ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Control by Neural Stimuli
• The Endocrine System is the second messenger
system of the body, allow cells to communicate
with each other to regulate bodily activities
• Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are
released into the blood
Hormones control several major processes
• Growth and development
• Mobilization of body defenses
• Maintenance of much of homeostasis
• Regulation of metabolism
• Sexual function, reproduction,
• sleep, and mood
• Hormones are produced by specialized cells
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• These hormones regulate the activity of other
cells
The Chemistry of Hormones
• Amino acid-based hormones
• Proteins
• Peptides
• Amines
• Steroids – made from cholesterol
• Prostaglandins – made from highly active lipids
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
• Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs
(target cells or organs)
• Target cells must have specific protein receptors
• Hormone binding influences the working of the
cells
• Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by
negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood
triggers the release of more hormone
• Hormone release stops once an appropriate
level in the blood is reached
Control of Hormone Release
1. Humoral Stimuli → blood-borne body fluids,
circulate in the blood
sensitive to blood levels of particular substances like
glucose, calcium, and sodium
Examples: Parathyroid (PTH hormone → secreted when
low calcium
Antidiuretic (ADH) hormone → water-conservation
Insulin → secreted when high level of glucose
Aldosterone → secreted when high level of potassium
2.
● Following action potentials, neurons release
neurotransmitter into synapse with the cells that
produce the hormone → neurotransmitter stimulates
cells to increase hormone secretion
● Some neurons secrete chemical messengers directly
into the blood when they are stimulated →
Neuropeptides
Releasing Hormones: regulates secretion of hormones
from cells of anterior pituitary gland; released from
neurons in hypothalamus
3. Control by Hormonal Stimuli
● Occurs when a hormone secreted stimulates the
secretion of other hormones
e.g. Tropic Hormones
■ Part of a process in which a releasing hormone from
the hypothalamus stimulates release of tropic hormone
from pituitary gland
■ Tropic hormone then travels to third endocrine gland
and stimulates release of third hormone
• Location of Major Endocrine Organs
Pituitary Gland size of a grape hangs by a stalk from
the
Hypothalamus – is the primary link between the
autonomic nervous system and endocrine control
center of brain, below thalamus. It produces chemicals
that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions of
the pituitary gland.
• Protected by the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes
• Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
• Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
• Six (6) anterior pituitary hormones
• Two (2) affect non-endocrine targets
• Four (4) stimulate other endocrine glands
(tropic hormones)
• Characteristics of all anterior pituitary
hormones
• Proteins (or peptides)
• Act through second-messenger systems
• Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly negative
feedback
• Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone (GH) General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal
muscles and long bones
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
 • Causes fats to be broken down for a source of
energy
Prolactin (PRL)
• Stimulates and maintains milk production
following childbirth
• Function in males is unknown
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
cortex
• DISORDERS
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
Gonadotropic hormones
• Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
• Stimulates sperm development in testes
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Triggers ovulation
• Causes ruptured follicle to become the corpus
luteum
• Stimulates testosterone production in males
• Referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH)
• Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin
• Stimulates contractions of the uterus during
labor
• Causes milk ejection
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Can inhibit urine production
• In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction
leading to increased blood pressure
(vasopressin)
Thyroid Gland found at the base of the throat
• Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
• Produces two hormones
Thyroid hormones:
Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
• Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid follicles
• Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at
target tissues
• Calcitonin : influences bone and calcium
metabolism; maintains a homeostasis of
calcium in the blood plasma
Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its
deposition on bone
Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
Produced by C (parafollicular) cells
• Hypothyroidism: lack of thyroid hormone
secretion
■ Cretinism: appears in children; results in mental
retardation, short stature, and abnormally formed
skeletal structure
■ In adults, lack of thyroid hormone results in lower
metabolic rate, sluggishness, and myxedema
(accumulation of fluid)
Hyperthyroidism: elevated rate of thyroid hormone
secretion
■ Causes increased metabolic rate, extreme
nervousness, chronic fatigue
■ Graves Disease: abnormal proteins produced by
immune system similar in structure/function to TSH,
Causes bulging of the eyes → exophthalmia
• Exalthalmous goiter
Parathyroid Glands - tiny masses on the posterior of
the thyroid
• Secrete parathyroid hormone
• Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from
bone
• Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium
• Raise calcium levels in the blood
• Hyperparathyroidism: high rate of PTH
secretion results to
Soft bones, less excitable muscle/nerve cells (fatigue),
kidney stones
Hypoparathyroidism: low rate of PTH secretion
Results from injury to or surgical removal of thyroid
and parathyroid glands
Highly excitable muscle/nerve cells → spontaneous
action potentials (cramps, tetanus) → respiratory
muscles → breathing stops → death
Adrenal Glands - two glands sits on top of the kidneys
• Cortex – outer glandular region in three layers
• Medulla – inner neural tissue region
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
• Regulate mineral content in blood, water, and
electrolyte balance
• Target organ is the kidney
• Production stimulated by renin and aldosterone
• Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic
peptide
● Rate of aldosterone secretion increases when blood
K+ levels increase, or when blood Na+ levels decrease
● Blood pressure affects rate of aldosterone secretion
 Renin (enzyme) is released from kidney due to low
blood pressure■ Causes Angiotensinogen to be
converted to Angiotensin I which is converted by
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme into Angiotensin II●
Angiotensin II causes smooth muscle in blood vessels to
constrict● Increases aldosterone secretion○
Aldosterone causes retention of Na+ and water, leading
to increase in blood volume■ All of this raises blood
pressure
2. Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
• Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal
cortex
• Promote normal cell metabolism
• Help resist long-term stressors
• Released in response to increased blood levels
of ACTH
• Cortisol: major hormone of Glucocorticoids
● Increases breakdown of proteins and lipids; increases
their conversion to forms of usable energy
● Reduces inflammatory and immune responses
Cortisone → closely related steroid that reduces
inflammation and immune responses from allergies, etc.
