Dr.

AMBEDKAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi ,
Accredited by NAAC, UGC with ‘A’ Grade)
Near Jnana Bharathi Campus, Bangalore – 560056

DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

(Accredited by NBA)

Mini Project Report

on

“Electronic Watch Dog Implementation“

(Subject Code:18ETMP68 )

Submitted in partial fulfillment of award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted by

Name of students USN

Gurumurthy Hegde 1DA18TE011
Prajwal 1DA18TE028
Raghu G S 1DA18TE032
Satyanarayan S Bhat 1DA18TE039

SEMESTER: VI

Submitted for the Academic year 2020-21

 UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
Dr. Yamuna Devi C R
HOD , Dept. of TCE
Place of work: Project Lab, Dept. of ET, Dr.AIT

Visvesvaraya Technological University

Jnana Sangama, Belagavi, Karnataka 590018
 Dr. AMBEDKAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to VTU,BelagaviBANGALORE – 560056)

DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the Mini project work titled “ Electronic Watch Dog Implementation”
carried out by Gurumurthy Hegde, Prajwal, Raghu G S, Satyanarayan S Bhat bonafide
students of Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bangalore, in partial fulfillment for
the award of Degree in BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING in ELECTRONICS AND
TELECOMMUNICATION of Visvesvaraya Technological University during the year 2020-21.
It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated during Internal Assessment have
been incorporated in the Report deposited in the department. The Mini project report has
been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of Mini project work
prescribed for the said Degree.

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD Signature of the Principal

Dr. YAMUNA DEVI C. R. Dr. YAMUNA DEVI C. R.

Dr. M.Meenakshi
HOD HOD
Principal,
Dept. of ET Dept. of ET
Dr. A.I.T
Dr. A.I.T Dr. A.I.T

External Viva

Name of the Examiners Signature with Date

1
2.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Any achievement, be it scholastic or otherwise does not depend solely on the individual efforts but on the
guidance, encouragement and cooperation of intellectuals, elders and friends. A number of personalities, in
their own capacities have helped us in carrying this Mini project work. I would take this opportunity to thank
them all.

First of all I would like to thank Dr. C Nanjundaswamy, Principal, Dr. AIT, Bangalore, for his moral
support towards completing our project work.

I would like to thank Dr. Yamuna Devi C R, Professor and Head of the Department, Department of
ETE, Dr. AIT, Bangalore , for her valuable suggestions, regular source of encouragement, and expert advice
along with her assistance throughout this Mini project work.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide Dr. Yamuna Devi C R, Professor and Head of
the Department, Department of ETE, Dr. AIT, Bangalore for guiding and correcting various documents with
attention and care. She has taken pain to go through the relevance of the topics and make necessary
correction as and when needed.

I am thankful to my seminar Co-ordinator Mr.K.V.Mahesan, Professor, Department of ETE, Dr. AIT,

Bangalore, who has also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to teaching and non
teaching staff who has been with us throughout the preparation of seminar report, spending the valuable
time.

