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Determination of Concrete Properties Usi
Determination of Concrete Properties Usi
Alaa Shaban
PhD Candidate in Civil Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA
When electromagnetic radiation hits an object, the for that material (Vagni, 2007). The spectral signature is a
wavelengths may be reflected, absorbed or transmitted unique spectral reflectance of an object that can be used
through the object. The following schematic, Figure (2), to identify and discriminate different types of materials.
depicts these three processes. In fact, reflection, As an example, Figure (3) shows the reflectance spectra
absorption and transmission electromagnetic radiations (i.e. the percentage of reflected electromagnetic radiation)
through objects depend mainly on physical properties and measured by laboratory spectrometer for four materials:
chemical composition of the objects and wavelengths of granite, concrete, asphalt and basalt. Each object’s
the radiations. So, for any given material, the amount of reflectance is plotted on the chart as a function of
electromagnetic radiation that is reflected, emitted, wavelength; such a chart is known as a spectral signature.
transmitted or absorbed varies with the wavelength of the Field and laboratory spectrometers usually measure
radiation. If the percentage of reflection or emissivity for a reflectance at many narrow, closely spaced wavelength
given material is plotted across a range of wavelengths, bands, so that the resulting spectra appear to be
the resulting curve is referred to as a spectral signature continuous curves.
a b c
Reflectance (%)
Wavelength (micrometer)
Fig. (3): Reflectance spectra measured by laboratory spectrometers for four materials:
granite, concrete, asphalt & basalt
Most conventional multispectral imagers measure reflected surface than is available in traditional multispectral pixel
energy from a surface at a few wide wavelength bands spectrum (Shippert, 2004). Also, hyperspectral data sets allow
separated by segments where no measurements are taken. an almost complete reconstruction of the spectral
Typically, multispectral imagers yield between 3 and 10 signature: the retrieved spectrum for each pixel appears
different band measurements in each pixel of their images.
very much like the spectrum that would be measured in a
On the other hand, hyperspectral imagers measure reflected
radiation at a series of narrow and contiguous wavelength spectroscopy laboratory. This concept is illustrated in the
bands. Hyperspectral images can include more than 200 of Figure (4), which typifies the reflectance spectra of five
narrow contiguous spectrum bands. Therefore, this type of materials as they would appear to a multispectral sensor
detailed pixel spectrum can provide more information about and to hyperspectral sensor.
Fig. (4): Reflectance spectra of the four materials; on the left: as they would appear to the
multispectral sensor; on the right as they would appear to the hyperspectral sensor
(Adapted: Shippert, 2004)
Science Journal of Civil Engineering & Architecture (ISSN: 2276-6332) Page 4
It is important to underline that, although most ● USGS Spectral Library : This library has been developed
hyperspectral sensors measure hundreds of wavelength by United States Geological Survey. This digital spectral
bands, it is not the number of measured wavelengths that library which covers the wavelength range from ultraviolet
defines a sensor as hyperspectral. Rather it is the to far infrared parts of electromagnetic spectrum provides a
narrowness and contiguous nature of the measurements. source of reference spectra that can be used to support
imaging spectroscopy studies of the Earth and planets
Hyperspectral imagery provides an opportunity for more
(Ranadall, 2012).
detailed image analysis. Using hyperspectral data, spectrally
similar (but unique) materials can be identified and 3.0 Hyperspectral Sensor
distinguished and sub-pixel scale information can be
extracted (Andreoli et al, 2007). 3.1 Imaging Spectroscopy
An imaging spectrometer, spectroradiometer, is an source, and an integrating sphere to take reflected radiation
instrument used in the field of imaging spectroscopy to at all possible view geometries. Contrary, Bidirectional
acquire spectral measurements of a light reflected from an reflectance is usually determined in the field by most
object. An optical dispersing element such as refracting imaging spectrometers. In this case, reflected energy is
prism in the spectrometer splits this light into many narrow, measured from specific points of incidence (Dar & Martin,
adjacent wavelength bands and the energy in each band is 2004). As stated previously, laboratory-based instruments
measured by a separate detectors. By using detection typically measure directional-hemispherical reflectance to
system, spectrometers can make spectral measurements of investigate material properties based on the interaction of
bands as narrow as 0.01 micrometers over a wide electromagnetic radiation with matter. These instruments
wavelength range, typically at least 350 to 2400 nm (visible have the advantage of providing controlled conditions and
through middle infrared wavelength ranges) (Randall, the highest quality reflectance. While, field instruments are
2012). used to capture the real-world effects of surface particles.