● Aids body by providing energy sources for tissues
If stressful conditions are prolonged however, immune
system can be suppressed enough to make body
susceptible to stress-related conditions
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
• Produces two similar hormones
(catecholamines)
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• These hormones prepare the body to deal with
short-term stress
• Epinephrine is also called adrenalin.
• It elevates systolic blood pressure, increases
heart rate and cardiac output, speeds up the
release of glucose from the liver… giving a spurt
of energy, dilates the bronchial tubes and
relaxes airways, and dilates the pupils to see
more clearly. It is often used to counteract an
allergic reaction.
• Norepinephrine, like epinephrine, is released
when the body is under stress. It creates the
underlying influence in the fight or flight
response. As a drug, however, it actually triggers
a drop in heart rate
Pancreatic Islets The pancreas is a mixed gland
The islets of the pancreas produce hormones:
• Insulin – released from beta cells, allows
glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells,
increases rate of glucose and amino acid uptake
in these tissue
• Glucagon – released from alpha cells, allows
glucose to enter the blood , after a meal, when
blood glucose levels are high, glucagon
secretion is reduced
• Somatostatin – released from the delta cells, in
response to
food intake, inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon
and
inhibits gastric tract activity
● Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Insulin Dependent Diabetes
Mellitus
occurs from body’s failure to produce insulin
Tissues cannot take up glucose effectively →
hyperglycemia
Exaggerated appetite(polyphagia) since glucose cannot
be taken up by the satiety center of hypothalamus
Excess glucose in blood is excreted in urine →
dehydration
Lipids and proteins are broken down to provide energy
source for metabolism → body tissues are destroyed →
ketoacidosis
Insulin must be injected to control blood glucose levels!
● Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Non-Insulin Diabetes
Mellitus
occurs when insufficient number of insulin receptors on
target cells, or by defective receptors that do not
respond to insulin
• Gestational Diabetes : when a pregnant woman
develops high glucose level
Pineal Gland - found on the third ventricle of the
brain secretes
• Melatonin : helps establish the body’s wake and
sleep cycles
• Serotonin: a neurotransmitter that regulates
intestinal movements and affects appetite,
mood, sleep, anger, and metabolism.
• May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated
functions
Thymus - Located posterior to the sternum
• Largest in infants and children
• Produces thymosin → aids in development of
white blood cells (T Cells)
• Important in developing the immune system
• Hormones of the Ovaries
 • Estrogens • Problems associated with reduced estrogen are
• Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta common
• Stimulates the development of secondary • Growth hormone production declines with age
female characteristics • Many endocrine glands decrease output with
• Matures female reproductive organs age
• Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized
egg
• Helps maintain pregnancy
• Prepares the breasts to produce milk
• Progesterone
• Produced by the corpus luteum
• Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
cycle
• Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the
uterus
Hormone of the Testes
• Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-
producing
• Produce several androgens
• Testosterone is the most important androgen
• Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
• Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive
system
• Required for sperm cell production
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs
• Parts of the small intestine
• Parts of the stomach
• Kidneys
• Heart
• Many other areas have scattered endocrine
cells
• Prostaglandins
■ Function as intracellular signals (autocrine or
paracrine chemical signals) → effects occur in tissues in
which they are produced
■ Some cause relaxation of smooth muscle
• Erythropoietin
■ Released by kidneys in response to reduced oxygen
levels in kidney
■ Acts on bone marrow to increase the production of
red blood cells
Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
• Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until
old age
• Menopause is brought about by lack of
efficiency of the ovaries