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Abstract: Compressive strength is a critical indicator of concrete quality for ensuring the safety of existing concrete structures. As an alter-
native to existing nondestructive testing methods, image-based concrete compressive strength estimation models using three deep convolu-
tional neural networks (DCNNs), namely AlexNet, GoogLeNet, and ResNet, were developed for this study. Images of the surfaces of specially
produced specimens were obtained using a portable digital microscope, after which the samples were subjected to destructive tests to evaluate
their compressive strength. The results were used to create a dataset linking the experimentally determined compressive strength with the image
data recorded for each. The results of training, validation, and testing showed that DCNN models largely outperformed the recently proposed
image processing–based ANN model. Overall, the ResNet-based model exhibited greater compressive strength estimation accuracy than either
the AlexNet- or GoogLeNet-based models. These finding indicate that image data obtained using a portable digital microscope contain patterns
that can be correlated with the concrete’s compressive strength, enabling the proposed DCNN models to use these patterns to estimate com-
pressive strength. The results of this study demonstrate the applicability of DCNN models using microstructure images as an auxiliary method
for the nondestructive evaluation of concrete compressive strength. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000837. © 2019 American Society
of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Concrete; Compressive strength; Deep convolutional neural network; Estimation model; Digital microscope image.
Introduction the actual concrete structure being tested. The compressive strength
corresponds to the nominal stress at which that specimen or con-
Concrete is one of the world’s most widely used building materials. crete core fails under uniaxial loading. However, taking concrete
It is obtained by mixing aggregates, cement, water, and any addi- cores is costly and can lead to safety problems because it can
tives required to achieve the desired properties. Due to its easy easily damage the concrete structure being tested. Nondestructive
availability, low cost, convenient handling, and the option to shape test methods such as the rebound hammer (RH) test, ultrasonic
it into any desired form, concrete is ubiquitous in the construction pulse velocity (UPV) test, and SonReb seek to avoid these
industry, and most buildings today contain RC elements. One of the problems by estimating the compressive strength of the concrete
main indicators used for evaluating the condition of existing con- using empirical formulas. However, although these methods give
crete structures is the compressive strength of the concrete from approximate results for the compressive strength of the concrete
which they are constructed (Tiberti et al. 2015; Baygin et al. 2018). on site without damaging the actual concrete structure, they re-
The compressive strength is generally defined as the failure load of quire expensive equipment and careful instrument maintenance,
the concrete under specific loading conditions. Evaluating the com- as well as trained and certified personnel with a high degree of
pressive strength of concrete is vital for assessing the deterioration skill and integrity. Recently, a number of image processing–based
of concrete structures and ensuring their safety (Steenbergen and methods for the estimation of concrete compressive strength have
Vervuurt 2012). been proposed as alternative nondestructive test methods (Başyiğit
There are two main approaches to evaluating the compres- et al. 2012; Dogan et al. 2017). The use of images for estimating
sive strength of concrete: destructive and nondestructive testing. the compressive strength of concrete has a number of advantages
Destructive test methods measure the compressive strength in a lab- because it potentially reduces both the time and cost required
oratory environment using a concrete core sample obtained from to conduct the tests. Several studies have thus sought to estimate
concrete compressive strength using statistical analysis and artifi-
1
Postdoctoral Researcher, School of Architecture and Architectural cial neural networks (ANN) based on data obtained from image
Engineering, Hanyang Univ., 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangrok-gu, Ansan-si, processing and the results of experimental tests conducted using
Gyeonggi-do 15588, Republic of Korea. Email: uzjang@gmail.com traditional destructive testing methods (Başyiğit et al. 2012;
2
Associate Professor, School of Architecture and Architectural Engi- Dogan et al. 2017). Unfortunately, as yet these proposed image
neering, Hanyang Univ., 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangrok-gu, Ansan-si, processing–based studies suffer from limitations when applied in
Gyeonggi-do 15588, Republic of Korea. Email: yhahn@hanyang.ac.kr situ, and feature engineering is challenging for complex concrete
3
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Financial Engineering, Ajou Univ., 206 images.