We also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to teaching and non teaching
staff of Department of ETE, Dr. AIT, Bangalore, for their support and valuable information, which helped us
in completing this task through various stages.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 : ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 2 : INTRODUCTION
Chapter 3: methodology
3.1 :block diagram
3.2: hardware requirements
3.21 - IC555
3.22 – battery
3.23 – IC7805
3.24 - rectifier
3.25 – filter
3.26 – push buttons
3.27 – transistor
3.28- diodes
3.29 – led
3.30 – resistor
3.31 – capacitor
Chapter 4: methodology ( operation )
Chapter 5: result
Chapter 6: advantages and dis advantages
Chapter 7: application
Chapter 8: Future scope and conclusion
Chapter 9: reference
Chapter1 – abstract
Traditionally and even now many people have pet dogs stationed at their entrance. The
purpose of the dogs is that they bark whenever a person enters through the door. This is
what names this project as Electronic Watch Dog Project as it performs the same task of
detecting the presence of a person at the entrance of a premises.
A pair of IR sensor transmitter and receiver are placed at the entrance of the premises that
needs to be secured. This is what does the trick in our case in this project. When a person or
an intruder who doesn’t knows about the security device installed at the entrance enters
through the door, the IR rays gets cut. This cutting of IR rays triggers a series of events in the
circuit eventually ringing a burglar alarm. Hearing the alarm the owner of the premises can
come to know that someone has entered through the door. Similarly, this device can be
installed whichever perimeter is needed to be secure from intruders.
The IR rays from transmitter reaches the IR receiver making it signal to the 555 IC know that
currently there is no present in between the sensors. But as soon as an intruder cuts the IR
rays, the receiver output changes resulting the 555 IC to trigger. This eventually leads in
triggering UM66 IC. Due to these series of events the speaker connected at the output of the
circuit board starts ringing thus notifying about the intruder at the secured permeter.
Chapter 2 – introduction
• Electronic Watch Dog Project as it performs the task of detecting
the presence of a person at the entrance of a premises.
• A pair of IR sensor transmitter and receiver are placed at the
entrance.
• IR rays from transmitter reaches the IR receiver making it signal to
the 555 IC
• When a person enters through the door, the IR rays gets cut.
• the receiver output changes resulting the 555 IC to trigger. This
eventually leads in triggering UM66 IC eventually ringing a alarm.
• Hearing the alarm the owner of the premises can come to know
that someone has entered through the door.
Block diagram
 Hardware requirements
* IC555
We have seen that Multivibrators and CMOS Oscillators can be easily constructed from discrete components to produce
relaxation oscillators for generating basic square wave output waveforms.
But there are also dedicated IC’s especially designed to accurately produce the required output waveform with
the addition of just a few extra timing components. One such device that has been around since the early days
of IC’s and has itself become something of an industry “standard” is the 555 Timer Oscillator which is more
commonly called the “555 Timer”.
The 555 timer which gets its name from the three 5kΩ resistors it uses to generate the two comparators
reference voltage, is a very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device that can act as either a simple
timer to generate single pulses or long time delays, or as a relaxation oscillator producing stabilized
waveforms of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%.
The 555 timer chip is extremely robust and stable 8-pin device that can be operated either as a very
accurate Monostable, Bistable or Astable Multivibrator to produce a variety of applications such as one-shot
or delay timers, pulse generation, LED and lamp flashers, alarms and tone generation, logic clocks, frequency
division, power supplies and converters etc, in fact any circuit that requires some form of time control as the
list is endless.
The single 555 Timer chip in its basic form is a Bipolar 8-pin mini Dual-in-line Package (DIP) device
consisting of some 25 transistors, 2 diodes and about 16 resistors arranged to form two comparators, a flip-
flop and a high current output stage as shown below. As well as the 555 Timer there is also available the
NE556 Timer Oscillator which combines TWO individual 555’s within a single 14-pin DIP package and low
power CMOS versions of the single 555 timer such as the 7555 and LMC555 which use MOSFET transistors
instead.
A simplified “block diagram” representing the internal circuitry of the 555 timer is given below with a brief
explanation of each of its connecting pins to help provide a clearer understanding of how it works.

