The Effect of Perforating on Well Productivity
M. H. HARRIS GULF RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT CO.
JUNIOR MEMBER AIME
ABSTRACT
A solution has been obtained to the problem of cal-
culating flow into a cased and perforated well. Equations
describing the idealized system were solved by numerical
analysis techniques on a high-speed digital computer. Com-
puter experimentation indicated that the results are within
3 per cent of the exact solution.
Computed results are presented as an apparent skin ef-
fect, on a series of dimensionless working curves. Produc-
tivity ratios can be rapidly calculated from these data for
the wide range of wellbore and reservoir properties actual-
ly encountered in field practice. Any reasonable vertical
anisotropy ratio can be included in the computation. Pro-
ductivities can be calculated for wells perforated in a reg-
ular pattern, a single horizontal plane or a vertical line
on one side of the casing. Solutions for asymmetrical per-
foration patterns can be easily obtained from the working
curves. Solutions for flow into wells completed with a hori-
zontal notch are also provided.
Results show that productivity can be increased by ex-
tending perforation penetration. This is especially true for
shallow penetrations. The highest productivity is obtained
when perforations are arranged in horizontal planes, as
opposed to a vertical line on one side of the casing. Four
or five perforations in one plane will approach the maxi-
mum productivity. The elfect of perforation hole diameter
is small, and is noticeable only in shallow penetrations.
INTRODUCTION
The perforating method of well completion has been
successfully and widely used in most producing areas. In
the past, the desired perforation results were achieved by
simply shooting numerous large holes in the casing. A per-
forating scheme for an area, or particular well, was estab-
lished by evaluating two types of experimental data: the
well flow index and the productivity ratio.'-'
The well flow index test is a means of determining the
relative flow capacity of perforations in a linear system.
This test also gives information on the perforation size,
shape and hole damage which can be expected under well-
bore conditions. However, relative flow data from this test
cannot be accurately tarnsformed into the radial well bore
system. Thus, no true indication of the productive capacity
of a perforated well can be obtained from the well flow
index test.
A well productivity ratio is derived from electrolytic
models built to simulate perforated wells. Available produc-
tivity ratio data'" are limited in that all important var-
iables are not extensively evaluated. For example, data are
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office
July 20, 1965. Revised manuscript of SPE 1236 received March 2, 1966.
Paper was presented at SPE Annual Fall Meeting held in Denver,
Colo .. Oct. 3-6, 1965.
lReferences given at end of paper.
518
PITTSBURGH, PA.
limited to well radii of 3 and 6 in., and to maximum per-
foration penetration of 1 ft. Pract!cally no infor~ation is
available on the pattern of flow mto a perforatIon. The
effect of various perforation patterns on well productivity
has not yet been determined and the effect of perforation
diameter has not been thoroughly studied. Also, it will be
shown that this type of electrolytic model data is probably
in error by as much as 10 per cent or more.
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Modern completion techniques such as limited-entry per-
forating, single-plane fracturing, steam and hot air i~jec­
tion and chemical consolidation of incompetent formatIons
all rely on injection and/ or production from a limited type
of completion. These completions may consist of several
high-capacity perforations or a horizontal not~h w?ich is
equivalent to an infinite number of perfo:atIOns m. one
plane. Proper design of these new completIOn techniques
requires, in part, accurate estimates of a well's productive
capacity.
Data on perforated and notched well productivity have
been determined in this investigation. Results are present-
ed as a function of the pertinent variables. Equations de-
scribing the idealized system were solved by numerical an-
alysis techniques on a high-speed digital computer.
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The computed results can be applied to wells which
meet several general specifications. An external drainage
radius of the well must be known or assumed, but the well
need not be drilled on a regular pattern. The well must be
cased and cemented through the entire producing interval.
And, the casing must be perforated with one or more hori-
zontal planes of perforations. The perforation pattern it-
self must conform to three geometrical requirements.
1. The perforations in a plane must divide the plane into
equal angular segments (Fig. 1). Four perforations per
plane would be 90° apart.
2. Perforations in a plane must be directly above or be-
neath perforations in adjacent planes. For two shots per
plane, perforations would lie in the BB' plane (Fig. 1).
3. Horizontal planes must have equal vertical spacing
and be separated from the top and bottom of the forma-
tion by one half the spacing interval. Single planes of per-
forations should be in the middle of the formation. This is
shown in Fig. 2 where h is the formation thickness in a
single plane completion or the spacnig interval in a multiple
plane completion.
The spacing interval at the top and bottom of the for-
mation may vary somewhat without causing an appreciable
error in the productivity calculation if the formation is
reasonably thick and there are many horizontal planes of
perforations. A special provision has been made to calcu-
late the productivity ratios of wells with uneven spacing
intervals, or for the case where a single plane of perfora-
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
tions is displaced a significant distance from the middle of
the formation.
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The mathematical solution of the problem requires that
a number of assumptions be made concerning the porous
media and its confined fluids.
1. The porous medium is horizontal and of uniform
thickness. Permeabilities of this medium are homogeneous
in the vertical and radial (horizontal) directions, but not
necessarily equal to each other.
2. A single, incompressible fluid is flowing. The flow is
viscous and steady-state.
3. The effect of gravity is negligible.
4. All fluid enters the formation across the drainage ra-
dius of the well. Fluid is produced only through the casing
perforations or notch.
5. At some radius beyond the wellbore, the effect of the
perforations or notch is not felt. Beyond this radius, flow is
radial and can be described by the normal logarithmic dis-
tribution.
The productivity ratio is a relative term, based on a com-
parison he tween flow from a perforated completion and
flow from an equivalent openhole completion. The above
assumptions will not limit or introduce any error into the
A technique known as the successive over-relaxation method
B~J--- --I--B'
A'
FIG. I-HORIZONTAL CROSS-SECTION.
0-- --0'
d 8= 82
...L
c ---
T
c'
CEMENT~
SHEATH
FIG. 2-VERTICAL CROSS-SECTION (RADIAL FLOW RADIUS To IS THE
RADIUS BEYOND WHICH THE PERFORATIONS DO NOT AFFECT FLUID
FLOW AND ALL FLOW IS RADIAL; THERE ARE NO PRESSURE
GRADIENTS IN THE VERTICAL DIRECTION).
APRIL, 1966
productivity ratio for this reason. However, in calculating
absolute flow rates from productivity ratios these assump-
tions must be taken into consideration in determining the
openhole flow rates.
If the perforation pattern meets the three geometrical
requirements outlined earlier, the reservoir around the well-
bore can be subdivided into a basic elementary volume or
a unit cell. This volumetric element is the mathematical
model. The cement sheath radius r wand the radial flow
radius r define the boundaries of the element in the ra-
0
dial direction. The remaining faces of the element are the
planes of symmetry AA', BB', CC' and DD' across which
no fluid flows (Figs. 1 and 2). The elementary volume is
shown in Fig. 3. All fluid enters the model across ilie ra-
dial flow radius ro and is produced through the faces of the
perforation. The well radius r w is a no-flow boundary also.
The perforation is forced to assume a shape similar to
the shape of the model because of certain symmetrical re-
strictions imposed by the mathematical solution. (Fig. 3).
Actual and assumed perforation shapes are more clearly
shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The idealized perforation was de-
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signed to have an equivalent diameter and surface area
equal to that of the actual perforation (details on design
of the idealized perforation appear in Appendix A).
Mathematically, the problem reduces to that of solving
LaPlace's equation in cylindrical coordinates for a specified
set of boundary conditions. Equations describing the flow
of fluid into ilie perforation were derived. A numerical
was used to solve the equations describing the idealized
system. Calculations were performed on a high-speed digi-
tal computer, the IBM 7090. The mathematical descrip-
tion of the problem and the associated numerical consid-
erations are outlined in Appendices Band C, respectively.
COMPUTED RESULTS
ACCURACY
Computer experimentation indicates that the reported re-
sults are within 3 per cent of the exact solution. This type
of error is discussed more fully in Appendix C. The ac-
curacy of individual problems was maintained by obtain-
ing a material balance between the flow over the radial
flow radius and flow into the perforation or notch. Accur-
acy of the material balance was above 99 per cent for each
calculation (a comparison with electrolytic model results
is made in the Discussion of Results).
VARIABLES
Productivity ratios are represented in the form of a di-
mensionless apparent skin effect Sn. The skin effect is a
2
;
h
I 11 _---
t ~ Jl----{ -----
i<1::... r ~--" 81
rw- • I :---.t:..
~a--l
ro
~--8=O
FIG. 3-MATHEMATICAL MODEL.
519
function of the cement sheath radius r".; perforation diam- PRODUCTIVITY RATIOS
eter or notch thickness d; penetration beyond the cement Skin effect is related to the productivity ratio by:'
sheath a; vertical perforation spacing interval h; and the
number of perforations per plane m. The skin effect was 1n~
calculated as a function of these five variables in dimen- qp] r".
(8)
sionless form. These dimensionless numbers are defined as: [(i." - 1nr"- ,t (S/))'
rw
dD =d
- ~k,
- (1) for steady-state flow conditions, and
r". k,
a
aD = - (2) ln~- 0.75
rw rJI"
. (9)
I nr"- - 0.75 + (SlJ)
hD=h- ~ -k.' (3) r".
Yw kr for steady-state flow conditions, and
m = 36010,° (4) z
1111 1m
o 9
The skin effect was computed for combinations of the
I--
m= co (NOTCH) m=1
dimensionless numbers ranging from 8
cn<t
ITn 1TT
0.0833 :::; d u :::; 0.333
cna::
wI--
...Jw
7
6 ,
~ ho=1
do=.I666 -

