BT101 – Introductory Biology

(SENSORY SYSTEMS-Nose/Tongue)

Dr.Navin Gupta
Dept of BSBE,IIT Guwahati
Email:cngupta@iitg.ac.in

Acknowledgement:

Integrated Lecture from the lot of textbooks/websites

and yesteryears BT101 Lectures
BIRDS EYE VIEW OF LECTURE

A. Nose and Smell

A. Tongue and Taste

 The Nose
❑ Nose is the most prominent structure between the eyes, which acts as an entrance to
the respiratory tract and contains an olfactory organ.
❑ It is through the Nose that we get air for respiration, it aids our sense of smell,
conditions the air by filtering, warming as well as moistening it; and cleanses itself off
the foreign particles and dirt that is extracted from inhalation.

❑ The main function of Nose is breathing and filtering the air making it healthy for our
lungs. The inner lining of the Nose is spongy and when blood flows through the nasal
vessels, it swells and gets heated up. Thus, when we breathe in, it heats up the air.
❑The mucous membrane covering the Nose and sinuses produces a sticky substance
called mucus. This substance wets and humidifies the air and traps unwanted
organisms like bacteria and viruses. The microscopic filaments protruding from the
inner membrane of the Nose, known as cilia, keeps on waving uniformly, transferring a
layer of mucus in regular intervals of 5–8 minutes to the back of the Nose. These layers
of mucus are swallowed instead of going down to the lungs and the chemicals in the
stomach destroy the unwanted organisms.
❑ Another function of the Nose is to identify good or bad smells.
 Parts of the Nose
❑ A Nose has five different parts.

❑ External Nose:
It is the triangular-shaped projection that we can see and feel.
❑ Nostrils:
They are the two openings through which we breathe in and out.
❑ Nasal passages:
They are the two passages inside the nostrils which have a layer of mucous membrane that secretes a
sticky fluid known as mucus which filters the dirt in the air while breathing in, alongwith cilia – tiny hair
inside the nasal passages.
❑ Septum:
It is the wall that separates the nostrils into two. It is made up of bones and the flexible connective tissues,
the cartilages. The septum is also covered by mucous membrane on both the sides.
❑ Sinuses:
These are the air-filled cavities in the skull near the nasal passages and there are four pairs of it which are
all layered with mucous membrane.
 Primary senstions of smell
❑Different categorizations of primary odors have been proposed, including the following,
which identifies seven primary odors:

❑Musky: perfumes/aftershave
❑Putrid: rotten eggs
❑Pungent: vinegar
❑Ethereal: dry cleaning fluid
❑Floral: roses (see also floral scent)
❑Pepperminty: mint gum
❑Camphoraceous: mothballs
❑etc. etc. etc.

❑Although recent progress has been made, the idea of primary perceptions is disputed,
and more so the concept of primary odors.
Olfactory epithelium
 Olfactory epithelium

Cribiform plate separates

nasal cavity and cranial cavity
 Olfactory epithelium
❑ In humans, it measures 9 cm2 (3 centimeters by 3 centimeters) and lies on the roof of
the nasal cavity about 7 cm above and behind the nostrils.
❑ The olfactory epithelium is the part of the olfactory system directly responsible for
detecting odors.

❑ Olfactory epithelium mainly comprises of three types of cells:

1. Olfactory receptors or Olfactory sensory neurons (bipolar neurons)
▪ Humans have between 40 million olfactory receptor neurons.
▪ The apical poles of these neurons express odorant receptors on non-motile cilia at the ends of the
dendritic knob, which extend out into the airspace to interact with odorants.
▪ Odorant receptors bind odorants in the airspace, which are made soluble by the serous secretions from
olfactory glands located in the lamina propria of the mucosa.
▪ The axons of the olfactory sensory neurons congregate to form the olfactory nerve.
▪ Once the axons pass through the cribriform plate, they terminate and synapse with the dendrites of mitral
cells in the glomeruli of the olfactory bulb.
 Olfactory epithelium
2. Basal cells (stem cells)
▪ Continually undergo cell division to produce new olfactory receptors, which live for only 6-8 weeks before
being replaced

3. Supporting cells (columnar epithelial cells)

▪ Provide physical support, nourishment and electrical insulation for the olfactory receptors
▪ Help detoxify chemicals that come in contact with the olfactory epithelium

❑ Bowman’s gland:
▪ Secrete mucus onto the surface of the olfactory membrane
▪ Mucus is carried to the surface of the epithelium by ducts.
▪ The secretion moistens the surface of the olfactory epithelium and dissolves odorants so that
transduction can occur.
▪ Constant flow from the olfactory glands allows old odors to be constantly washed away.
 Sense of smell
❑ Odor molecules reach the nasal cavity either through the nostrils when inhaling (olfaction) or through the throat when the
tongue pushes air to the back of the nasal cavity while chewing or swallowing. Most odors consists of organic compounds,
although some simple compounds not containing carbon, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are also odorants.

