Final Exam

1.1 Define work.

an activity in which a person exerts physical and mental effort to accomplish a
given task or perform a duty
1.2 What are basic motion elements? Give some examples.
actuations of the limbs and other body parts while engaged in performing the task;
reaching for an object, grasping an object, or moving an object
1.3 What is a work element?
a series of work activities that are logically grouped together because they have a
unified function within the task
1.4 Why is time important in work?
the most frequently used measure of work is time, most workers are paid according
to the amount of time they work (hourly wages), workers must arrive at work on
time, incentive plans are based on how much time workers can save relative to the
standard time for a given task, labor and staffing requirements are computed using
workloads measured in units of time
1.5 Define work system as a physical entity.
a system consisting of humans, information, and equipment that is designed to
perform useful work
1.6 Define work system as a field of professional practice.
includes (1) work methods, (2) work measurement, (3) work management
1.7 What are some of the functions included within the scope of work management?
various organizational and administrative functions that must be accomplished to
achieve high productivity of the work system and effective supervision of workers
i) organizing workers to perform the specialized tasks that constitute the
workload in each department of the company
ii) motivating workers to perform the tasks
iii) evaluating the jobs in the organization so that each worker is paid an
appropriate wage or salary commensurate with the type of work performed
iv) appraising the performance of workers to reward better-performing workers
appropriately
v) compensating workers using a rational payment system for the work they
perform
1.8 Name the four broad categories of worker occupations. production workers
logistics workers service workers knowledge workers
1.9 Define productivity.
the level of output of a given process relative to the level of input
1.10 Labor is one input factor that determines productivity. What are two other
factors that are more important than labor in improving productivity? Define each
of these two additional input factors.
capital – the substitution of machines for human labor
technology – a fundamental change in the way some activity or function is
accomplished
1.11 What is the difference between the labor productivity ratio and the labor
productivity index?
index compares the LPR’s of a specified time period of interest and that of a
defined base period
1.12 A given task performed by a worker can be considered to consist of the basic
productive work content and excess nonproductive activities. (a) What is meant by
the term basic productive work content? (b) What is meant by the term excess
nonproductive activities?
 basic productive work content – the theoretical minimum amount of work
required to accomplish a task, where the amount of work is expressed in terms of
time
 excess nonproductive activities – the extra physical and mental actions
performed by the worker that do not add any value to the task, nor do they
facilitate the productive work content that does add value
1.13 What are the three categories of excess nonproductive activities, as they are
defined the in the text? excess activities caused by:
1. poor design of the product or service
2. inefficient methods, poor work layout, and interruptions
3. the human factor
Manual Work and Worker-Machine Systems
2.1 In terms of human participation, what are the three basic categories of work
systems?
1. manual work systems
2. worker-machine systems
3. automated systems
2.2 What is the general characteristic that is common to nearly all pure manual
work?
consists of moving things, almost always involves the movement and handling of
objects
2.3 What is the one best method principle?
of all the possible methods that can be used to perform a task, there is one
optimal method that minimizes the time and effort required to accomplish it
2.4 What is meant by the term normal performance? (or normal pace)
a pace of working that can be maintained by a properly trained worker throughout an
entire work shift without deleterious short-term or long-term effects on the
worker’s health or physical well- being
2.5 What is meant by the term normal time for a task?
when a work cycle is performed at 100% performance, the time taken is called the
normal time
2.6 What does PFD stand for? What is the purpose of the PFD allowance in
determining the standard time for a task?
Personal time, Fatigue, Delay allowance
accounts for rest breaks and delays in workers performance throughout the shift
2.7 What is an irregular work element?
elements performed with a frequency of less than once per cycle (i.e. changing a
knife blade, replacing parts when they become full, etc.)
2.8 Define the meaning of worker efficiency.
amount of work accomplished during the shift expressed as a proportion of the shift
hours
2.9 What is a worker-machine system?
when a worker operates powered equipment
2.10 What are the three main categories of powered machinery in worker-machine
systems?
1. portable power tools
2. mobile powered equipment
3. stationary powered machines
2.11 Define machine tool.
stationary power-driven machine that shapes or forms parts (i.e. turning, drilling,
forging, etc.)
2.12 Cycle times in worker-machine systems divide into two categories: (1) machine
time depends on operator and (2) machine time is constant and repetitive. Give an
example of each category.
(1) machine time depends on operator – can either be repetitive on nonrepetitive
(i.e. a typist typing a list of names and telephone numbers on a conventional
electric typewriter, or a trucker driving a tractor-trailer on a interstate
highway)
(2) machine time is constant and repetitive – the operator allows constant
machine time to complete work cycle
2.13 What is the difference between an external work element and an internal work
element in a worker- machine cycle?
external work elements – operator elements that are performed sequentially
internal work elements – elements are performed simultaneously with the machine
cycle
2.14 What are the factors that affect the workload calculation when determining
worker requirements?
1. worker efficiency
2. defect rate
3. learning curve phenomenon
2.15 What does availability mean?
the proportion of time the equipment is available to run relative to the total time
it could be used
2.16 What is a machine cluster?
a collection of two or more machines producing parts or products with identical
cycle times and serviced by one worker
Work Flow and Batch Processing
3.1 What does sequential operations mean?
work system in which multiple processing steps are accomplished in order to
complete a work unit, and the processing steps are performed sequentially not
simultaneously
3.2 What is a precedence constraint in sequential operations?
limitations on the order in which the operations can be performed
3.3 What is the difference between pure sequential work flow and mixed sequential
work flow?
 pure sequential work flow – all work units follow the same exact sequence of
workstations and operations
 mixed sequential work flow – there are variations in the work flow for
different work units, the work units are processed through different stations
3.4 Name and define the four types of part moves between workstations in
sequential operations.
1. in-sequence – a transport of the work unit from the current operation to the
neighboring operation immediately downstream, a move in the forward direction in
the sequence
2. bypassing – a move in the forward direction but beyond the neighboring
workstation by two or more stations ahead of the current station
3. backflow – a move of the work unit in the backward direction by one of more
stations
4. repeat operation – an operation that is repeated at the same workstation;
this might imply that several attempts are required to complete the operation, or
that two (or more) operations are performed at the same station and the operations
must be separated for some reason
3.5 What is a From-To chart?
table that can be used to indicate various quantitative relationships between
operations or workstations in a multistation work system quantities of work units
moving between operations or workstations = Qij flow rates of materials moving
between operations or workstations = Rfij distances between workstations = Lij
combinations of these values = RfijLij
3.6 What is a bottleneck in sequential operations?
the slowest operation which limits the overall production rate
3.7 What do the terms starving and blocking mean in terms of sequential
operations?
 starving – the production rate of one of more downstream operations are
limited by the rate of an upstream operation (i.e. the bottleneck)
 blocking – the production rate of one or more upstream operations are limited
by the rate of a downstream operation
3.8 What does the term batch processing mean?
processing of work units in finite quantities or amounts
3.9 What are some of the disadvantages of batch processing?
delays occur between processing steps because multiple batches are competing for
the same equipment, which results in long lead-times to complete the work units and
the accumulation of large quantities of work units
3.10 Given the disadvantages of batch production, what are the reasons why it is
so widely used in industry?
work unit differences (make changes in the methods, tooling, etc. between batches)
equipment limitations (size capacity of equipment)
material limitations (must be processed as a unit and later divided into multiple
units)
3.11 What are the two cost terms in the economic order quantity model? set up cost
Cu and holding (carrying) cost Ch
3.12 Write the equation that describes the relationship between the starting
quantity of work units Q0, the completed quantity Q, and the fraction defect rate q
of the operation processing the work units.