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ZZ
1.0:::; aD:::; 8.0 ow 5 1\
1.0:::; hD :::; 100
(i)Q..
Zz
wo
~ -
4
3
\ I\.
,
1.0:::; m :::; 00.
-I--
0<t \. 1\
~a::
2
Computed values of SD are plotted as function of dD' aD, cO I\. l"I
o u..
hI) and m in Figs. 6 through 14. To plot skin effect on a a:: o
w
logarithmic scale, it was necessary to add a constant C to Q.. 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
the skin effect SD so that all values of Sf} would be positive (5 0 +3), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT
and greater than 1.0. Actually:
FIC. 6-CALCULATED SKIN EFFECT.
Sn = (Sf} + C) - C (5)

In Figs. 6 through 8:
z,
o
I- 9
C = 3.0, (6) <x: 8
m=co(NOTCH) 4 2 I
,
(/)

and in Figs. 9 through 14:

(/)
lLI I-
a::
7 ~ _\ 1\
-l lLI
z Z 6 1\ \ ~
C = 4.0. (7) 0 lLI
5 \. ~ ~
(/) a..
z
lLI
~
o
~ <x:
Z
0
I-
4
3
2
I-
I-
ho=2
do=·1666-
'\ \ 1\
~
,r\. \
[\
1\ 1\

o I-ldfl'rrI1~~~ "
ca:: I
o 0
T
--
I.L.
_--A, a:: 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 5,0 10.0

LL ------
lLI
\ a..
(5 0+3), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFfECT
FIC. 7-CALCULATED SKIN EFFECT.

