MECH 466 Microelectromechanical Systems

University of Victoria Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Lecture 5: Mechanics of Beams The Stiction Effect

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Overview
Bending of Beams Stress within Beams Moment of Inertia Introduction to the Stiction Effect

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Beam Bending
For MEMS applications, we analyze beams for a number of reasons including: (a) Internal stress at any point (b) Maximum stress and its location (c) Beam Stiffness (d) Beam Deflection For a majority of MEMS applications, there are essentially three general cases for beam bending. Note that for macro-scale beam bending, there may be dozens of general cases.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Beam Bending
We will consider only in-plane beam bending (bending about axis that is normal to the page) for simplicity. Case A: Cantilever Beams
y x Fixed End
Free End

(i.e. diving board configuration)

Case B: Bridge Beam

y x Fixed End
N. Dechev, University of Victoria Fixed End

Beam Bending

Case C: Guided End Beams

y x
Fixed End Guided End dy

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Analysis of Beams:
(1) Determine all forces and moments using static equilibrium conditions (2) Create diagrams for: -Axial Force -Shear Force -Bending Moment (3) Develop equation for stress at any point in the beam (4) Develop equations for K (stiffness) and d (deflection) for the beam.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Example of Beam Axial, Shear and Moment Diagrams:

See Class Notes

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Denition of Beam Parameters

We will consider simple beams that have: - A straight shape - A vertical axis of symmetry
y
t

Neutral Axis

x z
w l

Examples of vertical symmetry include:

Cross-Sections of Various Beams [image from Mechanics of Materials, E. P. Popov] N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Pure Bending of Beams

These are cases where a beam is subjected to a bending moment where we assume: - Deflection as a result of bending is less than 5% of beam length - All plane cross-sections of the beam before bending remain as straight planes after bending
Compression Neutral Axis y x +M +M

Plane Cross-Sections

Tension

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

Pure Bending of Beams

Consider some infinitesimal cubes of material in the beam:

y x define c

Maximum Compression Zero Stress

Point of Interest Maximum Tension

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

10

Denition of Beam Bending Stress

The beam stress formula is given by:

- where:

Applies to all beams in a state of pure bending. Derivation is available in textbooks on solid mechanics.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

11

Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia, I, of a beam depends on the geometrical properties of the cross-section area A of a beam. I is defined as: - where: I is relative to the centroid of the cross-section area More generally moment of inertia is defined as Izz:

This is known as the parallel axis theorem

N. Dechev, University of Victoria
12

Examples of Moment of Inertia

See Class Notes

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

13

Beam Deection
A unique analytical solution exists for beam deflection, given by: (a) beam geometry (b) loading conditions (c) boundary conditions Generally, beam curvature ! (rho), can be defined as:

Additionally, we can also define ! as:

where v is the beam deflection from the initial position. This approximation is valid when v < 5% of beam length.
N. Dechev, University of Victoria
14

Beam Deection
Therefore, we can develop the following differential equation, which can be solved for any beam, given the specific beam (a) geometry, (b) loading condition and (c) boundary condition:

It is beyond the scope of this course to solve these equations. For this course, we can use Appendix B in the textbook, which provides the deflections associated with this equation, for common general cases found with MEMS beams. Example of beam deflection for cantilever beam:
d q
N. Dechev, University of Victoria

F
15

Beam Stiffness
A useful concept in predicting the forces and deflections within MEMS beams is the concept of stiffness. The stiffness model normally associated with springs can be expressed as:

Where K is a constant of proportionality that defines the relation between applied force, F, and the resulting spring deflection, x.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

16

Beam Stiffness
Given the equation for the tip deflection of a beam, we can define that beams stiffness as:

Example of beam stiffness: Consider the cantilever beam in the previous example:
d q F

Since: Therefore:
N. Dechev, University of Victoria
17

Calculation of Combined Mechanical Stiffnesses

Computation of Stiffness for Springs in Series. Computation of Stiffness for Springs in Parallel

