect of nano-Fe/Ca/CaO ozonisation treatment on the surface wettability of ASR/ESR polymers

27
 Initially, an aqueous dispersion of 0.5 wt% nano-Fe/Ca/CaO was prepared by adding 5 g of nano-
Fe/Ca/CaO to 1.0 L of water. Next, all shredded, mixed ASR/ESR plastic fractions (10 pieces of one kind of
plastic or _100 g mixed plastics) were treated with the reagent in a beaker with overhead stirring.
Simultaneously, ozone gas (90– 150 mg O3/L) was produced in an ozonizer (Ozone Generator Model-Lab
II) and introduced into the beaker through a ceramic bubble diffuser, at a flow rate of 100 mL/min for 15,
30, and 45 min. After treatment, plastic samples were rinsed and subjected to surface characterization and
froth flotation tests. The water contact angle of each type of ASR/ ESR plastic was measured before and
after treatment with a Smartdrop Contact Angle Analyzer. The contact angle was taken as the average value
of five measurements from five different samples of the same type of plastic.

6.4. Surface hydrophilicity characterization analysis of ABS/HIPS and PVC

ASR/ESR plastics surface microstructure analysis, elemental mapping and semi-quantitative

analyses of ABS/HIPS and PVC plastics surface was carried out in order to identify elemental composition
of ABS/HIPS and PVC plastics surface through scanning electron microscopy combined with electron
dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS; JEOL, JSM6510A). To investigate the nature of the chemical bonding,
FT-IR spectra were recorded on a Perkin–Elmer Nicolet Nexus 470 FTIR spectrometer at room temperature.
In order to identify the elemental states of carbon and the hydrophilic functional groups on the surfaces of
plastic samples before and after each treatment, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses were also
carried out using an XPS spectrometer.

6.5. Selective separation of ABS/HIPS and PVC from ASR/ESR polymers by froth flotation

The flotation glass reactor used is 10 cm tall and has a 14 cm inner diameter with a working volume
of _1.0 L. A ceramic bubble diffuser was installed at the bottom of the reactor and connected to a mini air
pump (MP-R300, Sibata, Japan; Fig. S1b). An automatic overhead stirrer (WiseStir, Daihan Scientific Co.,
Ltd.) was installed to mix the floating plastic samples after bubbling, and various mixing speeds were tested
as described below (Fig. S1b). For the froth flotation experiments, 1 L of tap water was used and 2 mL of4-
methyl-2-pentanol (methyl-isobutyl-carbinol) was added as a frothing agent to increase the stability of the
froth so as to facilitate the flotation of plastic particles. The concentration of the frothing agent was selected
based on the results of a previous optimization study. Initially, by wet gravity separation, light plastics of
specific density <1.0 g/cm3 (e.g. PP and PE) were separated fromheavy plastics as floating fractions. The
remaining heavy plastics of specific density >1.0 g/cm3 (PVC, ABS, HIPS, PET, PC, PA, PMMA, rubber,
etc.) were then subjected to ozonisation with nano-Fe/Ca/CaO treatment, followed by froth flotation. The
sample plastic types used for these tests were of different colors, which made it easier to manually sort them
before and after each experiment .The samples used for each test consisted of 10 pieces of one type of
28
plastic. Ten pieces of each type or 100g of mixed ASR/ESR heavy plastics were introduced into the reactor
and air was bubbled at 0.5 L min_1 for 10 min. Initially, all ASR/ESR plastic samples were submerged in
tap water. Upon, froth flotation all treated plastic particles were floated by air bubbles selective attachment.
The air bubbles in froth flotation, have a high affinity for water repellent surfaces, and hence air bubbles
preferentially attached to all plastics. In order to remove the air bubbles attached on plastic, overhead stirring
was subsequently applied for 1 min at the mixing (low to high-speed agitation or mixing 0–400 rpm) speeds.
The effectiveness of froth flotation was quantified by measuring the floating/settled fraction for each plastic
by volume/ weight. The sample plastic types used for these tests were of different colors, which made it
easier to manually sort them after each experiment. The recovery ratio and purity ratio for the settled
fraction rich in oxygenated plastics (ABS/HIPS/PVC, after treatment) and the floating fraction rich in other
plastics were calculated by using Eqs 1 and 2. Standard Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity).

where: BFR/PVC = total number/weight of individually plastics with brominated flame retardant additives
(ABS/HIPS) and PVC. BFR/ PVCs = number/weight of individually settled plastics with brominated flame
retardant additives (ABS/HIPS) and PVC. BFR/PVC f = number/weight of individually floating ABS/HIPS
and PVC. Other sf = number/weight of settled non- ABS/HIPS and PVC. Initially, all ASR/ESR plastic
samples were submerged in tap water.