❑ Inside the nasal cavity, mucus lining the walls of the cavity dissolves odor molecules. Mucus also covers the olfactory
epithelium, which contains mucous membranes that produce and store mucus and olfactory glands that secrete metabolic
enzymes found in the mucus. The olfactory epithelium is a small patch of tissue at the back of the nasal cavity. There are
millions of olfactory receptor neurons that act as sensory signaling cells. Each neuron has cilia in direct contact with the
air.

❑ Olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium detect odor molecules dissolved in the mucus and transmit
information about the odor to the brain in a process called sensory transduction.

❑ Olfactory sensory neurons have cilia (tiny hairs) containing Olfactory receptors that bind to odor molecules, causing an
electrical response that spreads through the Sensory neuron to the olfactory nerve fibers at the back of the nasal cavity
that travel along the olfactory nerve's axons to the brain.

❑ Olfactory nerves and fibers transmit information about odors from the peripheral olfactory system to the central olfactory
system of the brain, which is separated from the epithelium by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone.

❑ Olfactory nerve fibers, which originate in the epithelium, pass through the cribriform plate, connecting the epithelium to the
brain's limbic system at the olfactory bulbs.

❑ The perception of odors, or sense of smell, is mediated by the olfactory nerve.

 How do we smell by nose?

❑ The olfactory epithelium is a tissue concerned with detection of smells.

❑ The odour molecules in the air reach the olfactory receptor neurons, which transmits the signal to our brain.
❑ Thus, our brain instantly recognizes the smell from the exposures in our past and reminds us if it is a good or bad smell.
❑ Humans have 40 million olfactory receptor neurons
❑ Have around 400 types of scent receptors
❑ Previously 10,000. Now, we can detect 1 trillion different odors
 The human olfactory system

❑ Olfaction occurs when odorants bind to specific sites on

olfactory receptors located in the nasal cavity.
❑ The olfactory receptors are localized on olfactory
sensory neurons, which occupy a small area in the
upper part of the nasal epithelium.
❑ Every olfactory receptor cell expresses only one odorant
receptor.
❑ On activation, signals from olfactory receptor cells are
relayed in the glomeruli-well defined micro‐regions in
the olfactory bulb.
❑ Receptor cells of the same type are randomly
distributed in the nasal mucosa but converge on the
same glomerulus.
❑ Glomeruli aggregate signals from these receptors and
transmit them to the olfactory bulb, where the sensory
input will start to interact with parts of the brain
responsible for smell identification.
❑ In the glomerulus, the receptor nerve endings excite
mitral cells that forward the signal to higher regions of
the brain.

http://embor.embopress.org/content/8/7/629
Taste
 Taste
❑ Taste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth
reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds
in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue.
❑ Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve
stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature),
determines flavors of food and/or other substances.

❑ Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi)

and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and
the epiglottis.
❑ The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.
 Taste
❑ Digestive enzymes in saliva begin to dissolve food into base chemicals that are
washed over the papillae and detected as tastes by the taste buds.

❑ The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called papillae.

❑ Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds.
❑ The exception to this is the filiform papillae that do not contain taste buds.
❑ There are between 2000-5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of
the tongue.
❑ Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat.
❑ Each taste bud contains 50-100 taste receptor cells.

❑ Among humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of
loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production.
The taste papillae are a good number of wart-like bumps under the mucous membrane of the tongue. They increase
the surface area of the tongue several times and make sure that individual tastes can be perceived more intensely.
This is also called the magnifying effect of the tongue. The papillae contain several taste buds with sensory cells.
There are three types categorized by their shape:

Fungiform papillae
Fungiform papillae are the most common: between 200 and 400 bumps are
spread all over the surface of the tongue. They are found mostly at the tip of
the tongue and at the edges where they make sure that these areas are
especially sensitive to taste. Fungiform papillae not only detect taste, they
also contain sensory cells for touch and temperature. Each papilla contains 3
to 5 taste buds.