See Class Notes

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

18

Beam Torsion
For some MEMS applications, the beams that allow the sensor or actuator to move undergo a twisting/torsional action. In these cases, it is useful to review the basic formulas governing the torsion of beams, to determine: (a) Maximum stress and its location (b) Beam Stiffness (c) Beam Deflection

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

19

Beam Torsion For Circular Beams

The basic assumptions for the torsion of circular beams (a) All sections initially plane and perpendicular to the lengthwise axis, remain plane after torsion. (b) Following twisting, all cross-sections remain undistorted and have a linear variation of stress from the center of twist (where !xy=0) to the outer surface (where !xy= !max). (c) Material is homogeneous and obeys Hookes law.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

20

Beam Torsion For Circular Beams

The governing equations for circular beam torsion are presented below, without derivation: where: " - shear stress T - applied torque r - radius from center to point of interest J - polar moment of inertia For circular x-section For deformation, we have: where: and since where: - angle of twist
21

- angle of twist per unit length G - Modulus of shear

Beam Torsion For Non-Circular Beams

The governing equations for non-circular beam torsion depend on the cross-sectional geometry. Derivation of these equations requires advanced knowledge of mechanics, and is beyond the scope of this course. Table 6.2 on the left provides equations for the maximum stress, its location, and the Angle of twist per unit length for various crosssections.
N. Dechev, University of Victoria
22

Beam Torsion
Some FEM (finite element analysis) simulations of the distribution of shear stress due to torsion, for beam cross-sections are shown below:

Some FEM simulations of the deformation due to torsion, for beam cross-sections are shown below:

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

23

What is Stiction?
Stiction is a combination of one or more adhesion forces or adhesion phenomena between objects in direct contact. Stiction occurs at all scales, and has a finite effect, based on the effective contact area (true points of contact between two rough surfaces), and other parameters.
A physical model to predict stiction in MEMS A physical model to predict stiction in MEMS A physical model to predict stiction in MEMS A physical model to predict stiction in MEMS

Consider the example below of two typical surfaces in contact, each with some amount of surface roughness:
za
Surface a

surfaces, we are interested in the distance probability density in the distance probability density in the distance probability density in the distance probability density surfaces, we are interested surfaces, we are interested surfaces, we are interested function of the surfaces, because this function is going to give because this function is going to give because this function is going to give because this function is going to give function of the surfaces, function of the surfaces, function of the surfaces, us the amount of surface at a specic the amount ofhence at a specic the amount ofhence at a specic the amount ofhence at a specic distance, and hence us distance, and surface us distance, and surface us distance, and surface its inuence on the total energy. With inuence on the total energy. With inuence on the total energy. With inuence on the total energy. With the conguration of its the conguration of its the conguration of its the conguration of gure 9, we obtain, from the heightgure 9, we obtain, from the heightgure 9, we obtain, from the heightgure 9, we obtain, from the height distribution functions, distribution functions, distribution functions, distribution functions, za za this distance probability function, hab (z).distance probability function, hab (z).distance probability function, hab (z).distance probability function, hab (z). For the Gaussian this For the za Gaussian this For the Gaussian this For the Gaussian is as a distribution, the calculation Surfacefollows. Having surfaces is as a distribution, the calculation is as follows. Having surfaces Surface a distribution, the calculation Surfacefollows. Having surfaces distribution, the calculation is as follows. Having surfaces with distributions ha (z) and hb (z) given bydistributions ha (z) and hb (z) given bydistributions ha (z) and hb (z) given bydistributions ha (z) and hb (z) given by with with with (z za )2 1 1 (z za )2 (z za )2 ha (z, za ) = exp and and 2a2 2a2 a 2 a (7) (7) (7) 2 2 1 1 (z zb ) (z zb ) 1 1 (z zb ) (z zb )2 , , hb (z, zb ) = exp hb (z, zb ) = exp , , hb (z, zb ) = exp hb (z, zb ) = exp 2 2 2 2 2b 2b b 2 b 2 2b 2b b 2 b 2 1 1
2