555 Timer Block Diagram

 • Pin 1. – Ground, The ground pin connects the 555 timer to the negative (0v) supply rail.
 • Pin 2. – Trigger, The negative input to comparator No 1. A negative pulse on this pin “sets” the internal
Flip-flop when the voltage drops below 1/3Vcc causing the output to switch from a “LOW” to a “HIGH” state.
 • Pin 3. – Output, The output pin can drive any TTL circuit and is capable of sourcing or sinking up to
200mA of current at an output voltage equal to approximately Vcc – 1.5V so small speakers, LEDs or motors
can be connected directly to the output.
 • Pin 4. – Reset, This pin is used to “reset” the internal Flip-flop controlling the state of the output, pin 3.
This is an active-low input and is generally connected to a logic “1” level when not used to prevent any
unwanted resetting of the output.
 • Pin 5. – Control Voltage, This pin controls the timing of the 555 by overriding the 2/3Vcc level of the
voltage divider network. By applying a voltage to this pin the width of the output signal can be varied
independently of the RC timing network. When not used it is connected to ground via a 10nF capacitor to
eliminate any noise.
 • Pin 6. – Threshold, The positive input to comparator No 2. This pin is used to reset the Flip-flop when the
voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3Vcc causing the output to switch from “HIGH” to “LOW” state. This pin
connects directly to the RC timing circuit.
 • Pin 7. – Discharge, The discharge pin is connected directly to the Collector of an internal NPN transistor
which is used to “discharge” the timing capacitor to ground when the output at pin 3 switches “LOW”.
 • Pin 8. – Supply +Vcc, This is the power supply pin and for general purpose TTL 555 timers is between
4.5V and 15V.
The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are three 5kΩ resistors connected together internally
producing a voltage divider network between the supply voltage at pin 8 and ground at pin 1. The voltage
across this series resistive network holds the negative inverting input of comparator two at 2/3Vcc and the
positive non-inverting input to comparator one at 1/3Vcc.
The two comparators produce an output voltage dependent upon the voltage difference at their inputs which is
determined by the charging and discharging action of the externally connected RC network. The outputs from
both comparators are connected to the two inputs of the flip-flop which in turn produces either a “HIGH” or
“LOW” level output at Q based on the states of its inputs. The output from the flip-flop is used to control a
high current output switching stage to drive the connected load producing either a “HIGH” or “LOW” voltage
level at the output pin.
The most common use of the 555 timer oscillator is as a simple astable oscillator by connecting two resistors
and a capacitor across its terminals to generate a fixed pulse train with a time period determined by the time
constant of the RC network. But the 555 timer oscillator chip can also be connected in a variety of different
ways to produce Monostable or Bistable multivibrators as well as the more common Astable Multivibrator.

The Monostable 555 Timer

The operation and output of the 555 timer monostable is exactly the same as that for the transistorised one
we look at previously in the Monostable Multivibrators tutorial. The difference this time is that the two
transistors have been replaced by the 555 timer device. Consider the 555 timer monostable circuit below.

Monostable 555 Timer

When a negative ( 0V ) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Monostable configured 555 Timer
oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator No1) detects this input and “sets” the state of the flip-flop,
changing the output from a “LOW” state to a “HIGH” state. This action in turn turns “OFF” the discharge
transistor connected to pin 7, thereby removing the short circuit across the external timing capacitor, C1.
This action allows the timing capacitor to start to charge up through resistor, R1 until the voltage across the
capacitor reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set up by the internal voltage divider network. At
this point the comparators output goes “HIGH” and “resets” the flip-flop back to its original state which in
turn turns “ON” the transistor and discharges the capacitor to ground through pin 7. This causes the output to
change its state back to the original stable “LOW” value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the timing
process over again. Then as before, the Monostable Multivibrator has only “ONE” stable state.
The Monostable 555 Timer circuit triggers on a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and this trigger pulse
must be much shorter than the output pulse width allowing time for the timing capacitor to charge and then
discharge fully. Once triggered, the 555 Monostable will remain in this “HIGH” unstable output state until the
time period set up by the R1 x C1 network has elapsed. The amount of time that the output voltage remains
“HIGH” or at a logic “1” level, is given by the following time constant equation.

Where, t is in seconds, R is in Ω’s and C in Farads.

555 Timer Example No1

A Monostable 555 Timer is required to produce a time delay within a circuit. If a 10uF timing capacitor is
used, calculate the value of the resistor required to produce a minimum output time delay of 500ms.
500ms is the same as saying 0.5s so by rearranging the formula above, we get the calculated value for the
resistor, R as:

The calculated value for the timing resistor required to produce the required time constant of 500ms is
therefore, 45.5KΩ’s. However, the resistor value of 45.5KΩ’s does not exist as a standard value resistor, so
we would need to select the nearest preferred value resistor of 47kΩ’s which is available in all the standard
ranges of tolerance from the E12 (10%) to the E96 (1%), giving us a new recalculated time delay of 517ms.
If this time difference of 17ms (500 – 517ms) is unacceptable instead of one single timing resistor, two
different value resistor could be connected together in series to adjust the pulse width to the exact desired
value, or a different timing capacitor value chosen.
We now know that the time delay or output pulse width of a monostable 555 timer is determined by the time
constant of the connected RC network. If long time delays are required in the 10’s of seconds, it is not always
advisable to use high value timing capacitors as they can be physically large, expensive and have large value
tolerances, e.g, ±20%.
One alternative solution is to use a small value timing capacitor and a much larger value resistor up to about
20MΩ’s to produce the require time delay. Also by using one smaller value timing capacitor and different
resistor values connected to it through a multi-position rotary switch, we can produce a Monostable 555 timer
oscillator circuit that can produce different pulse widths at each switch rotation such as the switchable
Monostable 555 timer circuit shown below.

A Switchable 555 Timer

We can manually calculate the values of R and C for the individual components required as we did in the
example above. However, the choice of components needed to obtain the desired time delay requires us to
calculate with either kilohm’s (KΩ), Megaohm’s (MΩ), microfarad’s (μF) or picafarad’s (pF) and it is very
easy to end up with a time delay that is out by a factor of ten or even a hundred.
We can make our life a little easier by using a type of chart called a “Nomograph” that will help us to find the
monostable multivibrators expected frequency output for different combinations or values of both
the R and C. For example,

Monostable Nomograph
So by selecting suitable values of C and R in the ranges of 0.001uF to 100uF and 1kΩ to 10MΩ’s
respectively, we can read the expected output frequency directly from the nomograph graph thereby
eliminating any error in the calculations. In practice the value of the timing resistor for a monostable 555
timer should not be less than 1kΩ or greater than 20MΩ.

Bistable 555 Timer (flip-flop)

The switching of the output waveform is achieved by controlling the trigger and reset inputs of the 555 timer
which are held “HIGH” by the two pull-up resistors, R1 and R2. By taking the trigger input (pin 2) “LOW”,
switch in set position, changes the output state into the “HIGH” state and by taking the reset input (pin 4)
“LOW”, switch in reset position, changes the output into the “LOW” state.
This 555 timer circuit will remain in either state indefinitely and is therefore bistable. Then the Bistable 555
timer is stable in both states, “HIGH” and “LOW”. The threshold input (pin 6) is connected to ground to
ensure that it cannot reset the bistable circuit as it would in a normal timing application.
555 Timer Output
We could not finish this 555 Timer tutorial without discussing something about the switching and drive
capabilities of the 555 timer or indeed the dual 556 Timer IC.
The output (pin 3) of the standard 555 timer or the 556 timer, has the ability to either “Sink” or “Source” a
load current of up to a maximum of 200mA, which is sufficient to directly drive output transducers such as
relays, filament lamps, LED’s motors, or speakers etc, with the aid of series resistors or diode protection.
This ability of the 555 timer to both “Sink” (absorb) and “Source” (supply) current means that the output
device can be connected between the output terminal of the 555 timer and the supply to sink the load current
or between the output terminal and ground to source the load current. For example.

Sinking and Sourcing the 555 Timer Output

In the first circuit above, the LED is connected between the positive supply rail ( +Vcc ) and the output pin 3.
This means that the current will “Sink” (absorb) or flow into the 555 timer output terminal and the LED will
be “ON” when the output is “LOW”.
The second circuit above shows that the LED is connected between the output pin 3 and ground ( 0v ). This
means that the current will “Source” (supply) or flow out of the 555 timers output terminal and the LED will
be “ON” when the output is “HIGH”.
The ability of the 555 timer to both sink and source its output load current means that both LED’s can be
connected to the output terminal at the same time but only one will be switched “ON” depending whether the
output state is “HIGH” or “LOW”. The circuit to the left shows an example of this. the two LED’s will be
alternatively switched “ON” and “OFF” depending upon the output. Resistor, R is used to limit the LED
current to below 20mA.
We said earlier that the maximum output current to either sink or source the load current via pin 3 is about
200mA at the maximum supply voltage, and this value is more than enough to drive or switch other logic
IC’s, LED’s or small lamps, etc. But what if we wanted to switch or control higher power devices such as
motors, electromagnets, relays or loudspeakers. Then we would need to use a transistor to amplify the 555
timers output in order to provide a sufficiently high enough power to drive the load.