The performance of these instruments depends on many
Data from imaging spectrometers are usually reported in factors such the weight of the instrument, its durability, scan
units of reflectance. As stated previously, reflectance is a time, software and environmental circumstance (John et al,
physical property of an object's surface. It is defined as the 2008).
percentage of total amount of radiation reflected by a
surface to the total amount of electromagnetic radiation According to the development in hyperspectral imaging
incident on the surface. Reflectance can be presented in technology, many different types of hyperspectral sensors
a variety of ways depending upon the direction of incident have been developed recently. There are two main types of
radiation and it characteristics and the type of systems that take images: airborne/spaceborne system
spectrometer. The two most common types of reflectance and ground system. In this investigation, we are more
used in remote sensing include directional-hemispherical interested in ground systems. Table (1) lists the current
reflectance and bi-directional reflectance. Directional- ground based hyperspectral sensors and their principle
hemispherical reflectance is typically determined in the characteristics.
laboratory by utilizing a collimated beam as the directional
Table 1: Ground Based / Hand Held Systems (Adapted from: Vagni, 2007)
SSC
CTHIS LWIR 40 6.5 – 11.0 Rotating prism
(USA)
Orion IR Imager
CEDIP 4 or 6 SWIR, MWIR
(SWIR, MWIR, Filter wheel
(France) per model LWIR
LWIR models)
Pacific Advanced Spectral resol.
Image Multi-
Sherlock LWIR Technology 3 nm at 8.0 – 10.5
Spectral Sensing
(USA) = 3.0 m
Pacific Advanced Spectral resol.
Image Multi-
Sherlock MWIR Technology 33 nm at 3.0 – 5.0
Spectral Sensing
(USA) = 3.0 m
Science Journal of Civil Engineering & Architecture (ISSN: 2276-6332) Page 6
1) Absorption by well-mixed gases such as (oxygen-O, The amount of electromagnetic radiations reflected or
methane-CH, and carbon dioxide-CO) emitted form a surface depends on the amount of light
2) Absorption by water vapor energy illuminating the surface, which in turn depends
3) Scattering gas by molecules and particulates upon the angle of incidence. This angle can be defined as
4 ) Scattering and absorption by aerosols and the angle between a light ray and a line perpendicular to
hydrometeors the reflecting surface at the point of incidence, as shown
Figure (6), illumination difference can arise from altering
Therefore, a series of atmospheric correction algorithms incidence angles. Specifically, the energy received at each
have been developed to retrieve accurate surface wavelength (Eg) varies as the cosine of the angle of
reflectance and to minimize the atmospheric effects (Griffin incidence (θ): Eg = Eo x cos θ, where Eo is the amount of
& Burke, 2003). incoming energy. In addition, if the object’s surface is not
flat, the energy received also varies instantaneously across
● Illumination source a scene because of differences in slope angle and direction
(Randall, 2012).
Illumination source that use in hyperspectral measurements
can be classified into two main categories: natural
illumination & artificial illumination. In-situ, field spectral
4.0 Hyperspectral Applications for Detecting Concrete It was concluded that the spectral reflectance is closely
Properties related to the hardness of concrete surface. In another
study, (Nurul & Helmi, 2011) found that the spectral signatures
Modern architecture and construction nearly always include of older concrete samples comparatively different from
concrete in some form and to some extent. Concrete is used the new samples. The results reveal that the reflectance of
in buildings, foundation, bridges, retaining walls, roads and old type of concrete samples is high with the increasing
in many other applications. Concrete structures must be reflectance toward longer wavelength. While, spectral
strong enough to withstand the structural and service loads reflectance of new samples is slightly low.
which will be applied to them, as well as must be durable to
resist severe environmental conditions to which they are 4.2 Concrete Spectroscopy
intended.