Worldcupro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16499, Republic of
To address these issues, this study developed a new image-based
Korea. (corresponding author). Email: hayoungkim@ajou.ac.kr
Note. This manuscript was submitted on July 17, 2018; approved on model for estimating concrete compressive strength using deep
November 6, 2018; published online on February 28, 2019. Discussion convolutional neural networks (DCNNs) to analyze images
period open until July 28, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted collected with a portable digital microscope. DCNN is a deep learn-
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Computing ing technique that can be used to autonomously extract complex
in Civil Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0887-3801. discriminative features via a learning procedure, thus reducing
number of layers, units per layer, and size of the convolutional mask nonlinear) to estimate the compressive strength of concrete based
all affecting the results (Ferreira et al. 2018). We therefore used on image processing values obtained from the surface images of
modified versions of three representative DCNN models, namely the concrete specimens using a digital camera, whereas Dogan
AlexNet, GoogLeNet, and ResNet, to estimate concrete compres- et al. (2017) estimated concrete compressive strength using image
sive strength and then compared their performance. A perfor- processing and artificial neural networks. However, both these
mance comparison with the image processing–based ANN model studies captured concrete images in ideal laboratory environments
recently proposed by Dogan et al. (2017) was also conducted. The such as photo-shooting tents and cabins. Under a fixed light inten-
training, validation, and testing operations were accomplished us- sity, the digital camera was held above each sample and an image of
ing datasets created using concrete specimens prepared in the lab- the entire surface of the concrete specimen was captured from the
oratory. The estimation accuracy achieved by each DCNN model same height. These very restricted image capture methods clearly
was evaluated in terms of the value of its coefficient of determi- suffer from serious practical limitations when applied to actual
nation (R2 ), its mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), and its structures on site as an alternative to existing nondestructive test
root-mean-square error (RMSE). The results provide a useful methods. Moreover, both studies used the statistical properties
reference with which to assess the suitability of DCNN as a non- (arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and median values) extracted
destructive test method to estimate concrete compressive strength from a gray-level histogram diagram as inputs. Input features sig-
based on image data. nificantly influence subsequent estimates of the concrete’s com-
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. The next pressive strength and it is very possible that the manually defined
section reviews the literature on estimating concrete compressive features used in previous studies may lose much of the spatial struc-
strength and DCNN models. Then the research methodology is ture and component content. In an attempt to address these short-
described including the dataset creation process, performance comings, this study used DCNNs to avoid the need for manual
evaluation measures, and the experimental settings. Lastly, the ex- feature identification because they can be used to extract the fea-
perimental results and discussions are presented, and the paper con- tures from the images directly, thus facilitating concrete compres-
cludes with a summary of the findings and suggestions for further sive strength estimations.
study.
Deep Convolutional Neural Networks
A deep convolutional neural network is a deep learning algorithm
Literature Review that is designed to process data that comes in the form of multiple
arrays, making it feasible to extract relevant features even in the
Estimation of Concrete Compressive Strength presence of noise, shifting, rescaling, and other types of data dis-
tortions (LeCun et al. 1998). DCNNs consist of three types of layers,
With regard to the safety management of existing concrete struc-
namely convolution, pooling, and fully connected layers (Fig. 1).
tures, compressive strength is considered the most critical indicator
The general function of a DCNN includes feature extraction, clas-
of concrete quality (Ju et al. 2017). Due to the complex degradation
sification, and regression. For feature extraction, the convolution
mechanisms involved and the multiple factors governing each,
and pooling layers are stacked to transform the raw data into a rep-
evaluating and estimating the compressive strength of concrete re-
resentation at a higher level. Fully connected layers are then used to
mains a challenging issue. To determine the compressive strength
classify the transformed representation into a specific class. DCNNs
of concrete, destructive test methods are the most reliable, but it is
can learn features autonomously by updating the weights of recep-
not feasible to examine the in situ concrete properties without dam-
tive fields (Cha et al. 2017), contributing to major advances in object
aging the structure. As a result, nondestructive test methods offer an
detection and recognition in the computer-vision domain. Over the
attractive alternative, and researchers are constantly seeking to
past few years, several effective DCNN models have been proposed.
develop better nondestructive test methods for estimating the com- Among these, three different DCNN models, namely AlexNet,
pressive strength of concrete. GoogLeNet, and ResNet, all of which have won the ImageNet Large
Existing nondestructive test methods include the rebound ham- Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC), were selected for
mer test, ultrasonic pulse velocity test, pull-out test, penetration re- this study.
sistance test, magnetic test, and radioactive test. Among these, the
ultrasonic pulse velocity test, rebound hammer test, and a method AlexNet
that combines the RH test and the UPV test, known as SonReb, are AlexNet, developed by Krizhevsky et al. (2012), exhibited signifi-
the most widely accepted nondestructive test methods, largely due cantly better performance than the other non-deep learning meth-
to their simplicity and effectiveness. To improve their accuracy and ods at ILSVRC 2012. The main innovation of AlexNet lies in the
reliability, researchers have attempted to develop better estimation way it uses rectified linear units (ReLU) as the activation function,
methods for the RH, UPV, and SonReb tests using regression which is normally associated with the principle of incentive neuron
signaling. Compared with the nonlinear function sigmoid, this sim- ResNet
ple linear activation function achieves better and faster training The residual neural network (ResNet), developed by He et al.
under large data conditions. Dropout and data augmentation are (2016), which won ILSVRC 2015, is a 152-layer deep convolu-
used to prevent overfitting, thus reducing the complex interadapta- tional neural network. It was inspired by the idea that networks
tion relationship of neurons and enhancing the robustness of the should perform better as they grow in depth, as demonstrated by
model. AlexNet is composed of five convolutional layers (CONV) GoogLeNet. ResNet uses a residual network in order to deal with
and three fully connected layers (FC) (Fig. 2). The first convolu- the degradation problem and uses deeper networks to solve com-
tional layer, CONV 1, has 96 kernels of size 11 × 11 × 3; CONV 2 plicated problems. The residual network is composed of residual
has a size of 55 × 55 × 96, which represents the result of CONV 1, learning building blocks (Fig. 4); HðxÞ is the originally expected
and contains 356 kernels of size 5 × 5 × 96; CONV 3 is composed mapping output of a certain layer, and x is the input. The use of
of 38 kernels of size 3 × 3 × 256; and CONV 4 and CONV 5 have shortcut connections means that a self-mapping operation in the
384 and 256 kernels, respectively, of size 3 × 3 × 384. The results network is equivalent to opening a channel from the input side,
from each convolution layer are expressed in ReLU, and CONV 1, so that the input can go straight to the output. The optimization
CONV 2 and CONV 5 have a max 3 × 3 pooling size. CONV 1 and target then changes from HðxÞ to HðxÞ − x, and for an opti-
CONV 2 also apply local response normalization (LRN) to the mized mapping its residuals can also be easily optimized to 0. This
result of the max pooling. The FC 6, FC 7, and FC 8 stages follow- means that a residual network solves the degradation problem and
ing the convolution layers have 4,096, 4,096, and 1,000 neurons, reduces the difficulty of optimizing the parameters of a deep net-
respectively. work. Shortcut connections can improve the recognition accuracy,
and the resulting reduction in network complexity is a major
GoogLeNet advantage of using a residual network.
GoogLeNet, which won ILSVRC 2014, was developed by Szegedy
et al. (2015) and is a 22-layer deep convolutional neural network
architecture based on nine Inception modules (Fig. 3). The salient
feature of GoogLeNet is that it not only increases the depth of the
network, but also broadens the network width without increasing
the amount of computation required. GoogLeNet can extract fea-
tures from different scales at the same time to enhance its learning
ability. The inclusion of the Inception module means that although
GoogLeNet has 12 times fewer parameters than AlexNet, its accu-
racy is higher. The Inception module consists of parallel 1 × 1,
3 × 3, and 5 × 5 convolution layers and a max pooling layer to ex-
tract a variety of features in parallel; 1 × 1 convolution layers are
then added to reduce the parameter quantity and accelerate the cal-
culation. Finally, a filter concatenation layer links the outputs of all
Fig. 3. Inception module of GoogLeNet.
these parallel layers.
Fig. 6. Examples of data augmentation: (a) random cropping; and (b) horizontal flipping.
point from the fitted line measured along a vertical line. RMSE rep-
resents the absolute value difference between the experimental com-
pressive strength and the estimated compressive strength (i.e., the Experimental Results
amount of error). The mean absolute percentage error is a statistical DCNN algorithms autonomously learn features through data-
measure of estimation accuracy and expresses the error between the intensive analysis, whereas traditional machine learning algorithms
experimental compressive strength and the estimated compressive such as ANN rely on hand-engineered features based on domain
strength as a percentage. MAPE is commonly used in quantitative knowledge. Because it is important to construct an appropriate
forecasting methods because it indicates the relative overall fit. The model architecture that will enable the model itself to learn the fea-
three measures are given by the following equations: tures well, this study applied AlextNet-, GoogLeNet-, and ResNet-
P P P based models to estimate the compressive strength of the concrete
2 ðn i yi yi0 − i yi0 i yi Þ2
R ¼ P 02 P P P ð1Þ samples. The resulting dataset was then used to compare the results
ðn i yi − ð i yi0 Þ2 Þðn i y2i − ð i yi Þ2 Þ
of these DCNN models with the results of the image processing–
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi based ANN model recently proposed by Dogan et al. (2017).
1X Following Dogan et al. (2017), we extracted the features from the
RMSE ¼ ðy − yi0 Þ2 ð2Þ
n i i image by applying appropriate statistical properties (arithmetic
mean, standard deviation, and median) to develop an ANN model
1 X yi − yi0 that estimates concrete compressive strength using the extracted
MAPE ¼ × 100 ð3Þ statistical properties as inputs. Table 3 summarizes the R2 , RMSE,
n i yi
and MAPE results for the three different DCNN models and the
where yi and yi0 = experimental compressive strength and estimated image processing–based ANN model. As noted previously, R2 is a
compressive strength, respectively; and n = number of data samples. measure of how well the independent variables approximate the
estimated dependent variable, whereas RMSE and MAPE are used
as a measure of the differences between the values estimated by the
Experimental Settings models. High R2 values and low values of RMSE and MAPE are
When recording the video of the concrete images with a portable generally indicative of good performance. The results showed that
digital microscope, lens shake tends to produce out-of-focus im- three DCNN models largely outperformed the image processing–
ages. This was also the case here, with blurred concrete images based ANN model on all three indicators.
being acquired from individual frames of the video recording. If The best model for determining R2 among the DCNN models
blurred concrete images are used in training, it may be difficult was found to be the ResNet-based model (R2 ¼ 0.764), whereas
to get good accuracy. We therefore used blurred concrete images the AlexNet-based model exhibited the worst estimation capabil-
for pretraining before conducting the training, validation, and test- ities (R2 ¼ 0.745). This is shown in the plots of the relationships
ing. In pretraining, the amount of computation required for learning between the experimental and estimated compressive strength ob-
may increase, and a degree of overfitting may be generated because tained by the three DCNN models (Fig. 7). Table 3 also gives a
the number of training data images is less than the number of direct relationship between R2 and RMSE; the best model for min-
parameters to be learned. To prevent overfitting, data augmentation imizing RMSE was again the ResNet-based model (4.46 MPa),
is required in such cases, and here it was conducted via minibatch and the worst was the AlexNet-based model (4.64 MPa). However,
learning using a set of 52 images, consisting of a combination of 48 the ranking of the three models was not the same for MAPE. Here,
photographic images and 4 images from the video recording, even the best result was obtained for the AlexNet-based model (17.67%),
where the learning process used photographic images only. In other and the worst was the GoogLeNet-based model (18.40%). Figs. 8(a
words, images from the video recording were added to the photo- and b) show the RMSE and MAPE values, respectively, for the
graphic images for the minibatch learning every time to augment
the data.
A total of 5,145 datasets were used for training, validation, and Table 3. Performance comparison of DCNN models and image
testing. To present the generalized performance fairly, the DCNN processing–based ANN model
models were learned as the training dataset and selected as the val-
DCNN models Image
idation dataset, and the estimation error was measured by the test
processing–based
dataset. The training, validation, and testing datasets were classified Performance AlexNet GoogLeNet ResNet ANN model
into 3,601 (70%), 515 (10%), and 1,029 (20%) images, respec-
tively. The initial learning rate, weight decay, parameters of mo- R2 0.745 0.748 0.764 0.200
mentum, and dropout rate were set to 0.01, 0.0005, 0.9, and 0.5, RMSE (MPa) 4.641 4.612 4.463 8.223
MAPE (%) 17.675 18.403 17.765 38.039
respectively. The deep learning framework CAFFE version 1.0
Fig. 7. Experimental versus estimated compressive strength: (a) AlexNet-based model; (b) GoogLeNet-based model; and (c) ResNet-based model.