·~I' Z
o
1-
__---- 0 - 9

FIG. 4-IDEALIZED PERFORATION SHAPE (QUARTER SEGMENT).

(/) <x:
(/) a::
l-
8
7
m=CII(NOTCH) 4 2
~
,
I

lLI I-

,
...J lLI 1\ .\ \ \
6
Z
o ~
(/)
Z
5 \ \ ~
i\.
, ~
1\
Z 4 ho=4 \
lLI Z
3 do=.l666- ~\
~ 0 '~ \
Ci i= 2 d o=.333-- '\ f\I
<x: ~
~ a:: I ..l --Ll
Co IIIIIIIII
o I.L.
a::
o
lLI
0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
a.. (50+3), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT
FIG. 5-AcTUAL PERFORATION SHAPE (QUARTER SEGMENT). FIG. 8-CALCULATED SKIN EFFECT.

520 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 Quasi-steady-state productivity ratios should be used
"'hen a well is drilled in a developed pattern. It is assumed
that there is no flow across the outer drainage radius.
Steady-state productivity ratios should be used when a well
is drilled in an undeveloped area or when adjacent wells
are a considerable distance away. This assumes that there
is flow across the outer radius r, (derivation of the skin
effect and productivity ratio equations is in Appendix D).
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
SKIN EFFECT CURVES
Skin effect SD is plotted as a function of dimensionless
perforation penetration all for various values of dD' hD and
m. All the solid-line curves are for d ll = 0.1666, as noted
on the figures. Skin effects for do = 0.333 and 0.0833
were determined for the notch cases (m = en) and all val-
ues of hu. These data are indicated by broken-line curves
on Figs. 7, 8 and 14. The value of Su was unchanged when
d u was changed from 0.1666 to 0.333 or to 0.0833. The
notch curve in Fig. 6 is an example of this. The absence
of the df) = 0.0833 line in Figs. 7 and 8 is another ex-
ample. Changes in d u are most pronounced at small values
of au.
Curves are not presented to show the effect of d D upon
Su for various values of m. However, this is closely approx-
imated from the data for m = en. McDowell and Muskat'
indicate that the effect of perforation diameter does not
depend on perforation density or the number of perfora-
tions per plane. Furthermore, these authors show that, at
values of au greater than 2, the effect of changing d u is
quite small.
Figs. 9 through 14 are plotted so that Su can be calcu-
lated for intermediate values of hu by interpolating between
the curves for hf) = 4, 40 and 100.
CORRELATION OF VARIABLES
The effect of perforation diameter do on well productiv-

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z o 9
0 9 ho=4 40 100
I-
<{ a h =4 40 100 U)
I-
<{
a
U)
U) 0:: i\ \ U) 0:: 7
\
w I- 7 W
...J W
I-
6 1
...J W ~ Z z
z z 6 \ !\ Q w 5
Q w 5 1\ U) a.. ~
U) a.. 4 1\
z 4 z \
w z 3 w z 3
~ Q
~ Q
o I- 2
o I- 2
1\ r--..
-
cO::
<{
I
m=1 d o:,.1666-
r-. "'- o
-
cO::
<{
0
I
o m=4 do=.I6E -
c 0 I.L.
I.L. 0 0:: I 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
0:: I 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 W
W a.. (50+4), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT
a..
(so+4), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT
FIG. 12-CALCULATED SKIN EFFECT.
FIG. 9-CALCULATED SKIN EFFECT.

z
z o
0 9 I- 9 100
hc=4 40
I-
a h-4 40 100 U)
<{
0:: a
U)
<{
0:: 1\ U)I-
7 \ \
7
,
W W
U)
W
I-
w \ ...Jz 6 \
...J Z 6 Z w
Z w Qa.. 5
0 a.. 5 U)
\
U5 4 ~ z 4
wz 1\
z z
w 0 3 1\ 1\ ~ 0 3
~ I' 1\ o I- 2 \ 1\
I-
0 <{ 2 <{ I'...
- 0:: I
- 0:: I Co m=5 do=.I666-
C
Co
I.L. 0
m=2 do=.1666- C I.L. o
0:: I 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
0:: 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 W
W
a.. a.. (so+4), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT
(so+4), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT
FIG. 13-CALCUI.ATW SKIN EFFECT.
FIG. 10--CALCULATED SKIN EFFECT.

z z
0 Q 9 .-~~~~~~~~"""~-,~~~
9 I-
I- ho=4 40 100 a I------'h-'r"-0=-.r4++4;.:;0=-++-;,;IO;-;:°'r---t-+-t+tt-1!--t++++---+-+--++-HH
U) <{ a U)<{
U)O::
U)
w
0::
I- 7 1\ wI- 7 ~~++~HH~~~HH~++Hr-r-+--+~H
...Jw
...J W
6 \ Zz 6 ~~++H\~+H~t-+-t+tt-1!--t++++---+-+--++-HH
z
z
Q w 1\ o~ 1\ '
~ I--+-+-\H-++-\\-,H+~.\-+--t-+t-+++ do =.1666 -
'~
a.. 5 U)
U)
z 4 \ z
w z wz 3 l do=·333 - - -
3 ~o
I~ '~!l.~ ~,o,=,.~af311·Ll
~ Q
0 I-
\ 01- 2 "
<{
2 <{
I
-0:: I
- 0::
Co m=3 do=·1666- Co o '----L- _.LLJ,--,--,-,m-,"-=~co--",(N=O--,,-TC=H"-L)LLL-,-----"--LLLIIILLI----'-----'--'---LI-'---L-J
c I.L.
C I.L. 0 0::
0::
2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 W I 2 5 10 20 50 100200 500
W a..
a.. (sO+4) DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT
(50+ 4), DIMENSIONLESS SKIN EFFECT

FIG. ll-CALCULATED SKIN EFFECT. FIG. 14-CALCUI.ATED SKIN EFFECT.