Roughness of Surface B

ha (z, z ) = exp ha (z, z ) = exp and and Figure 8. Gaussian distribution of surfaceFigure 8. Gaussian distribution ofasurfaceFigure 8. Gaussian distribution ofasurfaceFigure 8. Gaussian distribution ofasurface heights. heights. 2a2 2a2 ha (z, z ) = 2 exp a heights. 2 a heights. 2

(z za )2

(7)

Surface b

Surface b

Surface b the distribution ab the distance between the surfaces ab the distance between the surfaces hof(z) is the distribution of the distance between the surfaces hof(z) is Surface b the distributionhof(z) is the distribution ab the distance between the surfaces hab (z) is

Object B

zb
0

za

hab (z, za + zb ) =
Surface a

zb 1
za
2 2 a2 + b

Roughness of Surface A

Surface a

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

For the special case in which za + zbFor the the equilibrium which za + zbFor the the equilibrium which za + zbFor the the equilibrium which za + zb = d0 , the equilibrium = d0 , special case in = d0 , special case in = d0 , special case in distance, we will call the distance distribution function hd0 (z). distance distribution function hd0 (z). distance distribution function hd0 (z). distance distribution function hd0 (z). distance, we will call the distance, we will call the distance, we will call the Figure 9. Modeling of surface roughnesses and equilibrium of surface roughnesses and equilibrium approximationOf ratherand equilibrium approximationOf ratherand equilibrium approximationOf rather crude, and Figure 9. Modeling Of course, the9. Modeling of surface roughnesses crude, and is course, the9. Modeling of surface roughnesses crude, and is course, the Gaussian Figure Gaussian Figure Gaussian is course, the Gaussian approximation is rather crude, and distance. distance. distance. becomes less useful when the forces between thedistance. when the forces between the surfaces when the forces between the surfaces when the forces between the surfaces are becomes less useful are surfaces becomes less useful are becomes less useful are very weak, because of the deviations from the realbecause of the deviations from the realbecause of the deviations from the realbecause of the deviations from the real distribution very weak, distribution very weak, distribution very weak, distribution distances. If we know this distribution, we can calculate thethisin the tail of the can calculate thethisin measure of the can calculate thethis distribution, we can calculate the distances. If we know distribution, we Gaussian. know wedistribution, we Gaussian. know we measure the surfaces distances. If we When the tail distances. If we When in the tail of the Gaussian. When we measure of the Gaussian. When we measure the surfaces the surfaces in the tail the surfaces surface interaction energy. This principle was the main point with an AFM, was the main pointdescription. AFM, wascase main pointdescription. In this case main point surface interaction energy. This principle we get a better surface interaction energy. with an surface interaction energy. with an AFM, was the a better description. AFM, wecase a better description. In this case This principlethis the a better This principle we get In we get with an In this get of the previously referred to paper of of the previously referred to paper of discrete set S al [22]. to paper of discrete set S al [22]. to paper of van Spengen et al [22]. van Spengen et al [22]. we get a of the previouslyof n height get a ofpoints for et of n height sample points for van Spengen et referred we samplevan Spengen the previously referred we get a discrete set S of n height get a discrete set S of n height sample points for a a a The next part covers the quest to The next part covers the quest to The next part covers the quest to The next part covers the quest to nd