555 Timer Transistor Driver

The transistor in the two examples above, can be replaced with a Power MOSFET device or Darlington
transistor if the load current is high. When using an inductive load such as a motor, relay or electromagnet, it
is advisable to connect a freewheeling (or flywheel) diode directly across the load terminals to absorb any
back emf voltages generated by the inductive device when it changes state.
Thus far we have look at using the 555 Timer to generate monostable and bistable output pulses. In the next
tutorial about Waveform Generation we will look at connecting the 555 in an astable multivibrator
configuration. When used in the astable mode both the frequency and duty cycle of the output waveform can
be accurately controlled to produce a very versatile waveform generator.

*BATTERY

An electrical battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert stored chemical
energy into electrical energy. The battery has become a common power source for many household and
industrial applications.

Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in standby power applications.
Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby
power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

WORKING OF BATTERY:
 A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a
number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte
containing anions and cat ions. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively-
charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which cat ions (positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In the red
ox reaction that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cat ions at the cathode, while
oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte. Many cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. In that case
each half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a separator that is porous to ions but not the bulk of the electrolytes
prevents mixing.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current
from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-
cells. Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and, in other words, the net emf is the difference between the
reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage
(difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is
called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage
of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a
cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5
volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 Joule of work. In
actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under
discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the
shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical
energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have
become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate,
the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth. There are
two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and
discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used
multiple times. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches; larger batteries
provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

Principle of operation
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic
cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions
and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions)
migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which
cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers
the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are
removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte.
Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but
prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the
interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as
first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in
other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The electrical
driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is
measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-
circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that
is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is
charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain
a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and
stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells,
the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If
the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the
curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have different chemistries but
approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but
approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the
reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Lead-acid

Tried, tested, and trusted, lead-acid batteries have been with us since the middle of the 19th
century. With an overall rating of 12 volts, they have six separate cells, each producing 2
volts. Crudely reduced to its basic components, each cell has a "spongy" lead metal electrode
(negative), a lead dioxide electrode (positive), and a sulfuric acid electrolyte. As the battery
discharges, both electrodes become coated with lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is largely
converted into water, while electrons flow out around the external circuit to provide power.

Lead-acid batteries made it possible to start cars without the help of a dangerous and dirty
hand crank. Normally, you never have to recharge them—because your car does that
automatically. The battery discharges (gives up a little of its energy) to help the car's gasoline
engine start up, and recharges (gets energy back again) when the engine begins generating
electrical energy through a device called an alternator. As for disadvantages, lead-acid
batteries are relatively big, surprisingly heavy (try lifting one!), expensive, and can't be fully
charged and discharged too many times. Another problem is their use of toxic lead metal,
which can cause environmental problems when they're dumped in landfills.

Nickel-cadmium

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd, pronounced "nicad") are widely used as replacements for disposable
1.5-volt batteries in things like toys, flashlights, and power tools. They're relatively cheap, can
be charged and discharged hundreds of times, and, properly treated, will last about a decade.

Although very dependable, it's often said that NiCd batteries need to be discharged fully
before you charge them up or the amount of charge they will store (and their effective
lifespan) can be greatly reduced. Opinions vary on whether this is true and, if so, why it
happens, but as a rule of thumb, regularly discharging batteries completely and then
recharging them is a good practice. Another problem with NiCd batteries is the toxic cadmium
metal they contain. If they are buried in a landfill, instead of properly recycled, the cadmium
can escape into the soil and could potentially pollute watercourses nearby.

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)

Nickel metal hydride batteries work in a similar way, but suffer less from the so-called
"memory effect." They became a popular alternative to NiCd batteries in the 1990s, partly
because of environmental concerns about cadmium. NiMH batteries work more effectively in
gadgets like cellphones, which are often "topped-up" with a quick recharge instead of a
complete discharge and recharge (which is more typical with something like power tools).

Lithium-ion

Lithium-ion batteries are the fastest-growing type of rechargeables; there are probably lithium-
ion batteries in your cellphone, MP3 player, and laptop computer. What's so good about
lithium? It's a lightweight metal that easily forms ions, so it's excellent for making batteries.
The latest lithium-ion batteries can store about twice as much energy as traditional NiCd
rechargeables, work at higher voltages, and are more environmentally friendly, but don't last
as long. Even so, they can be charged and discharged hundreds of times and typically last
several years, so they're great for everyday use in electronic gadgets that aren't meant to last
that long.

How do they work? When you plug a cellphone or laptop into the power supply, the lithium-
ion battery inside starts buzzing with chemical activity. The battery's job is to store as much
electricity as possible, as fast as possible. It does this through a chemical reaction that shunts
lithium ions (lithium atoms that have lost an electron to become positively charged) from one
part of the battery to another. When you unplug the power and use your laptop or phone, the
battery switches into reverse: the ions move the opposite way and the battery gradually loses
its charge. Read more in our main article on how lithium-ion batteries work.

*IC 7805
Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-
PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide range of applications. Each
type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components
to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
Internal Block Diagram

FIG 4.2(a):
BLOCK

DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

*RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a process known as rectification.
Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals.
Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be
a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good
stability and full wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes( 1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct,
in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias only.

* FILTER

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens
the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant.
However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is
applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this filter is very
limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for cathode-ray and similar
electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply. This filter is also used in circuits where the
power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high. Below figure can show how the
capacitor changes and discharges.
*PUSH BUTTONS

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some
aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The
surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or
pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical
nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing"
of the button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.

Uses:
In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a mechanical linkage so that
the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a stop button can "force" a start
button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual operations in which the machine or
process have no electrical circuits for control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the operator will not push
the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the machine or process and green for
starting the machine or process.
Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to facilitate the
stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and are mandated by the electrical
code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use
with operators who need to wear gloves for their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push
button. As an aid for operators and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly
added to draw the attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is
included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.
The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the back of the
pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when pushed will cause the
process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact designed into the operation or process will
close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action
to start.
In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a military or
government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

Push to ON button:

Fig 3.6 (a): push on button

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become connected. This
makes the switching operation using the push button.

*transistor

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
 The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a general-purpose
transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and amplification BC847/BC547
series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current (Ic) flows freely
through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However, this only happens when a small
biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of
current control input. The ratio of these two currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is
given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, (β). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the
emitter to the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (α), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the emitter
current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the value of this parameter
α is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.
An NPN Transistor Configuration

3.10 BC558

BC557 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

The BC557 transistor is an PNP Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC557 transistor is a general-purpose
transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and amplification BC847/BC547
series 45 V, 100 mA PNP general-purpose transistors.

An PNP Transistor Configuration

 The BC557 transistor is an PNP bipolar transistor, in which the letters "P" and "N" refer to the majority
charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar transistors used today are PNP, because
electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation.
PNP transistors consist of a layer of N-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two P-doped layers. A small
current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an PNP
transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.

The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode. One mnemonic device for identifying the
symbol for the PNP transistor is "not pointing in." An PNP transistor can be considered as two diodes with a
shared anode region. In typical operation, the emitter base junction is forward biased and the base collector
junction is reverse biased.