three DCNN models in terms of the actual experimental compres- whereas the worst performing model was the GoogLeNet-based
sive strength. In the case of RMSE, the maximum values esti- model. The AlexNet-based model estimated 83.7% of the total data
mated by the AlexNet-based model, GoogLeNet-based model, and with an error rate of less than 30%, and only 3.98% of the total data
ResNet-based model were 7,82, 7.03, and 7.75 MPa, respectively, had an error rate of over 50%. Even the worst performing model
and the minimum values were 1.70, 2.54, and 1.60 MPa, respec- turned in a reasonable performance: the GoogLeNet-based model
tively. For MAPE, the AlexNet-, GoogLeNet-, and ResNet-based estimated 81.3% of the total data with an error rate of less than
models achieved maximum values of 51.62%, 46.90%, and 45.57%, 30%, and 6.6% with an error rate of over 50%. The analysis of the
respectively, for an experimental compressive strength value of compressive strength estimation accuracy revealed that the estima-
10.84 MPa. The minimum values estimated were 6.30%, 6.97%, tion accuracy of each of the DCNN models was slightly different
and 6.67%, respectively. depending on the evaluation criteria applied, although overall the
We also examined the estimation errors, namely the value dif- ResNet-based model had excellent compressive strength estimation
ference between the experimental compressive strength and the accuracy. Fig. 11 shows examples of good and bad results for the
estimated strength value. The lowest experimental compressive ResNet-based model.
strength was estimated to be lower than the value actually measured,
and the highest compressive strength was estimated to be higher
than the observed experimental compressive strength (Fig. 9). Discussion
The AlexNet-, GoogLeNet-, and ResNet-based models had maxi- This study investigated the applicability of estimating concrete
mum error values of 23.68, 22.48, and 18.4 MPa, respectively, compressive strength using microstructure images analyzed with
and minimum error values of −24.59, −21.13, and −17.58 MPa, DCNN. The thickness of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ), and
respectively. The ResNet model (35.98 MPa) had the smallest differ- the existence of microcracks and pores largely determine the com-
ence between the maximum and minimum errors, and the AlexNet pressive strength of concrete structures. This means that there is
based model (48.27 MPa) had the largest difference. We also ex- a relationship between the concrete microstructure images and
plored the frequency distribution of the estimation error rate for compressive strength. Therefore, this study attempted to estimate
the compressive strength (Fig. 10). Here, the error rate was divided compressive strength by examining images of the concrete micro-
into 5% intervals and the frequency and ratio of the error rate was structure. To obtain these images of the concrete surface, we used a
analyzed for each of the DCNN models. Overall, an average of 83% portable digital microscope capable of recording images com-
of the total data was estimated to have an error rate of less than 30%. posed of approximately 2 million pixels (1,920 × 1,080) with a res-
The model with the lowest error rate was the AlexNet-based model, olution of approximately 5,400 dpi. Because each image captured a
Fig. 8. RMSE and MAPE for each experimental compressive strength: (a) RMSE; and (b) MAPE.
Fig. 10. Frequency distribution of error rate: (a) AlexNet-based model; (b) GoogLeNet-based model; and (c) ResNet-based model.
Fig. 11. Examples of good and bad results for ResNet-based model: (a) good results; and (b) bad results.
microscope is easy to use in the field because the microscope cam- the opportunity to learn various types of images is therefore very
era attaches directly to the USB port of a computer. Eyepieces are limited. If a new image with a compressive strength that is outside
not required and the images are shown directly on the monitor. the range of the dataset created for this study is tested, the results
We acquired multiple microstructure images for the same con- obtained will not be an accurate estimate of the material’s compres-
crete specimen with the same compressive strength because a port- sive strength. In future studies, datasets that include concrete spec-
able digital microscope can only capture a relatively small part of a imens with a greater range of compressive strength should be
large concrete specimen surface in each image. This actually im- created. Nevertheless, the results of this preliminary study are sig-
proves the estimation accuracy because DCNN models can be ef- nificant in that our findings demonstrate the potential utility of our
fectively trained by large datasets (Halevy et al. 2009). However, proposed method and confirm the applicability of the proposed
the range of the dataset created for this study is relatively small and model as an auxiliary to existing nondestructive methods.
firm that the concrete images obtained using a portable digital mi- practical problems.” Expert Syst. Appl. 94: 205–217. https://doi.org/10
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