this distance we sample points for a nd this distance nd this distance nd this distance surface a, surface a, surface a, distribution function. The model allows us to function. The model allows us to function. The model allows us to function. The model allows us to nd useful surface a, distribution nd useful distribution nd useful distribution nd useful trends, and be able to understand better what happens actually trends, and be able to understand better what happens,actually, z . trends, and:be able to . . an trends, and:be able to . . Sa za1 za2 , . understand better what happens,actually, zan . Sa(9) a1 za2 , . understand better what happens,actually, z . z S (9) a1 za2 , . . . Sa(9) a1 , za2 , . . . , zan . :z :z (9) in a situation in which stiction is occurring, which effects stiction is occurring, which effects stiction is occurring, which effects stiction is occurring, awhich effects an in a situation in which in a situation in which in a situation in which are important and which conditions do not have such a which conditions doway, have such a which the other surface, have such a which the other surface, have such a S for the other surface, we get a set S for the other surface, are important and large In the sameare important aand Sb for conditions doway, we get aand Sb for conditions doway, we get a set large In the same way, not we get set large In the sameare important set large In the same not not b b inuence. Finally, we can dene worst-case situations we can dene worst-case situations we can dene worst-case situations we can dene worst-case situations for inuence. Finally, for inuence. Finally, for inuence. Finally, for different environmental conditions and surfaces, and give conditions and surfaces, , zb2 ,give, zconditions and surfaces, , zb2 ,give, zconditions and surfaces, , zb2 ,give, zbn . different environmental S : zb1 and . . . S (10)b1 and . . . :z (10) differentb environmental bn . differentb environmental bn . Sb : zb1 and . . . Sb : zb1 , zb2 , . . . , zbn . (10) (10) suggestions for engineering solutionssuggestions the engineering solutionssuggestions the engineering solutionssuggestions the engineering solutions alleviating the stiction alleviating for stiction alleviating for stiction alleviating for stiction Now we need a reference height for both surfaces, which weMEMS. for both surfaces, which we height for both surfaces, which we height for both surfaces, which we Now we need a reference height problems in MEMS. problems in MEMS. Now we need a reference Now we need a reference problems in MEMS. problems in be starting rough again choose description of height, a quantitative to be the mean height, given by be starting rough again choose description of rough again choose to be the mean height, given by The starting point is a quantitative description of point is a quantitative toThethe mean point isgiven by The starting rough again choose description of height, a quantitative toThethe mean point isgiven by surfaces in contact. We dene a MEMS device in which dene a MEMS n in contact. We dene a MEMS n in contact. We dene a MEMS device in which surfaces in contact. We device in which surfaces surfaces device in which n n n n n n two surfaces a and b coming together are possiblyand b coming together 1are possiblyand b coming together 1are possiblyand b coming together 1are possibly prone 1 two surfaces a prone prone 1 1 1 prone 1 zaN z za.two surfaces aand zb = (11) zaN zz. (11) and zb za two surfaces aand zb = = = zaN zbNa. = (11) and zb = zaN zbN . (11) z to stiction. When we bring the surfaces closer and closer bring the surfaces closer and closer bring the bN to stiction. and closer bring the bNa = n closer and closer = n to stiction. When we n n n n to stiction. When we surfaces closer When we surfaces n n

Object A

Surface a

(z ( a + zb ))2 zb 1 z (z ( a + zb ))2 zb 1 z 1 (z ( a + zb ))2 z (z ( a + zb ))2 z . . exp hab (z, za +2zb ) = 2 exp hab (z, za +2zb ) = 2 . . exp hab (z, za +2zb ) = 2 exp 0 0 2 2 a + b 2 a + b 2 2 a + b 2 a2 + b 2 2 a2 + b 2 2 + 2 2 a2 + b za za a b (8) (8) (8) (8)
Surface a

24

N=1 N=1 N=1 together, the rst contact points will together, the rstdue to points will together, the rstdue to points will together, the rstdue to points will yieldN=1 yield plastically contact yield plastically contact yield plastically contact plastically due to the large force per unit area. Only when we are so close that the For a when we are so close thatbthe For anow calculateso close thatbthe For anow calculateso close thatbthe For anow calculate the za + zb , we can now calculate the the large force per unit area. Only given separation za +unit area. can when we are forceza +unit area. can when we are the za + z , we can given separation the large force per z , we Only given separation the large the per z , we Only given separation force can be fully counteracted by theforce can of the surface, set giving forcesum of the surface, sets, givingequivalentof the surface, sets, givingequivalentof the surface, sets, givingequivalent of the height sets, Sab , equivalent to material be fully counteracted by the the can be fully counteracted by theforcesum be fully counteracted by the the sum of the height set Sab , the sum to material of the height set Sab , the can of the height set Sab , material to material to equilibrium is reached, but by then the highest asperities are butthe previously given distance distributionpreviouslyhgiven foris reached, butthe previouslyhgiven for equilibrium is reached, by then the highest asperities are butthe then the highest distance distribution then the highest distance distributionpreviouslyhgiven for equilibrium is reached, by function ab (z) asperities are equilibrium by function ab (z) asperities are the function ab (z) distance distribution function hab (z) for not the only ones governing the surface the only ones governing Gaussian case. It is ones governing Gaussian case. It is ones governing Gaussian case. It is not interaction energy the the surface the only not interaction energy the the surface the only not interaction energy the the surface interaction energy the Gaussian case. It is

N=1

N=1

N=1

N=1

What is Stiction?
At the micro-scale, the forces associated with the stiction effect are often greater than other micro-forces. As a result, if stiction is present in a micro-system, it can dominate the system. This usually has negative effects, such as microobjects sticking together with no way to separate them, or high amounts of dissipative loss between two objects in sliding contact.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

25

Stiction vs. Friction

Friction occurs between two objects in contact with each other and a normal force Fn, between them. The frictional force Ff depends on the coefficient of friction, and is independent of contact area, as Fn shown:
Ff Fn

In this sense, if the normal force is removed, the force of friction will be gone. Stiction is an adhesion force that will occur upon contact between objects, and will keep the two objects in contact indefinitely, even if the initial force that brought the two objects together is gone. Stiction is directly proportional to surface area of contact.
N. Dechev, University of Victoria
26

The Causes of Stiction for MEMS

Stiction will occur upon contact between micro-objects, so a good question may be: Why did that contact occur in the first place? Electrostatic forces Fluid surface tension effects due to the drying process after the HF release of sacrificial layers Shock loading or rapid acceleration that can bring two surfaces together Inadequate stiffness of supporting micro-beams against gravity or normal operation Desired contact by design

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

27

The Causes of Stiction for MEMS

Once contact has occurred, there are four major phenomena that individually contribute to the overall effect of stiction. These are: Capillary Forces Hydrogen Bridging Electrostatic Forces Van der Waals forces

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

28

Stiction due to Capillary Forces

Capillary forces occur when there is a liquid-solid interface.
N Tas et al Consider the following example of two parallel plates with a liquid between them:

Figure 2. Liquid drop (L) on a solid (S), in air (A). C is the contact angle between liquid and solid in air.

Surface Tension Between Plates [Image from N. Tas, et al.]

Figure 1. A thin layer of liquid working as an adhesive
C

between two plates. is the liquid If the angle of the contact angleair, g isis lesscontact angle between is the force F than 90, then a and solid in #c the liquid layer thickness, and A wetted area. A force F is applied to maintain equilibrium. will exist between the two plates.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

where la is the surface tension of the liquidair interface, and r is the radius of curvature of the meniscus (negative if concave). In gure 1, the liquid is between the plates and the liquid contacts the solid at the xed contact angle. From simple geometry it follows that r = g/2 cos C . In equilibrium, an external force F separating the plates must be applied to counterbalance the capillary pressure forces: F = pla A = 2Ala cos C g (2)

Figure 3. Liquid bridging two solids. The liquid is non-spreading. The solid is only covered in the bridged area Ab . At is the total facing area.