APRIL, ]966 521

ity has been sufficiently discussed. Perforation penetration,
pattern and density are factors which -greatly influence per-
foration productivity and skin effect.
Perforation penetration is a major factor in limiting
productivity. Deep penetration will result in a substantially
increased productivity ratio. The productivity ratio is plot-
ted as a function of perforation penetration in Fig. 15.
The first several inches of penetration contribute the most:
to increasing the productivity. The curve shows that addi-
tional penetration substantially increases the productivity
also. For this particular example, a penetration of 2 in. be-
yond the cement sheath results in a productivity ratio of
0.87. Additional penetration to 24 in. increases the produc-
tivity ratio by 44 per cent to 1.25. Penetration in hard-rock
formations is usually less than that in soft or unconsolidat-
ed sands. An improved perforating technique for hard for-
mations could increase well productivity and, perhaps,
eliminate the necessity of fracturing in some wells. This
could mean a considerable reduction on completion and
stimulation costs.
quirements of the mathematical model. However, the pro-
ductivity of the spiral pattern should be about equal to
that for m = 2.
The advantage of a well distributed perforation pattern
is evident from Fig. 16. This factor should be seriously
considered when perforating tubingless completions or
when perforating in the presence of a tubing string. A per-
forating tool with 120° phasing should be used in prefer-
ence to perforating in a vertical plane (m = I pattern).
Vertical perforating may be a necessity for stimulation
work where ball sealers are used. At least a 10 per cent
increase in injectivity could be obtained in stimulation
treatments if another perforating pattern could be devel-
oped which assures a clean, large-size entrance hole which
would afford a good seal for nylon balls. A tool of this
type should shoot two shots (180° phasing) or four shots
(90° phasing) per plane.
The effect of perforation density is shown in Fig. 17.
The perforations are arranged in the optimum pattern, all
in one plane. Perforation density is varied by increasing

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Fig. 16 shows the relation between the perforation pat- the number of perforations in a plane from one to five and,
tern geometry and well productivity. A perforation density finally, replacing the perforations with a notch. The per-
of 4 shots/ ft has been chosen for illustration. The particu- foration planes are spaced 1 ft apart. The effect of perfor-
lar patterns are shown on the right-hand side of the figure ation density is more pronounced at low perforation den-
for m = 1, 2 and 4. The productivity ratio is plotted as a sities, such as 2 or 3 shots/ ft. The maximum productivity
function of m on the graph. This curve illustrates that a ratio is 1.24 for the case of the notch. Fig. 17 indicates
productivity increase of about 10 per cent can be obtained that it is advantageous to have at least 4 shots/ ft, which
with the optimum perforation pattern. The spiral pattern gives a productivity ratio of 1.12 or about 90 per cent
of 4 shots/ ft could not be studied in this investigation be- of the maximum. A productivity ratio of 1.165 or 94 per
cause this pattern did not conform to the geometrical re- cent of the maximum would result from 5 shots/ ft.
COMPARISON OF RESULTS
0
1.3 Results of this investigation are compared to the data
~
presented by McDowell and Muskai' and by Howard and
4(
1.2 Watson3 in Fig. 18. The results from both of these studies
0: were obtained from electrolytic models. The data of Mc-
>- Dowell and Muskat are in slightly better agreement with
~ 1.1 this investigation than the data of Howard and Watson.
> re =660 ft. The electrolytic model data of McDowell and Muskat
~ rw= 0.25 ft. are considerably lower than the computed results of this
u 1.0
study. These lower productivity ratios can be attributed
J d =t In.
Q to two inaccuracies in their experimental method.
0 0.9 m=4
a: 1. The diameter of the copper wire which was used to
t:L.., 4 PERFORATIONS
., simulate the perforations was not scaled exactly. This re-
r---l
~I tT
tT .. 0.8 PER FOOT sulted in perforation areas which were 5.5 and 8.0 per
cent less than the true value for Y4 - and ;,z -in. diameter
L-.:..-I 't' I T
0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
PERFORATION PENETRATION, INCHES
FIG. I5-PRODUCTIVITY RATIO VS PERFORATION PENETRATION. o ONE "HORIZONTAL PLANE"
r- 1.2 OF PERFORATIONS ......
<
--a-- a: AT ONE-FOOT

r----
1.2 '--~'--I~'--I~'--I~'-I---'-----------=---'

o FOUR PERFORATIONS r,=660 ft. > 1.1

r- PER FOOT rw= 0.25 ft. r-
<
II: ~
r- 1.0
~
1.1 r- d=t in.
a=12in.
--
m=1
--- o
;:)

~ g 0.9
r.= 660 ft.
r- a:
g 1.0 - m=2 m=4 a. rw= 0.25 ft.

!:
: 0.8

::fJ: ::{f::: , I
I~I·~ d = "2 In.
tT tT
a = 12 in.

~
0.9 - ; -
OL-~_L-I~L-I~L-I~_ _ _ _ _---~
L-..J 0.7

o f 1
,.
1 234 5 2345678
m, PERFORATIONS PERFORATION DENSITY, PERFORATIONS
PER PLANE PER PLANE AND PER FOOT
FIG. I6-PRODUCTIVITY RATIO VS PERFORATION PATTERN. FIG. I7-PRODUCTIVITY RATIO VS PERFORATION DENSITY.