Q=Q0(1-q)
3.14 What is a work cell?
group of workstations dedicated to the processing of a range of work units within a
given type
3.15 What is a worker team?
a group of employees who work together to achieve common objectives
3.16 Define teamwork.
the collective skills and efforts of the team members exceed the sum of their
individual skills and efforts
3.17 What is the difference between a work-unit team and a self-managed work team?
 work-unit team – have little autonomy and are basically a unit in the
traditional hierarchical structure of the little organization
 self-managed work team – perform the work of the unit, plan and manage it;
higher level of worker involvement and empowerment
3.18 What is cross-training and what is its value in a worker team?
workers become trained in more than one job in the work cell, which mitigates
problems of absences and allows for job rotations to increase work variety and
employee satisfaction
3.19 Name some examples of cross-functional teams.
members are drawn from different functional departments in the organization
1. concurrent engineering teams – development and design of a new product
2. task forces – constituted to deal with an urgent problem or immediate
commercial opportunity confronting the organization
3. crisis management – form of task force intended to cope with a particular
crisis or disaster faced by the organization (i.e. loss of key personnel, floods,
hurricanes, terrorist attacks, and liability lawsuits)
4 Manual Assembly Lines
4.1 What is a manual assembly line?
production line that consists of a sequence of workstations where assembly tasks
are performed by human workers
4.2 What are the factors that favor the use of manual assembly lines?
 demand for the product is high or medium
 the products made on the line are identical or similar
 the total work required to assemble the product can be divided into small
work elements
 it is technologically impossible or economically infeasible to automate the
assembly operations
4.3 What are the reasons why manual assembly lines are so productive compared to
alternative methods of assembly?
1. specialization of labor
2. interchangeable parts
3. work flow
4. line pacing
4.4 What does the term manning level mean in the context of a manual assembly
line? number of workers assigned to that station
4.5 What are utility workers on a manual assembly line?
additional workers who are responsible for functions such as
1. helping workers who fall behind
2. relieving workers for personal break
3. maintenance and repair duties (not assigned to specific workstations)
4.6 What is starving on a manual assembly line?
assembly operator has completed the assigned task on the current work unit, but the
next unit has not yet arrived at the station
4.7 What is blocking on a manual assembly line?
the operator has completed the assigned task on the current work unit but cannot
pass the unit to the downstream station because that worker is not yet ready to
receive it
4.8 What are the three major categories of work transport in mechanized
production lines?
1. continuous transport
2. synchronous transport
3. asynchronous transport
4.9 What are the two types of line that can be designed to cope with product
variety? What is the difference between them?
single model – produces many units of one product and no variation in the product
batch model – produces products in batches
4.10 What does work content time mean?
total time of all work elements that must be performed to make one unit of the
product
4.11 What are repositioning losses as they are explained in the text?
some time is required each cycle to reposition the work, or the work unit, or both
4.12 What is the line balancing problem in the design of a manual assembly line?
virtually impossible to divide the work content time evenly among all workstations
4.13 What is a minimum rational work element in the context of manual assembly
lines?
a work element that has a specific limited objective on the assembly line, such as
adding a component to the base part, joining two components, etc
4.14 What is a precedence constraint in the context of manual assembly lines? some
elements must be done before others
4.15 What are the three types of efficiency that must be considered in designing
and operating a manual assembly line?
1. line efficiency E
2. repositioning efficiency Er
3. balancing efficiency Eb
4.16 What does tolerance time mean?
the time a work unit spends inside the boundaries of the workstation
4.17 Name the three line balancing algorithms as described in the text.
1. largest candidate rule
2. kilbridge and wester method
3. ranked positional weights method
4.18 What are some of the methods by which assembly line balancing efficiency can
be improved that are outside the scope of the line balancing algorithms?
methods analysis utility workers
preassembly of components storage buffers between stations parallel workstations
5 Logistics Operations
5.1 What is Business Logistics?
The acquisition, movement, storage, and distribution of materials and products, as
well as the planning and control of these operations in order to satisfy customer
demand.
5.2 What is the difference between external logistics and internal logistics?
External logistics are concerned with transportation and related activities that
occur outside of a facility. Internal logistics are concerned with the handling of
materials inside a given facility.
5.3 What are the basic objectives in business logistics? Provide a specified
level of customer service
Deliver the level of service at the lowest possible cost
5.4 Identify the five components of the logistics system.
1. Facilities-where materials and products are produced and stored
2. Inventory-the raw materials, work in progress, and finished products
3. Transportation and material handling-the means by which the inventory is
moved between and with facilities
4. Information system-the collection and processing of data related to
facilities, inventory, transportation and other logistics activities such as order
processing, order tracking and procurement.
5. Logistics workers-the employees who operate and coordinate the other
components of the logistics system.
5.5 With what is the procurement function in logistics concerned?
The acquisition and movement of materials from suppliers to manufacturing plants
that produce parts or assemble products
5.6 What are the four warehousing functions?
1. Receive-the activities associated with handling and controlling incoming
materials to the facility.
2. Store-involves putting the received materials into storage and recording
their respective locations.
3. Pick-order picking- the retrieval of materials from their storage locations
in response to customer orders.
4. Ship-packaging the materials for shipment to the customer, preparing the
required documentation, and loading the materials into the carrier.
5.7 What is cross-docking?
Warehousing operation in which shipments are received from suppliers and the items
are sorted and shipped to their respective destinations without being placed into
storage.
5.8 Name the five basic transportation modes: Rail Transport
Trucking Operations Air Transport
Water Transport Pipelines
5.9 What are the general characteristics of freight that is suited to rail
transport? Give examples of this freight.
Raw materials located away from waterways, agricultural products and low-value
manufactured goods. Ex: coal, ore, lumber, paper, wood products.
5.10 What are the general characteristics of freight that is suited to truck
transport? Give examples of this freight.
High-Value finished and semi-finished products, merchandise that needs to be
transported over short or medium distances. Ex: parts, subassemblies.
5.11 What are the advantages of truck transport over rail transport when the
applications are appropriate for trucking?
Door to door delivery, service availability and frequency and speed of delivery.
5.12 What are the general characteristics of freight that is suited to air
transport?
High-Value items that need to be shipped long distances and time is important.
5.13 What are the applications of pipelines?
Delivery of gasses, water, or slurries over long distances.
5.14 What are intermodal operations?
The use of more than one transportation mode to move materials and products between
suppliers and customers.
5.15 What are freight forwarders?
Companies that consolidate the small shipments of multiple customers into a large
shipment and then transport it by common carrier.
5.16 Give some examples of the distribution of information and entertainment
products by means of the Internet and similar communication-based distribution
modes.
Airline Tickets, Digital distribution of music, Satellite radio, Video-on-demand,
High speed internet access.
5.17 Define material handling:
Transportation operations that occur inside a facility.
5.18 What are the four major categories of material-handling equipment?
Material transport equipment, storage systems, unitizing equipment, identification
and tracking systems.
5.19 What are the five basic types of material transport equipment?
1. Industrial trucks
2. automated guided vehicles
3. monorails
4. conveyors
5. cranes and hoists.
5.20 Why are forklift trucks so widely used in industry?
This is due to the common use of pallets and similar unit load containers for
moving and storing materials.
5.21 What is an automated guided vehicle system? Define the term. Industrial
trucks capable of operation without human drivers.
5.22 How is a monorail different from an automated guided vehicle? Identify two
differences. Picks up its power from an electrified rail as oppose to having its
own power source Usually suspended from the ceiling
5.23 Conveyors can be classified as powered and non-powered. What is the feature
about powered conveyors that distinguishes them from rail-guided vehicles and
automated guided vehicles?
The pathway moves.
5.24 Name some of the major types of powered and non-powered conveyors. Powered-
roller conveyors, belt conveyors
Non-powered-roller conveyors, overhead trolley conveyors
5.25 What are the four conventional (non-automated) storage methods and equipment
types? Bulk storage, Rack systems, shelving, and drawer storage.
5.26 What are the two basic types of automated storage systems? Automated storage/
retrieval system, carousel storage system.
5.27 What are some of the reasons that companies automate the storage function?
Increase storage capacity, increase storage density, recover factory floor space,
improved security, reduce labor cost, improve safety, improve control over
inventory, improve stock rotation, improve customer service, increase throughput.