29

Stiction due to Capillary Forces

The total surface the area between the plates The pressure difference between the liquid-air interface is given calculated byenergy ofthe surface tensions of the can be adding by the equation: 0< < (3) = + cos solidair, solidliquid and liquidair interfaces [2]. It is
sa sl la C C

where A is the wetted area. Note that a positive force F corresponds to a negative Laplace pressure. The pressure inside the liquid is lower than outside and the plates are pushed together by pressure forces. For stiction calculations it is convenient to calculate the surface energy stored at the interface that is bridged by a drop of liquid [2]. Consider a drop of liquid placed on a solid, surrounded by air (gure 2). In equilibrium, the contact angle between liquid and solid is determined by the balance between the surface tensions of the three interfaces. This balance is expressed by Youngs equation [10]:

Figure 4. Liquid bridging two solids. The liquid is spreading. Outside the bridged area Ab , a thin liquid lm covers the solid.

where:

Based on the above expression, the force between the two plates can be expressed as:
386

where sa is the surface tension of the solidair interface and sl is the surface tension of the solidliquid interface. Youngs equation is also valid for congurations other than that of gure 2. The contact angle is the same on a curved or irregular shaped surface, inside a capillary etc. If the solidair surface tension is smaller than the sum $pla = pressure differenceandliquid-air interface tensions, then the of the liquidair at solidliquid surface %la = surface tension ofis larger than 0interface liquid will be noncontact angle the liquid-air and the r = radius spreading (gurethe meniscus of liquid of curvature of 3). If the solidair surface tension is larger than the sum of the liquidair and solidliquid surface tensions, then it will be energetically favorable for the liquid to spread. The contact angle will be equal to 0 . A drop bridging two surfaces will form thin liquid lms outside the bridged area (gure 4).

assumed that the liquid is conned to a bridged area Ab , which is smaller than or equal to the total facing areas At . (4a) expresses the surface energy in the case of a spreading liquid, (4b) that for a non-spreading liquid: Es = 2 At sl + la Ab la = 2 At sl Es = At sa Ab sa sl Ab la cos C . +la Ab la cos C = 2 At sa (4a) (4b)

In (4a, b) the energy of the liquidair meniscus area is neglected, which is a fair assumption if the gap g between the plates is small, so that the meniscus area is small compared to the bridged area. The total area At and the surface tensions are constant. Therefore, the total surface energy as a function of the bridged area can be written in

where:

A = Area between the two plates #c = contact angle between liquid and solid d = separation distance between plates

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

30

Stiction due to Hydrogen Bridging

Some materials absorb water to a small depth just below their surface layer, and are said to have hydrated surfaces. For example, hydrophilic (favorable to water) silicon surfaces, under atmospheric conditions and temperatures well below 200C, contain adsorbed water layers. When two of these hydrated surfaces are brought into close contact, hydrogen bonds may form between oxygen and the hydrogen atoms of the adsorbed water layers in each of the surfaces. This is a chemical bond that will remain, as long as the surfaces remain hydrated.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

31

Stiction due to Electrostatic Attraction

Electrostatic force can serve two functions in stiction: Firstly, it can act over a distance to bring two micro-objects into contact. Secondly, if there is a dielectric layer of material present between the two bodies in contact, such as silicon dioxide, or other material, the charge between the two bodies may remain for some time. After the contact occurs, the electrostatic charges will dissipate or equalize over time, based on the material dielectric properties, resulting in no net force.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

32

Stiction due to van der Waals Force

The Van der Waals forces between two bodies are caused by mutual electric interaction of the induced dipoles in the two bodies. These bodies can be considered as molecules or for the case of MEMS, grains within a polycrystalline material. The effect of van der Waals force depends on a materials properties, and it is usually noteworthy when strongly polar molecules or elements within materials are in contact.

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

33

The Effective Contact Area Between Two Surfaces

A rough surface is generally modeled as a rough plane with a mean height and a standard deviation using a Gaussian A physical model to predict stiction in MEMS surfaces, we are interested in the distance probability density distribution of heights, as shown below:
za
Surface a

za

Figure 8. Gaussian Modeling of the equilibriumSurface a distribution of surface heights. surfaces in distance between two contact. Determination of equilibrium distance is not trivial,b(z, zb ) = exp (z 2z2b ) , a 1 (z z ) h and 1 2 b and h (z, z ) = b exp Figure 8. van Spengen, surface Gaussian 2 good reference is W. Merlijn Surface bdistribution of et al.heights. 2 the distribution of the distance between the surfaces h (7)
a a a a 2 a 2

gure 9, we obtain, from the height distribution functions, 1 (z za )2 this distance probability function, hab (z).For the Gaussian ha (z, za ) = exp and distribution, the calculation is as follows. a2 2 Having surfaces a 2 with distributions ha (z) and hb (z) given by 2

function of the surfaces, because this function is going to give us the amount of surface at a specic distance, and hence A total energy. With the conguration of its inuence on the physical model to predict stiction in MEMS gure 9, we obtain, from the height distribution functions, surfaces, we are interested in the distance probability density this distance probability function, hab is going the Gaussian function of the surfaces, because this function(z). Forto give [Image from us the amount of the calculation is as distance, and hence distribution, surface at a specic follows. Having surfaces Merlijn-van-Spengen,et-al] its inuence on the totala (z) and hb (z) given by with distributions h energy. With the conguration of

(7)

zb
Surface b

hb (z, zb ) =

Surface a

zb
0

za

a2 + 2 the distribution of the distance 2 + 2 the surfaces2hab (z) is b 2 between

a b

hab (z, za + zb ) =

b 2

exp

(z zb )2 , 2 1 2b

ab (z)

is . (8)

exp

(z ( a + zb ))2 z

N. Dechev, University of Victoria

[Image For the za + zb = d0 , the equilibrium Merlijn-van-Spengen,et-al] distance, we will call the distance distribution function hd0 (z). (8) Surface surface roughnesses and equilibrium Figure 9. Modeling of a Of course, the Gaussian approximation is rather crude, and distance. For the special case in which zathe zb = d0 , the equilibrium becomes less useful when + forces between the surfaces are distance, we willbecause distance 34 distribution function hd (z). very weak, call the of the deviations from the real 0distribution distances. If we know this distribution, we can calculate the Of course, the Gaussian approximation is rather crude, and Figure 9. Modeling of surface roughnesses and equilibrium in the tail of the Gaussian. When we measure the surfaces distance. interaction energy. This principle was the main point surface becomes less useful when get forces between the surfaces are case with an AFM, we the a better description. In this of the previously referred to paper of van Spengen et al [22]. we get very weak, because of the deviations from the real distribution Sa of n distances. next part covers the questwe can calculatedistance the tail of a discrete set When we height sample points for If we know this distribution, to nd this the in The the Gaussian. measure the surfaces surface interaction energy.The model allows the main point withsurface a, we get a better description. In this case This principle was us to nd useful distribution function. an AFM, of the previously referred to paper of van Spengen et al [22]. we get a discrete set S of n height sample points for trends, and be able to understand better what happens actually a

za

hab (z, za + zb ) =

2 from 2 a2in which special case + b

exp

(z ( a + zb ))2 z . 2 2 a2 + b

The Effective Contact Area Between Two Surfaces

Example of capillary action between two rough surfaces:

Stiction in su

Figure 5. N. Tas, et al.] condensation between two contacting Capillary [Image from surfaces. The meniscus curvatures are equal to the Kelvin radius; the contact angles satisfy Youngs equation.

Capillary Condensation Between Two Contacting Surfaces

water layers. Stengl et al [17] have c energy of about 100 mJ m2 ba model. From wafer bonding expe stiction experiments [4, 20], adhesion and 270 mJ m2 have been reported fo (T < 200 C).