522 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

perforations, respectively. This error will have the greatest
effect at small values of aD (Fig. 18).
2. The electrolytic model was only 24r,,, in radius. Com-
puter 'experiments indicated a minimum of 30r" for the
radial flow radius. This is an increase of 25 per cent in
the radius. These authors noted that "probes of actual po-
tential distributions in the model showed slight variations
near the external boundaries".
The authors also state that for "various perforation pat-
terns ... no detectable variation in productivity was ap-
parent whether the perforations were all on one vertical
line of the casing or evenly distributed around it". This
statement implies a possible error of 10 per cent, or great-
er, since the computer results of this investigation indicate
a difference of greater than 10 per cent in productivity for
these two patterns (Fig. 16).
The model constructed by Howard and Watson was only
18r w in radius. This is 40 per cent smaller than the 30
r w model used for the computer solution. The greater var-
iation of results presented by these authors can be attribu-
cent, even when the well spacing is decreased from 160-
to 10-acre spacing.
ASYMMETRICAL
PERFORATION SPACING
A perforation pattern is considered to be asymmetric
when the vertical spacing interval between the horizontal
planes of perforations is uneven or when a single plane of
perforations is not in the center of the formation (Fig. 19).
Problems of this type are treated by dividing the formation
into a number of horizontal segments. The formation is
divided midway between the horizontal perforation planes
and at the planes themselves. The horizontal segments are
designated as h" h" h3 and h, in Fig. 19. The number of
horizontal segments will be equal to twice the number of
perforation planes.
A composite productivity ratio (subscript t) can be ap-
proximated for an asymmetrically completed well. If it is
assumed that all the perforations have the same penetration
aD:
[~] =_1 nix[~]

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ted to the smaller model. h (12)
q", h, n=l q,. n n,

ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS where x = number of horizontal segments; h" = thickness

WORKING EQUATIONS of each segment; h, = formation thickness; and
The steady-state and quasi-steady-state well productivity
ratios are defined by Eqs. 8 and 9. The absolute production qp] . calculated for h n = --2h,,~T
k . (13)
rate qp from a perforated well is calculated by multiplying [-qr n
IS
ru: z

the productivity ratio qpl q" by the appropriate openhole The absolute production rate for the well is obtained by
flow rate. These flow rates are: multiplying the composite productivity ratio by the open-
[q,j" ~ 7.07 kh, (Ilp) hole flow rate for the whole formation.
(10)
,fto In(rolr w) The perforation penetration beyond the cement sheath,
and hole diameter, must be estimated for each productivity
for steady-state productivity, and ratio calculation. These items are a function of the type of
7.07 kh, (Ilp) perforating gun used, formation compressive strength and
[q,L" ~ ,11." [In(rJr,,) - 0.75] ,
(11) the conditions under which the casing is perforated (pres-
sure, standoff, etc.). A rapid technique for calculating per-
for quasi-steady-state productivity. foration penetn~tion from service company perforator per-
The productivity ratio of a well will decrease as the formance data (well flow index tests) on Berea sandstone
well's drainage radius r becomes smaller for productivity
0 has been developed by Thompson.' Perforation diameter
ratios less than 1.0. However, the openhole flow rate will data can be obtained directly from the standard well flow
increase as the drainage radius is decreased. The net effect index data. Penetrations reported in these tests include a
of decreasing the drainage radius is to slightly increase the distance of 1.13 in. through the casing and cement sheath.
absolute production rate qp of the perforated well. The This factor should be subtracted from the well flow index
variation in production rate will usually be less than 3 per data before it is corrected for compressive strength by
Thompson's method. This is necessary because penetrations
1.4
0 re -660 ft. SHOTS PER
I-
c:(
1.2 rw-0.25 ft. FOOT - -- - -
a::: d -0.5 in.
)0- 1.0
I-
f)
> 0.8
t=
u
;:)
c 0.6
0
a:::
Q.."
... 0.4
IQ.I~ INVESTIGAT ION
tT tT
L...:-l 0.2 - - MCDOWELL a MUSKAT (2)
_.- HOWARD a WATSON (3)
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
PERFORATION PENETRATION, INCHES
FIG. 18-COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH THE DATA OF McDOWELL FIG. 19-AsYMMETRlCAL PERFORATION DESIGN.
AND MUSKAT (FIG. 5) AND HOWARD AND WATSON (FIG. 6).

APRIL, 1966 523

are measured from the outside of the cement sheath in the
method presented herein.
EXAMPLE CALCULATION
Consider an oil well with the following properties:
r, = 660 ft (40-acre spacing)
r", = 3.0 in. (cement sheath radius)
h, = 25 ft
kh, = 1,000 md ft (from pressure build-up data)
fh" = 0.8 cp (at reservoir conditions).
Assume that the normal draw down on wells in this area
is about 300 psi, and the vertical and horizontal permea-
bilities are equal. Furthermore, service companies have run
perforation performance tests with a commercially avail-
able perforating gun and have obtained perforations 0.5 in.
in diameter. An average penetration of 14 in. beyond the
cement has been obtained under simulated wellbore con-
Well productivity was evaluated in the form of a di-
mensionless apparent skin effect. These skin effects were
correlated over a wide range of reservoir and well bore
properties which are actually encountered in field practice.
The variables which control flow into a perforated well-
bore effect this flow in the following manner:
I. Well productivity can be greatly increased by extend-
ing the perforation penetration beyond the cement sheath.
This effect is more pronounced at low penetrations.
2. Perforation pattern has a noticeable effect on produc-
tivity. The optimum pattern is to position the perforations
evenly around the casing in horizontal planes. Perforating
in one vertical line on one side of the casing results in
the lowest pattern productivity.
3. When perforating in horizontal planes, maximum
productivity (that obtained with a notch) is nearly attained
with 4 or 5 shots/ plane. With 1 horizontal plane/ ft this
density and pattern will usually yield productivities in ex-
cess of the openhole flow rate.
4. Perforation diameter is not a major variable. The ef-