6.6. Results and discussion

6.6.1. Quantification of ASR/ESR polymer composition

The compositions of the main plastics and their typical densities in the ASR/ESR samples were
determined as an average value of five replicates. The main polymers found in the ASR/ESR samples were
PP, PE, PVC, ABS, HIPS, PET, PC, PA, PMMA, rubber, and others. ASR and ESR, respectively, consisted
of about 25.8% and 19.0 wt% of light plastics (<1.0 g/cm3: PP, and PE) and about 74.2% and 81% of heavy
polymers (>1.0 g/cm3: PVC, ABS, HIPS, PET, PC, PA, PMMA, rubber, and others). Rubber and other
plastics make up the majority of ASR (about 21%); in ESR, ABS and HIPS were the dominant types,
together accounting for _49% of the total. In both ASR and ESR plastics, ‘‘others” are included in the heavy
fraction. The results further indicated that the PVC, ABS, and HIPS make up about 6.2%, 12.0%, and 6.7%
of ASR and about 6.9%, 28%, and 21% of ESR, respectively. These presented values are much comparable
with previously reports, about 10–20% of ABS and HIPS, the next largest fraction being PVC materials,
which comprise around 10–15 wt% in ASR and ESR respectively.
29
6.6.2. Effect of nano-Fe/Ca/CaO-ozonisation treatment on surface wettability of ABS/HIPS and PVC

An important factor in assessing the wettability of a material is its water contact angle. After 30 min
of ozonisation of the ASR plastics ABS, HIPS, and PVC, the contact angles decreased by 11.4 ⁰, 11.8 ⁰, and
11.4⁰, respectively . When performing the ozonization in the presence of nano-Fe/Ca/CaO, the values
decreased to a greater extent in a shorter period of time (only 15 min): the contact angles decreased by 18.7⁰,
18.3⁰, and 17.9⁰, respectively (from 88.7⁰,87.8⁰, and 89.5⁰ to 70.0⁰, 69.5⁰, and 71.6⁰) . At the same time, the
contact angles of other polymers decreased only slightly: that of PET went from 89.8_ to 88.6_, PC from
88.1_ to 85.4_, PA from 87.8⁰ to 84.6⁰, and PMMA from 87.8⁰ to 84.6⁰. Longer ozonisation treatment times
(30 and 45 min) in the presence of nano-Fe/ Ca/CaO did not cause a significant further decrease in the
contact angle. Similar but better results were observed for ESR plastics: the contact angles decreased after
30 min ozonization and further decreased when the plastic materials were subjected to a 15 min ozonization
treatment in the presence of nano-Fe/Ca/CaO. After 30 min of ozonisation of ESR, the contact angles
decreased by about 14.2⁰, 14.2⁰, and 13.8⁰ for ABS, HIPS, and PVC, respectively, whereas after 15 min
ozonisation with nano-Fe/Ca/CaO the contact angles decreased by 21.2⁰, 20.7⁰, and 20.0⁰, respectively. The
better results obtained for ESR compared to ASR polymers may be because the latter, as they were collected
from an ELV recycling plant, may have their surfaces covered with various contaminants, such as paint, oil,
grease and dust.

Fig. 6.6.2.1. Main plastics composition and typical densities

These contaminants could hinder the effect of ozonisation on the ASR polymer surface . The
considerable decrease in contact angle for ABS, HIPS, and PVC is a clear indication that ozonisation in the
presence of nano-Fe/Ca/ CaO greatly improved the wettability of these materials, compared to other surface
modification methods (e.g. chemical/alkaline, plasma, and ultraviolet treatments), which are generally not as
selective for brominated plastics . This phenomenon may be explained by the replacement of halogen atoms
30
in PVC and the formation of hydrophilic hydroxyl and carboxyl functional groups on the surface of ABS,
HIPS, and PVC . It was observed that the order of contact angle reduction was ABS , HIPS, and PVC . This
gain in hydrophilicity implies that these plastics will be the first to settle on the bottom during froth flotation
treatment, and even separate from one another.

7. Material flow analysis (MFA) as a strategic tool in E-waste management [10]

Material flow analysis (MFA) is one of the most widely accepted and utilized tools in the industrial-
ecology discipline, that measures the input-output materials and examines the pathways and flux of each
material flow within the whole system. The application of MFA in e-waste management has recently
increased and quite a few academic articles have been published on this issue providing decision support at
the policy level. However, there is a need to understand the dynamics of MFA methodology, the data
requirements (as well as the data sources used in the previous studies) and the lessons learnt from the
studies, so that countries where such an E-waste- MFA study has not yet been performed can apply the
international experience of such an emerging research technique. Production, consumption and disposal -
this is a typical pattern of a product lifecycle. Among various consumable items, use of electrical and
electronic equipment (EEE) has increased over the years. With rapid technological advancement and
increasing customer demand, the use of IT and other consumer electronic items has increased dramatically
and the products are becoming obsolete much faster than ever before. This phenomenon creates an
overwhelming problem from the large volume of electronic waste (e-waste) generation and increases its
transboundary movement.

All over the world, e-waste is one of the fastest-growing waste streams, and the growth rates of the
waste stream are 1%–5% annually on a weight basis. According to United Nations University (UNU) -
Solving the E-waste Problem, "E-Waste is a term used to cover items of all types of electrical and electronic
equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been discarded by the owner as waste without the intention of re-
use”. In the year 2016, according to “Global E-waste Monitor 2017” reported by the UNU, global e-waste
generation reached 44.7 million tonnes From the Asia, North America and Australasia regions, e-waste is
generated the most, and the growth of generation in Asia varied from 10% to 25% (Forti et al., 2018).
For environmental and economic reasons, this special waste stream presents a risk of environmental
pollution, but offers a potential and valuable resource recovery, substituting for primary material production.
Moreover, as this waste possesses a complex material structure and involves multi-actors in the reverse
supply chain, identification of the flow of materials (i.e. precious metals, ferrous metal, rare earth metals)
along with known and unknown flows in the entire waste-management scenario are essential tasks under the
holistic concept of a circular economy, closed-loop supply chain and sustainable development.

31
 Fig 7.1. Procedure for MFA

7.1. Material flow analysis (MFA) is an invaluable tool that is used by the developed countries to manage
the complex waste stream. In resource management, waste management and environmental management,
MFA is found to be an attractive decision support tool, which was postulated by Greek philosophers more
than 200 years ago. After that, around 40 years back, Abel Wolman introduced the term “metabolism of
cities” which coined the city as a living organism with inputs, stocks and outputs of material and energy.
According to Brunner and Rechberger, the leading authors in the MFA application field stated that “MFA is
a systematic assessment of the flows and stocks of materials within a system defined in space and time. It
connects the sources, the pathways, and the intermediate and final sinks of a material”. As the assessment
tool uses the law of the conservation of matter, the results of MFA can be controlled by a simple material
balance comparing all inputs, stocks and outputs of a process. Another definition by Streicher-Porte et al.
(2005) stated that “Materia flow analysis (MFA) is a term used in analysing the flow of matter (compounds,
chemical elements, materials or commodities) which is supported by material balancing that represents the
material conservation
law”. In developing countries e-waste is considered as a valuable commodity and customers get paid by the
collectors. On the other hand, developed countries implemented strict regulations by which the flow of e-
waste through illegal channels is banned and illegal dumping is banned. Identification of the flows of such a

32
waste stream in both visible and illicit media is an important area of investigation for all countries from the
point of view of resource conservation, transboundary movement, and human-health protection. A
significant number of papers have been published on this issue, however, there is a need for a
comprehensive understanding on where, why and how MFA is applied for e-waste management systems.

CONCLUSION:

E-waste is a growing environmental problem and requires much attention in managing it within society.
Both developed and developing countries are struggling to cope with the current level of generation. So,
with proper legislation the management of e waste and illegal import and export of e waste can be reduced.
With proper collection techniques like collection of waste using IoT and Deep Learning. By using
brominated flame retardents the effects of gases which will be produced by the combustion of plastics and
polymers in e-waste, can be reduced. By using the above techniques the segregation and treatment of metals/
fibres and polymers from automobiles can be done effectively. By proper material flow process the flow of
materials from e-waste can be managed effectively. Thus by following the above procedures and precautions
the effect of e-waste can be reduced to an higher extent.

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