2.3. Electrostatic forces between m

Electrostatic attractive forces across from a difference in work functions charging of opposed surfaces [21, 1 the non-spreading condition [2]: For example, for polysilicon surfaces, the surface roughness the work function leads to the form typically has a value of Es to 3 nm RMS. This is considered to be 1 = C 2Ab la cos C (4c) double layer by a net transfer of elect highly smooth, and hence the high degree of stiction when contactthe other. Contact potentials are g to where la cos C is the adhesion tension, and C takes into and the resulting surface charge dens is made. account the constant terms in (4a, b). The importance 1013 elementary charges per square of liquid mediated adhesion is supported by both stiction small separations the electrostatic p and friction experiments. Stiction of released structures N. Dechev, University of Victoria surfaces is 35 generally lower than the v can show a large dependence on the relative humidity [21]. Temporary charging can occ of air [11]. Friction measurements of silicon and silicon [22] or operation. Examples of this compounds [12] show a strong dependence of the static rubbing surfaces [15] and charge accu friction coefcient on relative humidity. In macrotribology of electrostatic operated micromoto it is well known that adhesion of solids can strongly stiction is not expected due to thes depend on relative humidity [13]. This is caused by non-equilibrium charging will relax i capillary Selected Stiction that wet or have a small condensation. Liquids References contact angle on surfaces will spontaneously condense into 2.4. Van der Waals forces cracks, pores, and into small gaps surrounding the points of contact between the contacting surfaces. At equilibrium The van der Waals dispersion forces b the meniscus curvature is equal to the Kelvin radius [10]: N. Tas, T. Sonnenberg, H. Jansen, R. Legtenberg, and M. Elwenspoek, caused by mutual electric interaction in the two bodies. Dispersion force Stiction in Surface Micromachining, la V Journal of Micromechanics and over orientation and induction force rK = (5) Microengineering, vol. 6, 1996, pp. 385-397 s ) RT log(p/p polar molecules [24]. The interaction due to van der Waals interaction betw C. H. Mastrangelo, and C. H. Hsu, Mechanicalvapor pressure and where V is the molar volume, p is the stability and adhesion of microstructures under capillary forcespart I: basic theory, Journal of in the non-retarded regime (d < 20 n ps is the saturation vapor pressure. At room temperature, Microelectromechanical 0.54 nm vol. water [10]. 33-43 meniscus la V /(RT ) = Systems, for 2, 1993, pp. The A EvdW = curvature strongly depends on the relative vapor pressure 12d W. Merlijn van For a relative Puers, and I.50%Wolf, Alog(p/ps ) Model to p/ps . Spengen, R. humidity of De we nd Physical = where A is the Hamaker constant a Predict Stiction in MEMS, Journal of At 100% relative and 0.69 and rk = 0.8 nm. Micromechanics humidity, between the surfaces. For most so Microengineering, vol. 12, 2002, which means that a water lm pp. 702-713 log(p/ps ) = 0 and rk = Hamaker constant lies in the range can grow all over the surface. The amount of condensed For surfaces in contact a cut-off d liquid in thermodynamic equilibrium is determined by both slightly smaller than the interatomic the Kelvin radius and the contact angle. The meniscus used to calculate the adhesion energ curvatures are equal to the Kelvin radius and the contact cut-off distance of d0 = 0.165 nm an angles satisfy Youngs equation (gure 5). calculated by the Lifshitz theory, a go Capillary condensation can lead to a large increase in experimental values and adhesion en the RCA of solids by means of liquid bridging. It can, equation (6) is found for non-hyd therefore, drastically increase the adhesion of those solids 36 metallic solids and liquids [10]. Equ that due to their roughness show a low adhesion in a dry can be used to predict the adhesio environment [13]. Models for the adhesion force due to hydrophobic silicon surface. Howeve capillary condensed liquid have been developed in hardstrongly depends on the surface term disk tribology [1416]. not exactly known. For pure silicon

Note that the contact area A, and distance between the two surfaces d, general form, which is of thefor both the spreading and a are now a function valid surface roughness.