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ditions in a core with the same compressive strength as fect of this parameter is greatest at low perforation pen-
the formation being perforated. etration.
If the formation is perforated with this gun in 4 shots/
plane, 1 plane/ ft (4 shots/ ft) pattern, what productivity NOMENCLATURE
ratio and well productivity can be expected?
a = perforation on notch penetration beyond ce-
The dimensionless ratios calculated from Eqs. 1 through ment, sheath, in.
3 will be:
0.5 - ao = !!....
rtl)
perforation or notch penetration, dimen-
d0 = 3.0 VI = 0.1666
sionless
14.0
= 4.66
A = area
ao = 3.0
d = perforation diameter or notch thickness, in.
1.0_
ho = 0.25 V 1 = 4.0 (perforation plane spacing
interval is 1 ft). do = f~ ~ ~~ perforation diameter or notch thick-
Values of So for ho = 4.0 and m = 4 are found in Figs. ness, dimensionless
8 and 12. From Fig. 8: (so + 3) = 2.08 for do = 0.1666 h = vertical perforation spacing interval or for-
and ao = 4.66. So = 2.08 - 3.00 = -0.92. mation thickness, ft
Quasi-steady-state conditions prevail since the well has
been drilled on a developed spacing pattern. From Eq. 9: hD = h ~Jk:
--;::1 Tspacing interval or formation thick-

[ q,
~]
'I"
_
-
7.88 - 0.75
7.88 - 0.75 - 0.92
= 1.15. ness, dimensionless
k = permeability, darcies
From Eq. 11, the openhole flow rate is:
L = length
. ~ (7.07) (1.0) (300) = 372 BOPD.
[q,]"" 0.8 (7.88 - 0.75) m = perforations per plane, dimensionless
The production rate from this completion will be p = pressure, psi

[q"L. = (1.15) (372) = 428 BOPD. Po = pressure, dimensionless

::'p = (p,.-p".) drawdown, psi
The calculations assume that there is no perforation
damage. However, the absolute production rate qp can be 6.PD = (P"D-P"D) drawdown in mathematical model,
multiplied by a factor to account for perforation damage. dimensionless
Accurate data are not presently available to determine this
factor, but well flow index data are of some help. q = flow rate, BI D
f = radial distance, in. or ft
CONCLUSIONS f
fo = -f", radial distance, dimensionless
The problem of calculating flow into a cased and per-
forated well has been solved. The numerical technique and .I'D = skin effect, dimensionless
computer solution employed solved the problem with a
high degree of accuracy. Differences between the data pre- e= angular dimension, degrees or radians
sented herein and experimental electrolytic model results JL = viscosity, cp
can be attributed to several specific imperfections in con-
struction of the models. z = vertical distance, ft

524 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 (Fig. 4) and A, area of cylindrical perforation open to
z~r
=
z/ = - - vertical distance, dimensionless flow (Fig. 5).
) r1l' k;::
Then:
SUBSCRIPTS

e = external or outer radius

o = radial flow radius, or oil phase and
p = perforation Tirp
Au = 4(rp+2a) . (A-3)
qss = quasi-steady-state
r = radial direction or plane radial flow into Substitute Eq. A-I for z, into Eq. A-2 and equate Eq.
uncased open well bore A-2 to Eq. A-3:
= steady-state
+ ;) +O"(ru+a)C'v + ~ )+a~1(2r,,+a)-
ss
ao,(r v
t = total formation thickness
w = well bore ( 7r~,2 _ r.~,a) = O.
z = vertical direction This will simplify to:

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS {} '(
v, 3ar + r", ') + u,
Ta' + -2- w {} ('
a + 2ar". ) -
The author wishes to express his appreciation to W. T.
Kraynek and F. E. Sullivan for the development of the (A-4)
computer program and to the management of Gulf Re-
search & Development Co. for permission to publish the a rp
results of this study. Let a!) =- and rp!) = - .
rlO rw
REFERENCES Substituting these in Eq. A-4 and dividing by r,,.' gives:
1. "Standard Procedure for Evaluation of Well Perforators": API
Recommended Practice 43, API Div. of Prod., Dallas, Tex.
(Oct., 1962).
2. McDowell, J. M. and Muskat, M.: "The Effect on Well Pro·
0,' e;' + 3;/) + 1) + O,(au' + 2au) -
ductivity of Formation Penetration Beyond Perforated Casing", 7rrpD _ 7rrP Da!)] = 0 (A-5)
Trans., AIME (1950) 189, 309. [ 4 2 .
3. Howard, R. A. and Watson, M. S., Jr.: "Relative Productivity
Index of Gun Perforated Completions, As Affected by Depth of
Penetration", World Oil (Feb. 1, 1952) 134, 166.
Let Zw = ~. Then substituting into Eq. A-I:
rlO
4. Warren, J. E. and Hartsock, J. H.: "The Effect of Horizontal
Hydraulic Fracturing on Well Performance", Jour. Pet. Tech.
(Oct., 1961) 1050.
5. Thompson, G. D.: "Effects of Formation Compressive Strength
ZlD = (I + ~») 0, (A-6)