Filiform papillae do not contain taste buds
Circumvallate papillae
Circumvallate papillae are very large and found at the base of the tongue,
where the throat begins. Every person has only 7 to 12 circumvallate papillae,
yet these papillae each contain several thousand taste buds. Circumvallate
papillae are round, raised, and visible to the naked eye. They are arranged in
the shape of a V at the back of the tongue. These papillae are called
circumvallate papillae, because they are surrounded by a trench containing
many glands that “rinse” the taste-producing substances into the sensory
cells.

Foliate papillae
Foliate papillae can also be seen with the naked eye on the rear edges of the
tongue. There you can see several folds that lie close together. Our tongue
has about 20 foliate papillae, each of which has several hundred taste buds.
 Taste buds
❑ Taste buds are the true taste organ. They have numerous sensory cells that are in turn connected to many different nerve
fibers.

❑ Each taste bud has between 50-100 sensory cells. These cells form a capsule that is shaped like a flower bud or an
orange. At the tip of this capsule there is a pore that works as a fluid-filled funnel. This funnel contains thin, finger-shaped
sensory cell extensions, which are called taste hairs. Proteins on the surface bind chemicals to the cell for tasting.

❑ The taste buds are located in the walls and grooves of the papillae. Adults have between 2,000 and 5,000 taste buds in
total. The sensory cells in the taste buds are renewed once a week.

❑ Most of the taste buds are on the tongue. But there are also cells that detect taste elsewhere inside the oral cavity: in the
back of the throat, epiglottis, the nasal cavity, and even in the upper part of the esophagus. Infants and young children
also have sensory cells on their hard palate, in the middle of their tongue as well as in the mucous membranes of their lips
and cheeks.

❑ The final step in perceiving taste is transfer to the nervous system. This is done by several cranial nerves. All information
is carried along the cranial nerves to part of the lower section of the brainstem (the medulla oblongata). At that point there
is a split: Some fibers carry taste signals together with signals from other sensory perceptions like pain, temperature or
touch through several exchange points to consciousness.

❑ The other fibers pass over these exchange points of conscious perception and leads directly to the parts of the brain that
are connected with sensory perception and which are responsible for securing our survival. It is here that taste signals are
combined with different smell signals.
Taste buds
Each taste bud expresses distinct molecular sensors, such
as G protein-coupled receptors or ion channels, which
detect tastants (i.e., chemical stimuli that elicit taste
sensation) and initiate an intracellular response that results
in membrane depolarization and/or action potentials (APs)
causing transmitter release.
 Different Tastes
❑ Salty taste:
❑ Table salt (NaCl) are responsible for the sensation of a salty taste.
❑ The sodium cations cause the cell membrane to depolarize. This leads to release of Ca2+ cations which in turn releases
neurotransmitters. By doing so the neurotransmitters are redirecting the action potential trough the nerve paths to the brain.
❑ The higher the concentration of salt is the more intense the actual taste.
❑ Mineral salts like the salts of potassium or magnesium can also cause a sensation of saltiness.

❑ Sour taste:
❑ Sourness is the taste that detects acidity. Food (lemon) that taste sour is rich in hydrogen ions. These hydrogen ions activate the proton
channels which in turn depolarizes the membrane and releases Ca2+ cations.
❑ Cytosolic acidification

❑ Sweet taste:
❑ Glucose, artificial sweeteners, etc. bind on specific receptors which in turn activates G Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs). These lead
again to a depolarization of the cell and releasing Ca2+ cations. The release of Ca2+ cations is the reason that the nervous signal is
transmitted by neurotransmitters.

❑ Bitter taste:
❑ Bitter is the result of bitter-tasting compounds binding to GPCRs.
❑ In total there are about 35 different proteins in the sensory cells that respond to bitter substances.

❑ Umami taste:
❑ Umami is a taste of glutamate, aspartate etc. binding to a variant of G protein coupled glutamate receptors (modified forms of mGluR4,
mGluR1 and taste receptor type 1 (T1R1 + T1R3)).
❑ Flavour enhancers are used to bring out the flavour in a wide range of foods without adding a flavour of their own.
❑ For example, monosodium glutamate (E621), known as MSG, is added to processed foods, especially soups, sauces and sausages.