5.28 What is a carousel storage system?
A series of bins or baskets that suspend from an overhead chain conveyor that
revolves around an oval rail system. Think dry-cleaner.
5.29 What is unitizing equipment? Define what the term means.
Containers used to hold individual items during handling, equipment used to load
and package the containers.
5.30 What are the three drawbacks in manual data collection and entry that
automatic identification and data capture systems tend to eliminate?
Human error, time, cost of labor.
5.31 What is the unit load principle in material handling?
A load consisting of one part, of multiple parts, or multiple containers of parts.
The load should be as large so that it is practical for the transportation option
handling it.
6 Service Operations and Office Work
6.1 What are some of the factors that distinguish services from their products?
Services are intangible, experienced by the customer. Cannot predict time.
6.2 Identify the factors by which the quality of a service is judged by a
customer:
 Customer interaction
 “Quality of workmanship” provided
 waiting time
 service time
6.3 Service operations and organizations can be divided into three major
categories. Name these categories:
1. Service organizations
2. internal services
3. Product companies that also provide services
6.4 What is the difference between a facilities-based service and a field-based
service? Facilities-based services occur at the provider’s facility
Field based services occur at the customer’s location
6.5 Give some examples of high-contact services and of low-contact services: High
contact services-restaurants, hairdressers, dental offices, prisons.
Low contact services-postal and parcel delivery, news associations, government
services.
6.6 What are the differences in worker attributes between high-contact services
and low-contact services? High- good interpersonal skills and sense of pr.
Low- technical and analytical skills.
6.7 What are some of the differences between manual work and service work?
Service work usually is the flow of information whereby manual work is the flow of
materials.
6.8 In general, determining time standards for service work is more difficult for
repetitive production work. Why?
Variable service, random arrivals, customer contact, intangible work units,
undefined service, intermittent services, creative work
6.9 Define what an office is:
A place where the business-oriented activities of an organization are transacted
and/or services rendered.
6.10 Define office work:
Business functions such as design, sales, accounting, scheduling, and
administration.
6.11 What is the difference between office activities and office applications?
Office activities are physical and mental actions performed by an office worker.
Office applications are related to the business function i.e. reports.
6.12 Identify some of the differences between creative office work and routine
office work: Creative work- more intellectually difficult and requires special
skills and knowledge. Routine work- repetitive and less difficult
6.13 What are the differences between office knowledge workers and office support
personnel? Knowledge workers- creative information-processing activities
Support Personnel- provide administrative and staff assistance
6.14 Define office automation.
The aspects of a job that can be assigned to a computer.
6.15 Office automation reflects the convergence and integration of three
traditional office technologies. Name the three technologies and identify some of
the equipment in each technology.
1. Office Machine-typewriters, adding machines, dictation machines, photocopiers
2. Data Processing-computers, data storage, printers
3. Communication-telephones and teletype machines.
6.16 Define office augmentation.
The use of computer systems to enhance the abilities of a worker in low-volume
creative work.
7 Projects and Project Management
7.1 What is a project?
A temporary undertaking directed at accomplishing some major output, usually
requiring substantial resources and significant time to complete
7.2 Define project management.
Planning, scheduling, organizing, monitoring, and controlling the project
activities so that the PCTS objectives are achieved to the satisfaction of the
customer or sponsor
7.3 What is the difference between a project and a program?
A program is a very large undertaking, consisting of several projects. So, a
project is a subdivision of a program.
7.4 Identify and briefly describe the five typical phases in a project life
cycle.
1. Concept and feasibility phase - preliminary phase to assess feasibility and
relevance
2. Definition phase - problem definition step
3. Planning phase - detailed planning of the project including work breakdown
4. Execution phase - actual work on the project is accomplished, which consumes
most of the time and cost
5. Closeout - turning over the outcome or product to the customer or sponsor
5. What is the difference between project management and operations management?
Project manager - responsible for the project and the project team
Greater risk than operations manager because operations are concerned with ongoing
activities, whereas a project is unique and temporary
6. Project teams are usually cross-functional. What does cross-functional mean?
Team members are selected from a variety of departments and fields
7. What is a matrix organizational structure and why is it often applicable in
project teams?
This is when team members have functional or operational responsibilities at the
same time they are participating in the project
8. What is project planning?
Concerned with the development of a formal document that will be used to direct the
execution and control of the project
9. What are the three principle uses of the project plan?
1. Document the assumptions and decisions underlying the plan
2. Facilitate communication among those involved
3. Document the PCTS objectives
7.10 What is the work breakdown structure in project planning?
Defines and organizes the project into increasingly more detailed task descriptions
in each descending level of the project hierarchy
7.11 What is project scheduling and what is accomplished by it?
 Estimating times for work packages
 Determining sequence of work packages
 Planning the dates to perform the work packages and meeting milestones
7.12 What is project control concerned with?
 Monitoring progress of the work activities
 Comparing the progress with the schedule
 Taking corrective action when activities are found to be behind schedule
7.13 What are the three project scheduling techniques discussed in the text?
Gantt charts, Critical Path Method (CPM), and Program Evaluation and Review
Technique
(PERT)
7.14 What is a Gantt chart?
A graphical display of scheduled project activities on a time axis
7.15 Describe what is meant by the AON and AOA conventions for diagramming
networks. They are two arrow and node conventions of network diagrams
 AON- activity-on-node, used with CPM
 AOA- activity-on-arrow, originally used with PERT
7.16 What are the general objectives in both CPM and PERT?
To identify the total time duration of the longest sequence of activities in the
network
7.17 What is the critical path in a CPM or PERT network diagram? The longest path
7.18 What is meant by the term slack time in a CPM or PERT network?
Slack time is the amount of time that the activity can be delayed without delaying
the subsequent activities in the project
7.19 What is the basic difference between PERT and CPM?
 CPM uses constant time estimates
 PERT uses a probability distribution consisting of the most optimistic, most
likely, and most pessimistic time estimates
7.20 What is project crashing?
When you need to finish a project in less time than the time of the critical path
8 Intro. to Methods Engineering and Operations Analysis
8.1 What is methods engineering?
The analysis and design of work methods and systems including tooling equipment,
technologies, workplace layout, plant layout, and environment used in these methods
and systems.
8.2 What are the principal objectives of methods engineering?
1. To increase productivity and efficiency
2. To reduce cycle time
3. To reduce production costs
4. To reduce labor content
8.3 What is operations analysis?
The study of an operation or group of related operations for the purpose of
analyzing their efficiency and effectiveness so that improvements can be developed
relative to specified objectives.
8.4 What was the operation studied by Frank Gilbreth in his initial research on
motion study? Bricklaying
8.5 What is methods analysis?
The study of an existing method or process, usually by breaking it down into the
work elements or basic operations that comprise it.
8.6 What is methods design?
The design of a new method or the redesign of an existing method or process based
on a preceding methods analysis.
8.7 What are the six steps of the systematic approach in methods engineering?
1. Define the problem and objectives
2. Analyze the problem
3. Formulate Alternatives
4. Evaluate Alternatives and select best
5. Implement the best method
6. Audit the study
8.8 The procedure offered in the text for selecting among alternatives divides
the technical features of proposed equipment alternatives into two categories. What
are the two categories?
Must features and Desirable features.
8.9 What is a histogram?
A statistical graph consisting of bars representing different values in which the
length of each bar is proportional to the frequency or relative frequency.
8.10 What is a Pareto Chart?
A specific histogram where the data is arranged to some criteria.
8.11 What is a check sheet?
A data gathering tool generally used in the preliminary stages of the study of a
problem.
8.12 What is a defect concentration diagram?
A graphical method that has been found to be useful in analyzing the causes of
product or part defects.
8.13 What is a scatter diagram?
An x-y plot of the data taken of the two variables of interest.
8.14 What is a cause and effect diagram?
A graphical tabular chart used to list and analyze the potential causes of a given
problem.
8.15 What does “USA” stand for in the USA principle? Understand, Simplify,
Automate
8.16 What are the three phases in the automation migration strategy?
1. Manual Production
2. Automated Production
3. Automated integrated production
8.17 Why would a company want to use manual production methods instead of
automated methods at the beginning of production of a new product?
It is cheaper, quicker to set up.
9 Charting & Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis
9.1 What are the objectives of using charts and diagrams to study work?
1. to permit work process to be communicated and comprehended more readily
2. to allow the use of algorithms specifically designed for the particular
diagramming technique
3. to divide a given work process into its constituent elements for analysis
purposes
4. to provide a structure in the search for improvements
5. to represent a proposed new work process or method
9.2 What are the four methods indicated in the text by which the analyst develops
a description of the work process that is ultimately used to create the graphic?
The analyst is intimately familiar with the process, the analyst observes and
records information about the process, one-on-one interviews of those familiar with
the process, group interviews of those familiar with the process.
9.3 What are the two characteristics of value-added steps in a given process?
the customer considers important, physically change the product or service
9.4 Name some examples of network diagrams:
flow between operations, precedence order in manufacturing
9.5 What are the two types of operations diagrammed in an operation chart?
processing and assembly operations
inspection operations
9.6 Identify the five types of symbols used in a process chart:
O-Operation, I-Inspection, M-Move, D-Delay, S-Storage
9.7 Name the three types of process chart described in the text, and identify the
application area for each:
1. Worker Process Chart- analyzes activities of human worker.
2. Form Process Chart- analyzes the flow of paperwork forms and office
procedures
3. Flow Process Chart- analyzes the flow of materials through a sequence of
activities
9.8 What is a flow diagram?
A drawing of the facility layout but with the addition of lines representing
movement of materials or workers to specific locations in the facility.
9.9 What are some of the problem areas that can be identified using a flow
diagram? travel, congestion, delays, inefficient layout of workstations
9.10 What is an activity chart?
A listing of the work activities of one or more subjects plotted against a time
scale to indicate graphically how much time is spent of each activity.
9.11 Identify some of the types of multiple activity charts:
Right hand/Left hand, Worker-machine, Worker-multi-machine, gang activity chart
9.12 What are the three block symbols used in a basic process map?
oval- starting/ending point, rectangle- task or activity step, diamond- decision
point
10 Motion Study and Work Design
10.1 What is motion study?
Analysis of the basic hand, arm, and body movements of workers as they perform work
10.2 What is work design?
Methods and motions used to perform a task.
10.3 What is a therblig?
A basic motion element- such as: Grasp Hold, etc.
10.4 Identify some of the ineffective therbligs: search, hold
10.5 What is the term sometimes used for the kind of analysis involving therbligs
in a task? micromotion analysis
10.6 What are the general objectives of micromotion analysis?
Eliminate ineffective therbligs, avoid the use of a hand for holding parts, combine
therbligs whenever possible, simply overall method, and reduce time required for
motion.
10.7 Name some of the principles of motion economy that deal with the use of the
two hands:
Both hands should be fully utilized, two hands should begin their motions and end
their motions at the same time, the motions of the hands and arms should be
symmetrical and simultaneous, the worker’s two hands should never be idle at the
same time
10.8 Why are smooth continuous curved motions better than straight line motions
when performing manual work?
When you drastically change an objects direction, it causes the worker to attribute
more force to the object. This effectively increases energy output.
10.9 What is the lowest classification of hand and arm motions? Finger motions
only
10.10 What is the difference between eye-focus and eye-travel?
Eye-focus is only they eye adjusting to change viewing distance; eye-travel is when
the user must change line of sight.
10.11 What advantage does the use of the legs have over the use of the arms?
The legs are stronger than the arms so they should be used for heavy lifting.
10.12 What is gravity feed bin and what is its advantage over a simple tray?
Gravity feed bin uses gravity to position items so that they are easier to reach
for the worker.
10.13 What are the desirable adjustments on a chair designed for the workspace?
seat height, back height, padding, back support, motion
10.14 Why are multiple function tools better than separate tools for each function?
Less time is used to reposition the tool.
11 Facility Layout Planning and Design
11.1 Define the term facility layout.
The size and shape of a facility as well as the relative locations of the
functional areas, equipment, work stations, etc.
11.2 What are the objectives in layout planning?
1. Efficient movement of materials and people
2. Logical work flow and minimum travel distances between operations
3. Efficient utilization of space
4. Safety and satisfaction of workers and others who use the facility
5. Flexibility to meet changing future requirements
6. Advancing the operational mission of the facility
11.3 What is the difference between a process layout and a product layout?
 Process- equipment is arranged according to function
 Product- workstations are located along the line of flow of work units
11.4 What are some of the principal advantages of a process layout over a product
layout? High product variety, versatility
11.5 What are some of the principal advantages of a product layout over a process
layout? High production rate, high efficiency
11.6 What is a fixed-position layout?
The product remains in one location and the equipment and workers are brought to
it.
11.7 Identify the typical application areas of the three basic layout types in
terms of production quantity and product variety.
Process- variety of parts Product- same part Fixed- Large work units
11.8 What is a cellular layout?
Combines the best features of process and product layouts
11.9 What are the similarities and differences between a construction project
layout and a fixed-position layout?
Construction project layout is temporary because of a scheduled completion date
Product does remain on the site, but workers and equipment vacate upon completion
In both layouts the workers and equipment are brought to the product, but in
construction it is impossible to move the product after completion
11.10 What is the difference between the traditional office layout and the open
office concept?
 Traditional – usually an approximation of a process layout in the sense that
the personnel are typically grouped according to functions or departments
 Open office – the office layout consists of large open areas in which modular
furniture and partitions rather than permanent walls are used to designate and
separate workstations
11.11 What are the differences between a site layout, a block layout, and a
detailed layout?
 Site layout – shows how the building will be located on the property,
indicating position and orientation relative to roads and rail sidings
 Block layout – shows the arrangement and sizes of departments in the building
 Detailed layout – shows how workstations and equipment are arranged in each
department
11.12 In systematic layout planning, what are the P-Q-R-S-T data requirements?
Specifically, what do P, Q, R, S, and T stand for?
P – product Q – quantity R – routing
S – supporting services
T – time issues
11.13 What are some of the charting techniques used to analyze material flows?
Operations charts, flow process charts, from-to charts
11.14 What do the closeness ratings A, E, I, O, and U mean?
A – absolutely necessary for departments to be next to each other E – especially
important
I – important O – ordinary
U – unimportant
11.15 Identify some of the factors that may influence the assignment of a
particular closeness rating to a pair of departments.
Material flow
Need for contact between personnel
Use of the same equipment sharing of common records Sharing of supervision or tech
support staff
Use of the same utilities
High noise level-emission of fumes, odors, etc
11.16 What is an activity relationship chart?
Tabular means of displaying the closeness ratings among all pairs of activities or
departments
11.17 What is an activity relationship diagram?
Graphical means of displaying the closeness ratings among pairs of activities
11.18 What is a space relationship diagram?
An extension of the activity relationship diagram in which the blocks representing
departments are now assigned areas that are proportional to the areas computed in
the previous space determination step
11.19 What are some of the modifying considerations that are likely to influence
the layout design? Personnel requirements
Material-handling methods Storage facilities
Aisle space Offices
Building features Site conditions
11.20 What are some of the practical limitations that may influence the layout
design? Budget-building codes
Safety requirement Existing building
12 Introduction to Work Measurement
12.1 What is the standard time for a task? Provide a definition.
The amount of time that should be allowed for an average worker to process one work
unit using the standard method and working at a normal pace.
12.2 What are some of the characteristics typical of industrial situation in which
time standards would be beneficial?
Low productivity, repeat orders, long production runs, repetitive work cycles,
short cycle times.
12.3 What are the functions and applications of accurately established time
standards in an organization?
 define a fair day’s work
 means of converting a workload into staffing requirements
 an objective way to compare methods
 basis for wage incentives
 time data for production planning and cost estimating
12.4 Identify three basic methods to determine time standards: Estimation,
historical records, work measurement techniques
12.5 What are the five basic work measurement techniques?
1. direct time study
2. predetermined motion time systems
3. standard data systems
4. work sampling
5. computerized work measurement
12.6 What is the difference between the normal time and the standard time for a
task?
Normal time is when a worker is working at 100% pace. Standard time allows for time
lost in shift.
12.7 How does computerized work measurement reduce the time and effort of the time
study analyst?
 facilitates the collection of data at the work site in direct time study and
work sampling
 automatically performing routine computations that had to be done by hand
 organizing the time standards files and databases
 retrieving data from databases in predetermined motion time studies and
standard data systems
 assisting in the preparation of the documentation required in work
measurement
12.8 What are the prerequisites for valid time standards?
Task is performed by an average worker, worker’s pace represents standard
performance, worker uses the standard method, and task is performed on a standard
work unit.
12.9 Identify the two common benchmarks of standard performance that are often
used: Walking at 3mph on level flat ground
Dealing four hands of cards from a 52 card deck in exactly 30 seconds
12.10 What are the details that should be included when defining the standard
method?
Procedure used by the worker, tools, equipment, workplace layout, irregular work
elements, working conditions, setup.
12.11 What is a PFD allowance in time standards?
The accumulated time a worker is allotted during a shift to have personal time,
fatigue time, and delay time.
12.12 What are some of the reasons why workers experience lost time during a work
shift? Restroom breaks, phone calls, fatigue, delays from management
12.13 What is a contingency allowance?
Allowances provided due to problem with the task or the production equipment used
to perform it.
12.14 What is the difference between accuracy and precision in a measurement
system?
Accuracy is how close the measured value is to the true value; Precision is the
repeatability of the measurement system.
12.15 Why is accuracy an elusive quality in work measurement?
It is impossible to scientifically determine the true value of the quantity of
interest.
12.16 What is precision in work measurement?
The expected variability within a single time study or the time standard resulting
from that study.
12.17 What is consistency in work measurement?
The variances in standard time values among different time study analysts who study
the same task.
12.18 What is the application speed ratio in work measurement?
The ratio of time required to determine a time standard relative to the standard
time itself.
13 Direct Time Study
13.1 Define direct time study:
The direct and continuous observation of a task using a stopwatch or other
timekeeping device to record the time taken to accomplish a task
13.2 Identify the five steps in the direct time study procedure:
1. define and document the standard method
2. divide the task into work elements
3. time the work elements to obtain the observed time for the task
4. evaluate the worker’s pace relative to standard performance
5. apply an allowance to the normal time to computer the standard time
13.3 Why is it so important to define and document the standard method as
precisely and thoroughly as possible?
Provides a complete description to the worker, method improvements, disputes about
method, and data for standard data system.
13.4 What is the snapback timing method when using a stopwatch during direct time
study? Timer starts at zero for each work element.
13.5 What is the continuous timing method when using a stopwatch during direct
time study? Timer continuously runs from start of task to end
13.6 Why is performance rating a necessary step in direct time study? It is used
to calculate the normal time.
13.7 Why is an allowance added to the normal time to compute the standard time?
The allowance is a PFD allowance.
13.8 What are some of the causes of variability in the observed work element times
that occur from cycle to cycle?
Variances in pace.
13.9 Why is the student t distribution rather than the normal distribution used in
the calculation of the number of work cycles to be timed?
Want to focus on the most critical element (longest element).
13.10 What is the difference between elemental performance rating and overall
performance rating? Elemental performance is the performance for each work element,
overall is for the overall task.
13.11 What are the characteristics of a well-implemented performance rating system?
Consistency among tasks, consistency among analysts, easily understood, related to
standard performance, machine-paced elements rated at 100%, performance rating
recorded during the task, and worker notification.
13.12 What are the advantages of electronic stopwatches compared to mechanical
stopwatches?
Easier to read, lighter, more accurate and precise, can be used for continuous or
snap back timing.
14 Predetermined Motion Time Systems
14.1 Define predetermined motion time system:
A database of basic motion elements and their associated normal time values,
together with a set of procedures for applying the data to analyze manual tasks and
establish standard times for the tasks.
14.2 What are the steps in applying a predetermined motion time system?
1. Synthesize the method
2. Retrieve the normal time values for each motion element
3. Evaluate the method to make improvements
4. Apply allowances to determine the standard time
14.3 What is the difference between a first-level PMTS and a higher-level PMTS?
First-level PMTS systems are more detailed where higher-level PMTS systems are very
simplified
14.4 What is a motion aggregate in a higher-level PMTS?
A combination of two or more first-level PMTS aggregates. Example: combine “reach”
and “grasp” to form “get”.
14.5 Compare the advantages of a higher-level PMTS and a first-level PMTS:
 First-level PMTS: more accurate, takes more time to set standard, highly
repetitive, only short cycles, basic motions, very detailed, very flexible.
 Higher-level PMTS: less accurate, less time to set standard, repetitive or
batch, longer cycle times ok, aggregates of basic motion, less detailed, less
flexible.
14.6 What is the unit of time used in methods-time measurement?
TMU(time measurement unit): 1 TMU = 0.00001 hr = 0.0006 min = 0.036 sec
14.7 What does the acronym MOST stand for? Maynard Operation Sequence Technique
14.8 What is the primary focus of MOST in terms of type of work activity? The
movement of objects
14.9 What are the motion aggregates in MOST called? Activity sequence models
14.10 What is the difference between General Move and Controlled Move in MOST?
General move is free motion where as controlled move is restricted. Ex: controlled
move- moving a lever.
15 Standard Data Systems
15.1 What is a standard data system?
A database of normal time values usually organized by work elements, that can be
used to establish time standards for tasks composed of work elements similar to
those in the database.
15.2 Which work measurement techniques should be used as the source of the data in
a standard data system if accuracy of the standards is important?
Any other
15.3 What are the general characteristics and requirements of work situations for
which a standard data system is most suited?
Less accurate standard data systems
15.4 Identify the steps in using a standard data system:
Analyze the new task and divide it into work elements, Access database to determine
normal times of work elements, add element normal times to obtain task normal time,
computer standard times for setup and production cycle.
15.5 What is the database formats commonly used in a standard data system?
Charts, tables, mathematical formulas, worksheets, and computerized databases and
retrieval systems
15.6 Identify the different work element classifications encountered in standard
data systems for work measurement:
Setup and production elements, constant and variable elements, worker-paced and
machine elements, regular and irregular elements, internal and external elements
15.7 What are the advantages of a standard data system that is based on
determining the normal time for an entire work cycle rather than individual work
elements?
Productivity in setting standards Cost savings
Setting standards before production
Avoids the need for performance rating, consistency in the standards Inputs to
other information systems
15.8 What are some of the disadvantages and limitations of standard data systems
and the reasons that a company might not want to develop such a system?
High investment costs Source of data Methods descriptions
Risk of improper applications
16 Work Sampling
16.1 Define work sampling:
The statistical technique for determining the proportions of time spent by subjects
in various defined categories of activity.
16.2 What are the characteristics of work situations for which work sampling is
most suited?
Sufficient time available to perform the study, multiple subjects, long cycle
times, non-repetitive work cycles
16.3 What are some of the common applications of work sampling?
Machine utilization, worker utilization, allowance for time standards, average unit
time, time standards
16.4 What is a biased estimate in work sampling?
An estimate that tends to consistently differ from the true value, either because
the estimating method is somehow flawed or the variable being estimated is
influenced by the act of observing it.
16.5 On what kinds of jobs or tasks is work sampling an appropriate technique for
setting time standards? Repetitive well defined tasks, short cycle times
16.6 What is meant by the term sampling stratification?
16.7 Name three advantages of work sampling:
1. Operations and activities that are too impractical or too costly to measure
by continuous observation can be measured

2. Multiple subjects can be included in a single work sampling study

3. Less time and lower cost to perform study. (see page 437)
16.8 Name three disadvantages and limitations of work sampling:
1. Not accurate
2. Not practical for studying a single subject
3. Provides less detailed information about the work elements. (see page 438)
17 Computerized Work Measurement and Standards Maintenance
17.1 What is the objective of computerizing portions of the various work
measurement procedures? Saves the observer time
17.2 What are the five steps in the conventional time study procedure, and in
which of those steps are there opportunities for computer assistance?
1. Define and document the standard method
2. Divide the task into work elements
3. Time the work elements to obtain the observed time for the task
4. Rate the workers performance to determine the normalized time
5. Apply allowances to computer the standard time
17.3 How are the personal digital assistants used in direct time study? To enter
work element descriptions
Timing the work elements Statistical record
Number of work cycles
17.4 How are personal computers used in direct time study? To do statistical
analysis and charting
Standard time computations Generation of work instructions
Interface to other programs, standards maintenance
17.5 How can PC’s and PDA’s be used in a work sampling situation? Can design the
study
Collect the data Analyze the data
Report the results
17.6 What are the two principal functions of an ideal computerized work
measurement system that is based on a predetermined motion time system and/or a
standard data system?
Work measurement, standards database
17.7 What is the computer’s job in implementing the work measurement function in
an ideal computerized work measurement system that is based on a predetermined
motion time system and/or a standard data system?
Perform the routine computations and facilitate the retrieval of data needed by the
analyst.
17.8 What is the computer’s job in implementing the standards database function in
an ideal computerized work measurement system that is based on a predetermined
motion time study and/or a standard data system?
Storage and retrieval capabilities Mass updating capabilities
Data export features Standards maintenance
17.9 What are the three ingredients required in a computerized work measurement
system that is fully automated using expert systems technology?
1. Knowledge base of an expert time study analyst
2. Computer-compatible description of the task for which the time standard is to
be set
3. Capability to apply the knowledge base to a given task description to set a
standard.
17.10 What is the typical reason that a worker may have difficulty making 100%
efficiency on a task for which a time standard has been set?
The actual method is less productive than the standard method.
17.11 What are some of the possible improvements that a worker might make to devise
a method that is more productive than the standard method?
Improvises a special tool Layout is revised
Manual elements that were external to the machine, become internal Work elements
listed as being done by one hand are done by both hands Worker changes the machine
settings (reducing cycle time)
17.12 What is meant by the term creeping changes (in work methods)?
Changes that affect the cycle time by a negligible amount. Lots of creeping changes
add up.
17.13 What is the function of a standard maintenance program? To protect the
validity of the time standards
17.14 What are the problems that result from standards erosion over time – that is,
time standards that become less and less valid over time due to creeping changes
and surreptitious methods improvements made by the worker?
Labor productivity is reduced Incentive earnings escalate Labor costs rise
Estimates become inaccurate Organization suffers a loss
19 Learning Curves
19.1 Describe the learning curve phenomenon:
The reduction in cycle time that occurs in a repetitive work activity as the number
of cycles increases
19.2 Define the term learning rate:
The proportion by which the dependent variable, usually the task time, is
multiplied every time the number of task cycles or work units doubles.
19.3 What is the rate of improvement and how is it related to the learning rate?
The proportion by which the dependent variable is reduced every time the number of
units doubles
19.4 Which value of learning rate means faster learning, 75% or 90%? 75%
19.5 Why is the basic equation in learning curve theory, y=kxm, called a log-
linear model? The equation plots as a straight line in log-log coordinates.
19.6 What is the basic difference between the Crawford equation and the Wright
equation in learning curve theory?
The Wright model uses the cumulative average time as the dependent variable in the
basic equation, Crawford uses time.
19.7 Why does the cumulative average time always have a higher value than the unit
time in the lob- linear equation?
The average includes unit time values for lower values of N and these time values
are larger.
19.8 What are the two basic parameters that are required to use either the
Crawford or the Wright learning curve equations?
The time or cost associated with the first unit, the slope m from which the
learning rate LR can be deduced.
19.9 How is the worker able to reduce the cycle time as the number of work units
increases? Worker becomes familiar with the task
Makes fewer mistakes as the task is repeated
Body motions become more efficient (rhythm and pattern) Minor adjustments are made
in the workplace layout Fewer delays that interrupt operation
19.10 How is the larger organization able to reduce the cycle time as the number of
work units increases? Methods improvements
Fine tuning of machinery Development of tooling Tech improvements Design
improvements Improved materials Better planning
19.11 What are the two ways to obtain the value of the learning rate for a given
application? Use industrial averages, analyze data from actual application.
19.12 What is the simplest way to estimate the learning rate based on actual data?
Observing the doubling effect
19.13 Why is it reasonable to believe that the learning rate for a worker-machine
system will be higher than for pure manual work?
Machine time is fixed. There is no learning involved.
19.14 What is a composite learning curve?
The situation in which a learning rate is to be determined for a large entity of
work, such as an entire product
19.15 What is remission when used in the context of an interruption in the learning
curve? When there are interruptions, the learning curve sets back.
19.16 How does product complexity affect the learning curve?
There are more opportunities for learning, steeper learning curves.
19.17 What is the likely effect of greater preproduction planning on the first unit
time T1 and the slope m
in the log-linear learning curve?
It will lessen the slope of the learning curve.
19.18 What is the plateau model in learning curve terminology?
The belief that learning eventually ceases, resulting in the learning curve shape
where it flattens out after some time.
19.19 What does the term standard reference quantity mean in the context of
learning curves?
It is the discrete quantity of production for which the standard time for the task
is applicable.
20 Lean Production
20.1 Define lean production:
Doing more work with fewer resources.
20.2 Name the two pillars of the Toyota Production System: Just-in-time Production
and Autonomation
20.3 What is the Japanese word for waste? “muda”
20.4 Name the seven forms of waste in production, as identified by Taiichi Ohno?
1. Production of defective parts
2. Production of more than the number of items needed
3. Excessive inventories
4. Unnecessary processing steps
5. Unnecessary movement of people
6. Unnecessary transport and handling of materials
7. Workers waiting
20.5 What is meant by the term just-in-time production system?
A system that produces and delivers exactly the required number of each component
to the downstream operation in the manufacturing sequence at the exact moment when
that component is needed
20.6 What is the objective of a just-in-time production system? To minimize WIP
and manufacturing lead time.
20.7 What is the difference between a push system and a pull system in production
control?
 A pull system is when the downstream station calls the upstream station for
parts
 A push system is when the upstream station makes the parts even though the
downstream station may not be ready for them
20.8 What is a kanban? What are the two types of kanban? “Card”
There is a production and a transport kanban
20.9 What is the basic starting point in a study to reduce setup time?
To recognize that the work elements in setting up a machine can be separated into
two categories: Internal and External elements.
20.10 What does production leveling mean?
Distributing the changes in product mix and quantity as evenly as possible over
time
20.11 How is production leveling accomplished? Authorizing overtime during busy
periods
Using finished product inventories to absorb daily ups and downs in demand
Adjusting the cycle times of the production operations
Producing in small batch sizes that are enabled by setup time reduction techniques
20.12 What does autonomation mean? Automation with a human touch
20.13 What does total productive maintenance mean?
A coordinated group of activities whose objective is to minimize production losses
due to equipment failures
20.14 What is availability as a reliability measure and how is it determined? The
proportion of the total desired operating time that the machine is actually
Available and operating
20.15 What does the Japanese work “kaizen” mean? Continuous improvement of
production operations
20.16 What is a quality circle?
Teams of workers that address specific problems in the workplace
20.17 What is visual management?
The status of the work situation should be evident just by looking at it.
20.18 What is an andon board?
A light panel positioned above a workstation or production line that is used to
indicate operating status.
20.19 What is the 5S system?
A set of procedures that is used to organize work areas in the plant
20.20 What is takt time?
The reciprocal of the demand rate for a given product of part, adjusted for the
available shift time in the factory.
20.21 What are standardized work procedures in the Toyota Production System?
The work must be designed so that the operation cycle time is synchronized with the
takt time.
21 Six Sigma and Other Quality Programs
21.1 Eight dimensions of product quality are identified in the text. Name four of
these dimensions.
1. Performance
2. Features
3. Aesthetic appeal
4. Conformance
5. Reliability
6. Durability
7. Serviceability
8. Perceived quality
21.2 What is Six Sigma?
The name of a quality focused program that utilizes worker teams to accomplish
projects aimed at improving an organization’s operational performance.
21.3 What are the general goals of Six Sigma?
1. Better customer satisfaction
2. High quality products and services
3. Reduces defects
4. Improved process capability through reduction in process variations
5. Continuous improvement
6. Cost reduction through more effective and efficient processes
21.4 Why does 6sigma in Six Sigma really mean 4.5sigma? There is a 1.5sigma shit
during production over years.
21.5 What does DMAIC stand for?
Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control
21.6 What is the define step in DMAIC? What is accomplished during the define
step?
1. Organizing the project team
2. Providing it with a charter (problem)
3. Identifying the customers served by the process
4. Developing a high level process map
21.7 What are master black belts in the Six Sigma hierarchy?
Technical consultants for the black belts, usually a full time position
21.8 What is a CTQ characteristic?
Critical to Quality, features that are essential to the customer
21.9 What is the measure step in DMAIC?
1. Creating a data collection plan
2. Implementing the plan by collecting the data
3. Measuring the current sigma level of the process
21.10 Why is defects per million (DPM) not necessarily the same as defects per
million opportunities (DPMO)?
There is more than one opportunity for an item to have a defect.
21.11 What is the analyze step in DMAIC?
1. Basic data analysis
2. Process analysis
3. Root cause analysis
21.12 What is root cause analysis?
Attempts to identify the significant factors that affect process performance
21.13 What is the improve step in DMAIC?
1. Generation of alternative improvements
2. Analysis and prioritization of alternative improvements
3. Implementation of improvements
21.14 What is failure mode and effect analysis?
A systematic technique used in quality engineering to identify potential ways in
which a process or product can fail and to assess the risk and severity of the
failure.
21.15 What are the three factors in FMEA that determine the risk priority number?
Occurrence rank number, severity rank number, detection rank number
21.16 What is the control step in DMAIC?
To avoid the potential erosion of improvements due to resistance to change
21.17 What other quality program is very similar to Six Sigma? Total Quality
Management
21.18 What are the three main objectives of total quality management?
1. Achieving customer satisfaction
2. Encouraging involvement of the entire workforce
3. Continuous improvement
21.19 What do the terms external customer and internal customer mean? Internal
customer- those involved with the company
External customer- someone outside the company
21.20 What is a robust design in Taguchi’s quality engineering?
To develop products and processes in which the function and performance are
relatively insensitive to variations.
21.21 What is quality function deployment (QFD)?
To design products that will satisfy or exceed customer requirements.
21.22 What is ISO 9000?
A set of international standards on quality developed by the International
Organization for Standardization
22 Intro. to Ergonomics and Human Factors
22.1 Define ergonomics.
An applied scientific discipline concerned with how humans interact with the tools
and equipment they use while performing tasks and other activities
22.2 What are some of the objectives and benefits of ergonomics as applied to
human-machine systems?
1. Greater ease of interaction between user and machine
2. Avoid errors and mistakes
3. Greater comfort and satisfaction in use of the equipment
4. Reduce stress and fatigue
5. Greater efficiency and productivity
6. Safer operation
7. Avoid accidents and injuries
22.3 Ergonomics has two main application areas. Identify and describe them.
 Work system design- the objectives are safety, accident avoidance, and
improved functional performance
 Product design- the objectives are safety, comfort, user-friendly, mistake
proof, and avoidance of liability lawsuits
22.4 What is meant by the work philosophy “fitting the person to the job”?
Considers worker’s physical and mental aptitudes in employment decisions
22.5 What is a human-machine system?
A combination of humans and equipment interacting to achieve some desired result
22.6 What are the three basic categories of human-machine systems?
1. Manual systems
2. Mechanical systems
3. Automated systems
22.7 What are the basic functions performed by humans in the human-machine system?
1. Sensing
2. Information processing
3. Actions
22.8 What are the three components of the human that correspond to the three
functions?
1. Human senses - to sense the operation (vision, hearing, touch, taste, and
smell)
2. Human brain - for information processing (thinking, planning, calculating,
making decisions, solving problems)
3. Human effectors - to take action (fingers, hands, feet, and voice)
22.9 What are the principle components of the machine in the human-machine system,
as indicated in the diagram of the system?
1. Process- function or operation performed by human-machine system
2. Displays- to observe the process
3. Controls- to actuate and regulate the process
22.10 Describe the physical environment and the social environment in which the
human-machine system operates.
 Physical environment- location and surrounding lighting, noise, temperature,
and humidity
 Social environment-
Co-workers and colleagues at work Immediate supervisors Organizational culture
Pace of work
22.11 Define physical ergonomics as this term used in the text. How the human body
functions during physical exertion
22.12 What is anthropometry?
Physical dimensions of the human body
22.13 Define cognitive ergonomics as the term is used in the text.
Concerned with the capabilities of the human brain and sensory system while
performing information processing activities
22.14 What are the three main components of the physical work environment?
1. Visual environment
2. Auditory environment
3. Climate
22.15 What is the difference between occupational safety and occupational health?
 Occupational safety – concerned with the avoidance of industrial accidents
 Occupational health – concerned with avoiding diseases and disorders caused
by exposure to hazardous materials or conditions
23 Physical Ergonomics: Work Physiology and Anthropometry
23.1 Define physiology.
A branch of biology concerned with the vital processes of living organisms and how
their constituent tissues and cells function
23.2 How many bones are there in the normal human body? 206
23.3 What are the three principal types of joints associated with body movement in
the human body?
1. Ball-and-socket
2. Pivot
3. Hinge
23.4 What are the three types of muscles in the human body?
1. Cardiac muscle
2. Smooth muscle
3. Skeletal muscle
23.5 Name and briefly define the three types of muscle contraction.
1. Concentric muscle contraction – muscle becomes shorter when it contracts
2. Eccentric muscle contraction – muscle elongates when it contracts
3. Isometric muscle contraction – muscle length stays the same when it contracts
23.6 Define metabolism.
Sum of the biochemical reactions that occur in the cells of living organisms
23.7 What are the three types of metabolism?
1. Basal metabolism – energy used only to sustain the vital circulatory and
respiratory functions
2. Activity metabolism – energy associated with physical activity
3. Digestive metabolism – energy used for digestion
23.8 What are the three primary food types that provide energy for the human body?
Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
23.9 The capacity of the body to use energy and apply forces depends on what three
capabilities?
1. Capacity of cardiovascular and respiratory systems to deliver required fuel
and oxygen to muscles and carry away waste products
2. Muscle strength and endurance
3. Ability to maintain proper heat balance within the body

23.10 What is meant by the term oxygen debt?

Difference between amount of oxygen needed by muscles during physical activity and
amount of oxygen supplied
 Occurs at start of physical activity after body has been at rest
 There is a time lag before the body can respond to increased need for oxygen
 Glycolysis is anaerobic during this time lag
 Oxygen debt must be repaid, so when activity stops, breathing and heart rate
continue at high levels
23.11 How should rest breaks intended to relieve workers from muscle fatigue be
scheduled? Rest breaks usually included in allowance factor built into the time
standard Relatively short duration - 5 to 20 minutes
23.12 Why is dynamic muscular activity better for the muscles than static muscular
activity? Dynamic strength – tested under conditions that involve changes in joint
angles and motion speed
Static strength – human subject applies as high a force as possible against an
immovable object, influenced by joint type and joint angle
23.13 What are the primary factors that affect human muscle strength? Size (e.g.,
height, body weight, build)
Gender Age
Physical conditioning
23.14 What is muscle endurance?
The capability to maintain an applied force over time
23.16 What are some of the automatic mechanisms that the body uses to regulate its
temperature? Sweating, shivering, and constricting or dilating blood vessels
23.17 Define anthropometry.
Empirical science concerned with the physical measurements of the human body, such
as height, range of joint movements, and weight
23.18 What is the body mass index and what does its value indicate?
23.19 Give some examples of the anthropometric principle “design for extreme
individuals”. Designing for the maximum
Doorway heights Automobile door openings Mattress sizes
Designing for the minimum Heights of kitchen cabinets
Locations of levers and dials on equipment Weights of portable power tools
23.20 When is the anthropometric principle “design for the average user”
appropriate?
For situations in which design for extreme individuals and adjustability are not
feasible Examples- sofas, stair heights, stadium seating
27 Work Organization
27.1 Define management.
The planning, organizing, controlling, and directing the human, physical, and
financial resources of an organization to achieve its objectives
27.2 What are the four functions of management? Planning, Organizing, Controlling,
Leading
27.3 What is an organization?
An administrative and function association of people that is established for the
purpose of assigning work to groups and individuals in order to achieve defined
objectives.
27.4 What is the specialization principle?
The process of directing ones efforts and skills to a specific task or function
27.5 What is meant by span of supervision?
The number of subordinates that he or she can adequately manage
27.6 What are the factors that determine the span of supervision?
1. Level in the organization
2. Capabilities of the supervisor/ subordinates
3. Employee turnover rate
4. Complexity of problems
5. Non-supervisory duties
27.7 What does unity of command mean?
One person is in charge of each administrative unit at each level of the pyramid
27.8 What is the difference between responsibility and authority in an
organization? Responsibility- an obligation to perform the assigned tasks and
functions Authority- the person can utilize organizational resources to achieve a
goal
27.9 What is the difference between an operating decision and a policy-making
decision? Policy-making- decision without the guidelines of established rules
Operating- decision made in accordance with pre set procedure
27.10 What is the main advantage of a pure line organization? The clarity of its
reporting structure
27.11 What is a line and staff organization?
A line organization with staff positions that specialize in a certain field
27.12 What are the four categories of staff functions in a line and staff
organization? Advisory, Control, Service, Coordinating
27.13 What is a matrix organization?
A two dimensional structure consisting of horizontal lines intended to pursue
special assignments superimposed on the traditional vertical lines of the line and
staff organization.
27.14 What is the difference between an ad hoc committee and a standing committee?
Ad hoc – temporary
Standing – permanent
27.15 What is a virtual organization?
One that extends beyond a single enterprise, think outsourcing
28 Worker Motivation and the Social Organization at Work
28.1 What does motivation for work mean?
An employee is willing to devote effort and energy in productive activity
28.2 What is Maslow’s needs gratification theory of worker motivation?
A theory that proposes that humans attempt to satisfy 5 basic needs.
28.3 What are the physiological needs in Maslow’s needs gratification theory?
Physiological
Safety and Security
Love and esteem by others Self-esteem
Self actualization
28.4 What does self-actualization mean in Maslow’s needs gratification theory? The
need to find self-fulfillment
28.5 What is the difference between extrinsic factors and intrinsic factors in
Herzberg’s dual factor theory of work motivation?
 Extrinsic- Factors that originate from outside the work unit
 Intrinsic- Factors that originate from the work unit
28.6 What are some examples of extrinsic factors in Herzberg’s dual factor theory
of work motivation? Wages, policy, personal life, working conditions
28.7 What are some examples of intrinsic factors in Herzberg’s dual factor theory
of work motivation? Recognition, Advancement, Job content
28.8 What is McGregor’s Theory X – Theory Y?
Two theories, X has a negative feeling and Y has a positive
28.9 What do the terms positive motivation and negative motivation mean?
 Positive- The withholding of gains and rewards
 Negative – The institution of threats and consequences
28.10 Define job satisfaction.
The mental state of contentment with ones work
28.11 What is job enlargement?
The horizontal increase in the number of activities included in the work
28.12 What is job enrichment?
A vertical increase in the work content associated with a job
28.13 What was the original objective of the Hawthorne studies? To determine the
effect of lighting on productivity
28.14 What was the significant finding of the Hawthorne studies?
That feelings, attitudes, and relationships of the workers affected productivity
much more.
28.15 An individual member exhibits (1) formal behavior in the formal organization
and (2) informal behavior in the social organization. What is the meaning of these
two forms of behavior?
 Formal- Members conduct themselves in accordance with standards imposed by a
formal organization
 Informal- behavior that is not prescribed by the formal organization
30 Compensation Systems
30.1 What are the three components of an individual’s total compensation?
1. Base pay
2. Variable pay
3. Fringe benefits
30.2 What are the two basic types of pay systems?
1. Time-based pay systems - employee is paid for the time worked
2. Incentivized pay systems - pay is based on the amount of work accomplished or
some other measure of performance
30.3 What is the base pay in an employee’s compensation package?
Wage or salary paid to employee on a regular basis, the time-based component of
total compensation
Amount determined by:
1. Value of job within organization
2. Value of the individual to the organization
3. Laws of supply and demand that operate in the local labor market
30.4 What is meant by the term base pay progression?
The base-pay structure usually includes a base pay progression, which is a series
of increases within each job classification that depends on factors such as length
of service to the organization and the merits of the individual.
30.5 What is the variable pay in an employee’s compensation package?
Usually based on some measure of performance, incentivized component of total
compensation
30.6 Define fringe benefits.
Employment benefits that have monetary value to the employee and are an expense to
the employer but do not affect the employee’s pay
Ex.- disability insurance, paid vacations and holidays, pension plan, etc.
30.7 What are the two categories of time-based pay systems?
1. Hourly pay systems – hourly rate for amount of time worked
2. Salary systems – fixed amount paid at regular intervals (e.g., weekly,
monthly) for services of worker
8. What does the term exempt mean in the context of pay systems?
Exempt means exempt from certain provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act of
1938; employee is not paid at time-and-a-half for hours above 40 per week
Salary workers usually exempt, hourly workers usually not exempt
30.9 Define measured day work.
An hourly pay system in which time standards are used to measure the amount of work
accomplished by each employee
30.10 What is a direct wage incentive system?
Wage or salary increases as work output increases, Ex. Sales commissions,
management bonus plans
30.11 What is the difference between a piecework system and a standard hour plan?
Piecework system calculates wage using a time, while a standard hour plan uses a
dollar rate
30.12 What is meant by the expression guaranteed base rate?
A minimum daily rate (based on an hourly rate) paid to the worker regardless of the
quantity of work units produced
30.13 Under what kind of selling circumstances is a sales incentive system
appropriate? Not appropriate when:
Salesperson simply takes orders Selling activity has long sales cycle
Selling process requires involvement of multiple parties whose individual
contributions are difficult to assess
30.14 What are the two basic objectives of a direct incentive system?
1. To increase productivity for the organization that sponsors it
2. To increase earnings for the workers who participate in it
30.15 What are some of the reasons why direct incentive plans sometimes fail?
1. Conflicting objectives between workers and organization
2. Penalties for increasing productivity
3. Emphasis on physical effort- incentive system rewards workers for greater
speed and effort
4. Standards become eroded over time- learning curve phenomenon
5. Mixing day work and incentive work
30.16 What is a gain-sharing plan?

Indirect group incentive plan in which employees are encouraged to make

improvements that increase productivity and reduce cost, company shares the
benefits of those improvements with employees through periodic bonuses
30.17 The Scanlon and Rucker gain-sharing plans use financial measures in their
bonus-sharing formula, while Improshare uses labor hours. What are the two main
advantages of using labor hours instead of financial data in a gain-sharing plan?
1. Hourly data are easier for employees to understand than financial data, so an
incentive system based on hourly data is easier to understand
2. Many of the factors that affect financial data are not related to
productivity improvement, so changes in cost factors could either overstate or
obscure productivity increases
30.18 What are the three basic types of profit-sharing plans?
1. Cash plans – profit bonus paid soon after profits are determined
2. Deferred plans – profit bonus is credited to an employee account that can be
withdrawn at retirement or severance
3. Combination plans