on Perforator Performance", Paper No. 926-7-M, presented at The dimensions of the idealized perforation z, and 0,
the Spring Meeting of the Southern District Division of Pro- are determined from Eqs. A-I and A-4. Predetermined
duction, API, Houston, Tex. (Feb. 28-March 2, 1962).
6. Varga, R. S.: Matrix Iterative Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
values of r w, a and r" are substituted into Eq. A-4 to ob-
Englewood Cliffs, N . .T. (1962), tain 0, and into Eq. A-I for z,. Answers can be obtained
in dimensionless form by substituting values of rpD and aD
APPENDIX A into Eq. A-5 to solve for 0" and into Eq. A-6 to solve
for Zw.
THE IDEALIZED PERFORATION
APPENDIX B
The numerical solution to the perforation problem can
be simplified if symmetry is maintained in the mathemati- MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION
cal model. This can be achieved if the perforation is as-
The continuity equation for three-dimensional, single-
sumed to be wedge-shaped (Fig. 4). An actual wellbore
perforation will be nearly cylindrical (Fig. 5). phase, steady-state flow of fluid is, in cylindrical coordi-
nates:
Consider a quarter segment of the perforations shown
in Figs. 4 and 5. The idealized perforation design is based k, - _1_ ~
[a'.,'=.,+ ., + _1_".,op] + L. o'p
.," = 0,
on the following conditions: (1) penetration or length a vr r vr r vr vZ'
of the idealized perforation is equal to that of the real or (B-1)
cylindrical perforation; (2) the surface areas open to flow
in each perforation are equal; and (3) there is a fixed re- where the permeabilities kr and kz are uniform but not
lation between idealized perforation height z" penetration necessarily equal to each other. The boundary conditions
a and perforation angle 0,. which must be satisfied in Fig. 3 are:
This relation is: p[(rw +a), 0, z] = Pw for 0 < 0 < 0,; 0 < Z < z,
(B-2)
Z, = (r" + ; ) 0, at r (r,o + ; )
= (A-I)
p(r,O,z,) ~ p", o < 0 < 0,; r,,, < r < (r", +a)
Let AI' = area of idealized perforation open to flow (B-3)

APRIL, 1966 525

 P (r,O,z) = Pw o < Z < Z,; r" < r < (r", +a) r'VD<rD<r VIJ ; 0,< 0 < 0,!2
(B-4) { (rWD+aD) < <
r D rvD; 0 < 0 < OJ
(B-24)
P (r,,,O,z) = Po o < 0 < 0,/2; 0 < Z < hl2
(B-5) OPD ( 0 )
lJ
= 0 {r wV < < rvv; Zw < ZlJ < hD/2
rv
op o < 0 < 0,/2; z, < Z < hl2 00 r , ,ZIJ (rwV+rpD) < r D < roD; 0 < ZlJ < Zw
a;:(r",O,z) = 0 { o < 0 < 0,/2; 0 < Z < z, (B-25)
(B-6) OPIJ
~(rlJ,0'/2'ZJJ) = 0 r"'I> < rlJ < r vlJ ; 0 < ZlJ < hvl2
~: (r,fJ,hI2) = 0 rw < r < r,,; 0 < 0 < 0,/2 (B-26)
(B-7) The problem has now been reduced to obtaining an ap-
op
- ( r 0 0) = 0
rw < < r,,; 0, < 0 < 0,/2'
r proximation to the dimensionless pressure pv (rD,O,ZD) for
oz ' , { (rw+a)< r < r,,; 0 < 0 < 0, rlJ :::;; r"D, 0 :::;; 0,/2 and ZD:::;; hlJl2, which satisfies Eq.
(B-8) B-II and Eqs. B-18 to B-26.

OP
ae(r,O,z) = 0
rw < < r,,; Z, < Z < hl2
r APPENDIX C
{ (rw+a)< r < r,,; 0 < Z < z, NUMERICAL CONSIDERATIONS
(B-9)

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A nonuniform mesh was imposed on the region defined
rw < r < r,,; 0 < Z < h/2 by Eqs. B-ll to B-26. The approximation to the dimen-
sionless pressure PI> was made by discretizing LaPlace's
(B-1O)
equation at each of the mesh points with a seven-point
Eq. B-1 can be reduced to the normal LaPlace equa- difference equation. The boundary conditions were defined
tion: in a similar manner. A system of equations results which
can be written in matrix form as:
(B-1 I)
Ax=k (C-I)
by making the following substitutions and redefinition of where the A matrix is one which contains the coef-
terms: ..,
ficients from the difference equations, x is the vector
27rav' k,.kz (p" - p) ..,
PlJ=------- (B-12) of unknown pressures and k is the vector which takes
the boundary conditions into account.
r The A matrix can be split, according to Varga," into:
rJ) ==- (B-13)
rIC
A=B-C (C-2)
0= 0 (B-14)
Substituting Eq. C-2 into Eq. C-l yields:

(B-15) (B - C)x = k (C-3)

a Bx = k + Cx (C-4)
aD ==- (B-16)
rw
The B matrix can be factored as follows:
(B-17) B = TIT, (C-5)
where the prime indicates a transpose. There also exists
The new boundary conditions for the normalized Eq. a triangular matrix such that:
B-ll will be:
PD[(rWD+aD),O,ZD] = 0 for 0 < 0 < 0,; 0 < ZlJ < Zw T= TR (C-6)
(B-18)
Now R is diagonal so that R' = Rand T' = (TR) I =
PD(rD,O,Zw) = 0 0 < 0 < 0,; rwD < r D < (rWJJ+aD)
(B-19) R'T = RT'.