Recently, several studies have explored new spectral
The compressive strength of concrete is the most common techniques which have utilized the reflected radiation of
performance measure used by engineers as a basis for concrete (Sridhar et al, 2008; Anna & Eyal, 2011; Cavalli et al, 2011;
quality control to assure that structural requirements are Lee et al, 2012; Anna & Eyal, 2012). As a result of these
met. This parameter is widely determined by compression investigations, the reflectance radiations across the VIS-
test of the standard specimens (cube or cylinder). The test NIR and SWIR in the region between (350-2500) nm are
procedure is relatively easy to perform in terms of sampling, often considered a useful region with which to predict
preparation of specimens and the determination of strength; unknown concrete properties. Such techniques are
however it is not intended for determining the in-situ becoming more significant for the cost effective coverage of
strength of the concrete since it makes no allowance for the large concrete areas and can provide accurate predictions
effects of placing, compaction, or curing. Therefore, several of concrete properties relatively quickly compared to
non-destructive tests including ultrasonic testing, traditional field sampling and subsequent experimental tests
radiographic testing and rebound hammer testing have been under laboratory conditions.
developed to assess and evaluate concrete properties in-situ.
Ideally, these methods don't impair the function of the Generally, there are many types of imaging spectrometers,
structure and permit re-testing at the same locations to with many possible variations and modifications that can
evaluate changes in properties with time. improve the quality of retrieved surface reflectance and
identifying chemical and physical properties of concrete.
Recently, several researchers indicate that the concept of These types include (GER-2600, GER-3700, FieldSpec³Pro-
hyperspectral technology also might be utilized as a non FRQ, FieldSpec Pro-FR…etc); however the (FieldSpec Pro-
destructive test for monitoring concrete structures. If FRQ) is the most widely used among many researchers in
spectral characteristics according to concrete conditions can this field.
be understood, hyperspectral imagery may be applied as a
useful instrument for surveying the current state for a FieldSpec Pro-FRQ instrument characteristics are
number of concrete structures. demonstrated in Table (2). The instrument uses three
integrated detectors. In the VNIR (350-1050 nm), the
4.1 Spectral Reflectance of Concrete spectral sampling interval of each channel is 1.4 nm,
however the spectral resolution (FWHM) is approximately
Spectral reflectance measurements provide valuable 3 nm at around 700. The sampling interval for the SWIR
information on the characteristics of many objects. In fact, regions (900–1850 and 1700–2500) is 2 nm, with spectral
each kind of object has its own specific reflectability: type of resolution varying between 10 - 12 nm. The spectral
the spectral curves and different values of spectral information from the three detectors is subsequently
reflectance coefficients in the different bands. These corrected within software for baseline electrical signal
characteristics are determined by the physical and chemical (dark current), and then interpolated to a (1 nm)
properties of the objects (Karavanova, 2001). For concrete sampling interval over the wavelength range. The
the most important properties that influence the level of FieldSpec Pro-FRQ, as illustrated in Figure (7), collects
reflectance are: components of concrete mixture, hardness light passively by means of a fiber optic cable. Longer cable
of concrete surface, maturity or (aging) of concrete and results in a loss of signal strength, especially beyond 2000
hydration process in concrete matrix. For instance, a nm. Thus, the standard fiber optic cable length of the
laboratory investigation which was carried out by (Marceau FieldSpec Pro- FRQ is typically 1 m (ASDinc , 2013).
& Vangeem, 2008), showed that the solar reflectance of the
cementitious materials has more effect on the solar 4.3 Identification of Concrete Properties from Spectral
reflectance of concrete than the other constituents. The solar Data
reflectance of the fine aggregate has a small effect on the
solar reflectance of the concrete, but the solar reflectance of Using reflectance spectroscopic methods, several direct
the coarse aggregate does not have a significant effect. and indirect concrete properties, can be extracted simply
Moreover, the investigators reported that concrete via spectra data analysis. Despite the importance of this
reflectance increased with progress of hydration process technology, knowledge concerning the spectral
and stabilized at 6 weeks of age, with an average increase of characteristics of man-made surface such as concrete is
about 8%. (Anna & Eyal, 2011) have utilized reflectance scarce, and little research has focused on this field. The
spectroscopy as a tool to assess the quality of concrete in- literature about these applications would be presented in
situ. In this work, more than 3000 concrete samples were the following:
spectrally measured after applying several treatments.
(Ju
D
Science Journal of Civil Engineering & Architecture (ISSN: 2276-6332) Page 8
3 nm @ 700 nm
Spectral Resolution
10 nm @ 1400/2100 nm
1.4 nm @ 350–1050 nm
Sampling interval
2 nm @ 1000–2500 nm
Weight
5.44 kg (12 Ibs)
Fiber-optic cable Standard ASD fiber optic cable is 1 m in length. SSD’s ASD has
a 5 m fiber optic cable.
(Jun et al, 2001) have utilized hyperspectral imagery to (Anna & Eyal, 2012)presented a study to assess the in-situ
identify degradation of concrete structures due to strength of high performance concrete using diffuse
exposure to various aggressive environments, including reflectance spectroscopy. In this study, 77 high
carbon dioxide, sodium chloride and sulfuric acid. The performance concrete samples were spectrally measured,
results of this study indicate that the spectrum analyzed and simultaneously tested for compressive
characteristics of degraded concrete are strongly strength. The results of this work demonstrated that the
influenced by spectrum chemical materials that are spectral measurement in the VNIR-SWIR (visible near
generated during degradation process. Figures (8) & (9) infrared & short wave infrared) spectral region (400-
exhibit a significant difference in spectrum between intact 2500) nm provides significant and accurate information
concrete and degraded concrete by carbon dioxide. on concrete’s status and physical strength. Further, in-situ
Moreover, the investigators have developed a formula, validation was performed in this investigation which
equation No.1, to estimate degradation depth caused by exhibited that the spectral imagery acquired by spectral
carbon dioxide from spectral reflectance of concrete camera in the field can be used as a useful tool for real-
surface. time strength assessment of concrete structures.
Fig. (8): Spectrum of Normal Concrete Fig. (9): Spectrum of Degraded Concrete
–
Science Journal of Civil Engineering & Architecture (ISSN: 2276-6332) Page 10
different treatments were TC (control), TNC (no cure), TCL 1. Hyperspectral imaging technology has the ability to
(cool cure), TH (heat cure), THW (high water content), THC measure an intrinsic property of material; its spectral
(half cement), TG (gravel used as coarse aggregate) and signature. As a consequence, hyperspectral technology
TL (limestone used as fine aggregate). The results of this can be used to identify and discriminate different
investigation clearly demonstrate that the spectral types of materials.
absorption features around 450, 1380 and 1850 nm alter
accordingly with alteration in the characteristics of 2. The amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected or
concrete. Also, the TNC and TCL treated concrete blocks can emitted from a surface is affected by several factors
be differentiated from other concrete blocks based on the including; source of illumination, atmospheric
following spectral ratio indices, R600/R450, R1380/R1440, transmission, sampling strategy, timing of data
R1850/R1950 and R2150/R880. However, the spectral ratio acquisition and viewing geometry.
R600/R450 can differentiate the TC, TG and TL treated
concrete blocks, which were considered to have better 3. Hyperspectral imagery provides opportunities to
concrete quality from the rest of the concrete treatments. extract more detailed information than is possible
using traditional multispectral imagery.
Spectral reflectance of concrete surfaces has been studied
previously to monitor aging of concrete sidewalks by 4. Spectral libraries are a collection of the spectral
(Herold et al, 2004). Spectral data analyses indicate that the signatures of the target materials. They require the in-
new concrete sidewalks exhibit higher spectral reflectance situ collection and laboratory spectroscopic analysis of
than older sidewalks. The investigators attributed this the investigated samples.
behavior to the continued oxidation of concrete surfaces,
as well as accumulation of dust and dirt that decreases the 5. The impact of deterioration factors on concrete
brightness of concrete surfaces. On the other hand, the surfaces can be diagnosed and measured by means of
results of this study demonstrate that concrete sidewalks hyperspectral imaging.
have stronger SWIR absorption features. This observation
can be ascribed that calcium carbonate in concrete matrix 6. Reflectance spectroscopy can be used as a non
have a significant absorption feature at 2300 nm for calcite destructive cost-effective approach to determine
and at 2370 nm from dolomite. concrete strength in-situ.
5.0 Summary & Conclusions 7. Reflectance radiations across the VIS-NIR and SWIR in
the region between (350-2500) nm are often
This paper has provided a brief overview of some considered a useful region with which to predict
important aspects of hyperspectral imaging technology. unknown concrete properties.
Then, it has discussed the important radiometric and
spectral concepts, with a focus on how they apply to 8. Field portable spectrometer can be utilized as in-situ
concrete structures. The fundamental findings of this tool for engineers to monitor and evaluate status of
paper are summarized as following: different concrete structures.
D
(Jun et al, 2001) have utilized hyperspectral a
imagery method t
Page 11 Science Journal of Civil Engineering & Architecture (ISSN: 2276-6332)
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