In an PNP transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base emitter junction, the
equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes
unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or
"diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low
concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped
p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base.
*DIODE

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three
points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1.Maximum forward current capacity
2.Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3.Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have maximum
reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1 Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more capacity can
be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used in place of diode of high
capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be
used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to
IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Fig:PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined together to form a
diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the operation of the PN junction. But
before we can understand how the PN junction works, we must first consider current flow in the materials that
make up the junction and what happens initially within the junction when these two materials are joined
together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper wire. That is, with
voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal just as current would flow in a
copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential of the battery will attract the free electrons in
the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron
leaves the crystal, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing the
current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the
negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by positive holes,
instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P material to the negative terminal.
Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this
terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This
process continues as the steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal

*LED

LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out of silicon. What
makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that are added to the silicon, such as
gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light bulbs produce light
by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons directly and not via heat, they are far
more efficient than incandescent bulbs.
 Fig 3.11(a): Typical LED Fig 3.11(b): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or electronic
equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional lighting technologies.
Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LED’S
LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most common,
estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light
emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear
housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages, such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads.
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

Fig 4.14(c) Different types of LED’S

* RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by producing a voltage
drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely commonplace in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance
wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can dissipate. Other
characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance,
the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit
is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical
dimensions; it's determined by design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and
position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough
not to overheat when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the
resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the
resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by
Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire
(wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated
circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic
design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the
chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be
of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power
rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly
of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may
require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working
voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this
specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of resistance. In a low-
noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance,
excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the
resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a
particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is,
the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is
equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values,
the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also
in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI unit),
sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1. Although the concept of
conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance
(ohms) rather than conductance.
*CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a

dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an electric field is present in the
dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest
between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in

farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In
practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads
introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a
breakdown voltage.

The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality factor of a
resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-
power system, and many other important aspects.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used
as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune
radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops
in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor
is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence
capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength
limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.
Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the
field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region[8]. The non-conductive region is
called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no
net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite
charges on their facing surfaces,[9] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one
farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[10]
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is
wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the
voltage V between them:[8]

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case,
capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the
external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be
released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the
electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:[11]

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge q(t) passing
through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron
accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion
and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge
on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to
the voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the
initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,[12]

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,[13]

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the electric field.
Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and
replacing C with the inductance L.
 *Methodology

• The transmitter and receiver units are aligned such that the IR beam falls
directly on the IR sensor.
• As long as IR beam falls on the sensor, its output remains low,
• When anyone interrupts the IR beam falling on the sensor, its output goes
high
• As a result, gets triggered and its pins goes high to supply 3.3V to melody
generator IC at its pin , which produces a sweet melody through the
speaker fitted inside the house
• Fig. shows mounting arrangement for both the transmitter and receiver
units on the gate pillars.

• After both the units have been built,

• Now connect 6V power to the transmitter also and orient IR LED1
towards IR receiver. The melody should stop after about 30 seconds.
• Now the transmitter and the receiver units are ready for use.
• The alarm keeps sounding as long as one stands between the transmitter
and receiver units.
• Using preset , you can set the volume of the loudspeaker.
• This circuit can also be used as a doorbell or burglar alarm
*result
 *Advantages
• Low power consume
• Small in size
• Low cast

*dis advantages
• It uses the concept of IR transmission and reception. So when
anyone interrupts the IR beam the bell will ring

*application
• It can be used as door bell or burglar alarm.
• It can also be used in Houses, Offices, Jewellery shops for security
and anti-theft purpose

*Future scope and conclusion

if motion sensor is used in the watchdog it will detect anyone in the
radius of 5-10 meters.
 *Reference
• Electronics projects Vol 8 (3rd edition )
• Printed circuit board design and Technology (Walter C.Bosshart)
• Integrated circuits(Millman & Halkias)
• Watch dog timer:- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchdog_timer
• Resistor:- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor
• 555 timer ic:- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555_timer_IC
• Capacitor:- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor
• Diodes:- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode
• Transistor:-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor#:~:text=A%20transistor%2
0is%20a%20semiconductor,electronic%20signals%20and%20electri
cal%20power.&text=It%20is%20composed%20of%20semiconducto
r,connection%20to%20an%20external%20circuit.
• Miscellaneous :-
https://www.digikey.com/en/products/detail/norcomp-
inc/26630201RP2/1026595