PlJ(r,O"z) = 0 0 < Zv < Zw; rWD < rD < (rWD+alJ) Therefore:

(B-20)
B = TIT = RT'TR
PD (rOV,O,ZD) = 1 0 < 0 < 0,/2; 0 < ZD < hvl2
and
(B-21)

o < 0 < 0,/2;zw < Zv < hvl2 RT'TRx = k + Cx (C-7)

{.0 , < 0 < 0,/2; 0 < ZD < Zw
Let
(B-22)
Rx = y

(B-23) RT'Ty = k + CR- 'y

526 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 1 , (D-l)
Let
and
R-'k = g and R-' CR-' =C , tlpp = (Po - Po.) . (D-2)
and obtain: From Darcy's law for radial flow:
J.tq In(rjr,")
T'Ty = g + Cy (C-8) tlpr =
2-rrk"h,
. (D-3)
The system of equations was solved by the two-line
block successive over-relaxation semi-iterative mehtod. For the case where the flow rates in perforated and un-
cased wells are the same, the skin effect is defined as: 4
The iterative procedure was stopped when y, the normal-
-> 2-rrk,h,
ized value of x in Eq. C-l, met the following condition:'
SD = - - - (tlP. -tlp,) . (D-4)
p.q
Substituting Eqs. D-l and D-3 into Eq. D-4 and simpli-
max [(Yr,z,o)" ,- (Y",z,o)"-'] < 0.0001 (C-9) fying gives:
r,z,O ()n
Yr,z,o (tlpll)k"h, 5
SlJ = - In(r,,!r.,). (D- )
where n is the iteration number and the constant 0.0001 qaV'krk z

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is the ite.ration accuracy. The value of the iteration ac-
Substituting Eq. B-16 for a, Eq. B-17 for h, 1.0 for ApD
curacy was determined by continually decreasing its
and simplifying gives the equation for calculation of the
value to a point where further decreases did not change
skin effect:
the flow into the perforation.
The radial flow radius r" was determined by com- hn
SlJ = -- - In(rjr w ) (D-6)
puter experimentation. The correct value of r" was ob- anq
tained by continually increasing r" for fixed maximum
The flow rate q in Eq. D-6 is the flow across the face
values of alJ, h D , d D and m until pressure gradients were
of the perforation, and is obtained by adding the flow
obtained only in the radial direction at r" - .tlrnr the
across each element of surface area associated with each
line of mesh points next to roo The acceptable value of
mesh point located on the surface of the perforation. The
ro was determined to be 30r w by this method. This
flow across such an element is obtained from Darcy's law.
technique is similar to that used by Warren and Hart-
sock:
q= -~A~. (D-7)
The nonuniform mesh finally used was obtained by f-L aL
computational experimentation. A system of 4,536 mesh
Also:
points waf> determined to be sufficient. This resulted in
a distribution of 18 points in the rn direction, 14 points op apn ap
in the ZlJ direction and 18 points in the 0 (angular) --- (D-8)
aL aL apll
direction. The number of mesh points in the Zll and 0
directions was decreased when the dimensions of the Therefore, substitution of Eqs. D-l and D-8 into Eq.
ZD and 0 variables were reduced for various problems. D-7 yields:
The probable error involved in the solution was esti- k . A . aplJ
mated by varying the number of mesh points in the q = ----=== (D-9)
2-rray k,kz aL '
rD , ZD and 0 directions. The total number of points which
could be used was limited by the storage capacity of the which is the flow rate across an element of the perforation
computer. Flow across the r D , ZD and 0 faces of the face, in terms of the computed dimensionless pressure
perforation deviated 1.2, 0.57 and 1.1 per cent, respec- PD' The total flow into the wellbore at any depth interval
tively, from the extrapolated true values of flow. Thus, containing one plane of perforations is obtained by mul-
it was estimated that the over-all error in the flow rate tiplying Eq. D-9 by m, the number of perforations per
calculation was about 2.87 per cent since flow into the plane. If the permeability is the same in all directions:
perforation was distributed fairly well over its three
faces. m
q=- ·A· (D-lO)
2-rra
The average computer time required to solve an in-
dividual problem was 8.35 minutes. However, times Flow over the three faces of the perforation is obtained
ranged from less than one minute to greater than 30 from the following summation:
minutes, depending on the distribution of the mesh
[~a (A,t (~PlJ) + ~b
m
points and the geometry of the problem. qp = 2
7rQ iUr D (t
(AO) b

APPENDIX D
( oPlJ)
00 b
+ ~C (A,)" (,aP1'),J,
,OZD ,
(D-ll)
SKIN EFFECT AND PRODUCTIVITY
where the three sums (a, b and c) are taken over all
RATIO CALCULATION
points on the rD , 0 and ZD faces of the perforation. The
Consider only the region of the well bore where the ef- flow rate obtained from Eq. D-ll is that which appears
fect of the perforation is felt, f < rD. In this region, pwn in Eq. D-6.
and PoD have been defined by boundary conditions (Eqs. Approximations to the pressure gradients were made
B-18 to B-26) so that: from first differences as follows:

APRIL,1966 .521
 [opn] (P"n)"-P",, ] _ 27rk,h t (!:,p,,) (0-15)
(0-12)
orJ) (l !:,r D [q" " - j.L[In(rjr,,) + In(r,.!r,,) + St,] ,

(Pou)" - P"i' and

[OPD] (0-13)
of} , r"D !:,f} _ 27rk,.h t (!:,p,)
] -
[q", I ( / ) (0-16)
,Il- n r, rv'
(p,,,),.-p,,,,
[o:':L !:,z"
(0-14)
Dividing Eq. 0-7 by Eq. 0-8 gives the steady-state pro-
ductivity ratio:
where Pv" is the value of p" assigned to the perforation. In(r,!r v ·)
The pressures P"D, P"D and p,,, are at mesh points which (0-17)
are directly coupled to the surface of the perforation, and In(rjr w ) + s" '
are each associated with an element of area on the perfora- for a given pressure drawdown !:'p.
tion surface A" Ae and A z. A similar derivation of the productivity ratio for quasi-
The corresponding steady-state flow rates for wells steady-state flow will yield Eqs. 9 and 11 in the text.
where r, > r" are:
***

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528 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY