Hist 125 All Slides

1HIST 125 - Introduction to World History: Lecture 4
I. “It’s too soon to tell”: the Impact of the French Revolution

II. The Ancien Régime
III. Reign of Terror
IV. A “Nation at Arms”
V. The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
VI. A new French empire in the Americas
VII. From master of Europe to defeat at Waterloo
VIII. The dynamic legacy of Napoleon
Film clips, illustrations, etc
1. Photo - Chou en-Lai & Kissinger

2. Painting - Lafayette at the Fete de la Federation
3. Painting - Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
4. Painting - Ancien Regime
5. Portrait - Louis XVI
6. Portrait - Marie Antoinette
7. Illustration - France’s Three Estates
8. Painting - France’s National Assembly
9. Painting - Storming the Bastille
10. Photo - Guillotine
11. Illustration - guillotine in operation
12. Painting – execution of Louis XVI
13. Portrait – Robespierre
14. Map - Cambodia
15. Photo - Pol Pot
16. Photo - Cambodia genocide dead
17. Painting - raising French armies
18. Portrait - Napoleon Bonaparte
19. Photo - Charles Dickens
20. David’s painting - Napoleon crossing the Alps
21. Map - Napoleonic Europe
22. Portrait - Napoleon, 1796
23. Photo - Sphinx
24. Portrait - Napoleon as First Consul
25. Portrait - the coronation of Napoleon & Josephine
26. Map - Caribbean pre-1803
27. Portrait - Toussaint L’Ouverture
28. Painting - the war in Haiti
29. Map - Louisiana Territory
30. Portrait - Thomas Jefferson as president
31. Map - War of 1812
32. Painting - Battle of New Orleans
33. Cartoon - William Pitt, the Younger & Napoleon
34. Map - Napoleon’s Europe, 1810
35. Painting - Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow
36. Map - showing Elba
37. Painting - Napoleon’s return from Elba
38. Portrait - the Duke of Wellington
39. Painting - Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo
40. Map - St Helena
41. Painting - Napoleon crossing the Alps
42. Painting - Congress of Vienna
43. Map - Latin American independence
Photo - Chou en-Lai & Kissinger
I. “It’s too soon to tell”: the Impact of the French Revolution

IN 1971, THE AMERICAN DIPLOMAT HENRY KISSINGER MET FOR THE
1ST TIME WITH ONE OF THE LEADERS OF CHINA, ZHOU EN-LAI
I DON’T THINK I NEED TO SAY WHO IS WHO IN THIS PHOTO ...
TO BREAK THE ICE, KISSINGER ASKED ZHOU WHAT HE THOUGHT ABOUT
THE IMPACT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ... AN ODD WAY TO BREAK THE
ICE - TO BE SURE - BUT WHAT WAS EVEN MORE ASTOUNDING WAS ZHOU’S
REPLY: "IT'S TOO SOON TO TELL"
ZHOU EN-LAI KNEW WHAT HE WAS TALKING ABOUT ... HE WAS ONE OF THE
LEADERS OF CHINA'S COMMUNIST REVOLUTION - A REVOLUTION THAT -
ITSELF - CAN BE TRACED BACKED TO THE UPHEAVAL THAT HAD TAKEN
PLACE HALF A WORLD AWAY & NEARLY 2 CENTURIES EARLIER
IN OTHER WORDS ... THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS WHAT HISTORIANS CALL
A WATERSHED - A MAJOR TURNING POINT - & MANY OTHER,
IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS CAME OUT OF IT ... THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION WAS THE 1ST GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN
MODERN EUROPE ... AS I'VE ALREADY POINTED OUT WITH CHINA - VERY
NEARLY ALL OTHER REVOLUTIONS & REVOLUTIONARIES HAVE - SINCE
THEN - MODELED THEMSELVES ON IT

Painting - Lafayette at the Fete de la Federation
GENERALLY SPEAKING, THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS A DIRECT
CHALLENGE TO THE TRADITIONAL FORM OF GOVERNMENT - MONARCHY
& TO SUBSTITUTE IN ITS PLACE THE POWER OF THE PEOPLE ... IN THIS
CASE THE PEOPLE WERE OF A NEW, EMERGING CLASS IN SOCIETY ...
MERCHANTS, BUSINESSMEN, LAWYERS, & DOCTORS - A RECOGNIZABLE
MIDDLE CLASS ... IN FRENCH THE SINGULAR WORD FOR THE MIDDLE
CLASS IS BOURGEOIS ... ITS PLURAL FORM IS BOURGEOISIE - A
TERM YOU’LL HEAR MORE OF
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity painting
THE IDEALS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WERE SUMMED UP BY THE
MOTTO "LIBERTÉ, EGALITÉ, FRATERNITÉ"

“LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY”
YOU HAVE A PRETTY GOOD IDEA OF WHAT THIS PHRASE MEANS WHEN IT
COMES TO LIBERTY & EQUALITY ... BY FRATERNITÉ - THEY MEANT
BROTHERHOOD ... THAT ALL OF US - BY VIRTUE OF THE FACT THAT
WE ARE HUMAN BEINGS - ARE LINKED TOGETHER AS - WELL - AS
BROTHERS ARE LINKED TO ONE ANOTHER IN A SINGLE FAMILY ... IN THIS
CASE THE COMMON FAMILY OF ALL MANKIND
ALL 3 OF THESE IDEAS - LIBERTY, EQUALITY, & FRATERNITY - ARE

PRINCIPLES OF THAT COME OUT OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT - &, JUST AS
THE LEADERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION WERE INSPIRED BY
THE ENLIGHTENMENT - THE SAME WAS TRUE OF THOSE WHO LED THE
REVOLUTION IN FRANCE
HAVING SAID THAT - THERE WERE SOME FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE REVOLUTIONS IN AMERICA & FRANCE ... THE AMERICAN
REVOLUTION WAS A POLITICAL & LEGAL REVOLUTION
IT FREED THE AMERICANS FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE & THEIR
ALLEGIANCE TO THE BRITISH CROWN & CREATED A REPUBLIC
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION - HOWEVER - DID NOT OVERTURN THE
EXISTING SOCIAL & ECONOMIC ORDER
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS FAR & AWAY MORE RADICAL ... AS
WELL OVERTHROWING THE FRENCH MONARCHY - AN ENTIRE SOCIAL &
ECONOMIC CLASS - THE ARISTOCRACY - WAS OVERTHROWN AS WELL
THERE WAS A MASSIVE RE-DISTRIBUTION OF PROPERTY & WEALTH
AN ISSUE YOUR BOOK DISCUSSES BEGINNING ON p 527
IN FACT - NO REVOLUTION WOULD BE AS RADICAL AS THE ONE THAT
OCCURRED IN FRANCE UNTIL THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION IN
RUSSIA IN 1917
1 Ancien Régime Painting
II. The Ancien Régime
IT’S IMPORTANT TO BEAR IN MIND THAT MOST OF THE WORLD - NOT JUST
EUROPE - WAS A WORLD OF STRICT SOCIAL & CULTURAL & POLITICAL
HIERARCHIES - OR CLASSES -WITH A VERY FEW PEOPLE BORN INTO A
WORLD OF WEALTH & PRIVILEGE WHILE THE OVERWHELMING
MAJORITY OF PEOPLE WERE PEASANTS - & PEASANTS THEY REMAINED
FOR THE REST OF THEIR LIVES
IN EUROPE, SPECIFICALLY, THIS WORLD BY THE EARLY early 1700s WAS
KNOWN AS THE ANCIEN REGIME - WHICH SIMPLY MEANS OLD, OR
ANCIENT REGIME
WITH THE EXCEPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN - AFTER THE GLORIOUS
REVOLUTION ... MOST EUROPEANS LIVED UNDER SOME SORT OF
ABSOLUTIST RULE … BY THE LATE 18TH CENTURY- HOWEVER …
THERE WAS MASSIVE DISSATISFACTION – ESPECIALLY AMONG THE PEOPLE
OF FRANCE OF NEARLY EVER SOCIAL CLASS ... INTELLECTUALS -
BUT ALSO WORKERS WERE DEEPLY DISSATISFIED WITH BOTH THE
GOVERNMENT - MEANING THE MONARCHY - BUT ALSO WITH THE
NATION’S SOCIAL & ECONOMIC CONDITIONS WHICH MADE FRANCE
SEEM HOPELESSLY BACKWARD & CORRUPT
MANY OF THESE PEOPLE LOOKED WITH ENVY TO BRITAIN & FURTHER
ABROAD - TO THE UNITED STATES - & ITS NEWLY CREATED REPUBLIC
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION HAD MADE AN ENORMOUS IMPACT IN EUROPE

ESPECIALLY AMONG THE FRENCH SOLDIERS WHO HAD SERVED IN THE WAR
Louis XVI portrait
UNFORTUNATELY - AMERICAN EXPERIENCE SEEMED TO HAVE MADE
NO IMPRESSION WHERE IT COUNTED MOST IN FRANCE ... TO BE SPECIFIC
ON THE ROYAL COURT OF THE KING ... LOUIS XVI
LOUIS - THE HEAD OF THE BOURBON DYNASTY - WAS PIOUS & SIMPLE-
MINDED ... NOT EVIL ... BUT HE WAS ALSO UNFIT TO BE THE RULER OF
OF ANY COUNTRY - ESPECIALLY ONE WITH AS MANY PROBLEMS AS THE
ONES FACING FRANCE IN THE 1780s
Marie Antoinette Portrait
TO MAKE MATTER WORSE LOUIS’S QUEEN WAS THE DEEPLY UNPOPULAR
MARIE ANTOINETTE - WHO WAS NOT FRENCH ... SHE WAS,

INSTEAD, THE DAUGHTER OF EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA
AS THE FRENCH ROYAL FAMILY’S REPUTATION DECLINED, ALL SORTS OF
WILD, VICIOUS RUMORS CIRCULATED ABOUT MARIE-ANTOINETTE
NAMELY, SEXUAL RUMORS - IN THE STREETS OF PARIS SHE BECAME
KNOWN AS THE AUSTRIAN WHORE OR AUSTRIAN BITCH
MORE IMMEDIATELY - THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS SPARKED BY A
FINANCIAL CRISIS ... UNDER LOUIS XVI FRANCE INCURRED A MASSIVE
& RAPIDLY INCREASING DEBT - MADE WORSE BY THE HUGE SUMS
SPENT TO HELP THE AMERICANS WIN THEIR REVOLUTION ...THE SHIPS

SUPPLIES, & MONEY THE FRENCH HAD GIVEN THE AMERICANS
CONTRIBUTED GREATLY TO FRANCE'S FINANCIAL PROBLEMS
BEYOND THAT - THE FRENCH PEOPLE HAD MANY GRIEVANCES THAT
SPRING FROM FRANCE'S RIGID & ANACHRONISTIC SOCIAL STRUCTURE
FRENCH SOCIETY WAS DIVIDED INTO 3 SEPARATE ORDERS - OR ESTATES
1ST - THE CLERGY ... 2ND - THE NOBILITY &, FINALLY, 3RD - EVERYONE ELSE
EVERYONE FROM THE WEALTHY MIDDLE CLASSES TO PEASANTS
Illustration - France’s Three Estates
AN INDIVIDUAL'S PERSONAL PRESTIGE — & NO LESS IMPORTANT —
LEGAL RIGHTS - DEPENDED ON WHICH ESTATE HE OR SHE BELONGED TO
BEYOND THAT, BY THE LATE 18TH CENTURY - THIS SOCIAL SYSTEM WAS
OBSOLETE ... IT NO LONGER REFLECTED THE REAL DISTRIBUTION
OF WEALTH & INFLUENCE IN SOCIETY
DESPITE THE FACT THAT THE 3RD ESTATE - IN PARTICULAR THE MIDDLE
CLASS, THE BOURGEOISIE - WAS GROWING RICHER, IT DID NOT HAVE
THE PRESTIGE & POLITICAL POWER POSSESSED BY FIRST 2 ESTATES
THIS POWER WAS REAL ... FOR INSTANCE, WHILE BOTH THE CLERGY &
NOBILITY WERE THE WEALTHIEST ESTATES, THEY WERE EXEMPT
FROM PAYING MOST TAXES - INCLUDING THE INCOME TAX
THE INCOME TAX WAS THE GOVERNMENT'S MAIN SOURCE OF INCOME

MEANING THAT THOSE IN THE 3rd ESTATE - INCLUDING THE MIDDLE
CLASS - HAD TO BEAR MUCH OF THE TAX BURDEN
AT THE SAME TIME, THE NOBILITY HELD THE HIGHER POSITIONS IN
THE GOVERNMENT, MILITARY & THE CHURCH ... FRIGHTENED &
RESENTFUL OF THE BOURGEOISIE'S GROWING WEALTH THE NOBLES
WERE DETERMINED TO KEEP THESE BETTER POSITIONS FOR THEMSELVES
AT THE SAME TIME THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH WAS ALSO VERY
WEALTHY & POWERFUL ... MAKING IT ANOTHER TARGET OF
RESENTMENT BY THE 3RD ESTATE
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH OWNED 1/10TH OF ALL THE LAND IN FRANCE &
RECEIVED ROUGHLY 1/13th OF ALL CROPS ... AT THE SAME TIME,
CORRUPTION WITHIN THE CHURCH ITSELF WAS WIDESPREAD
IN MANY WAYS - THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS QUITE SIMPLY A
COLLISION BETWEEN 2 SOCIAL CLASSES - THE ARISTOCRACY ON
ONE SIDE & THE BOURGEOISIE ON THE OTHER
AT THE SAME TIME, FRANCE WAS STILL A RURAL NATION ... 4/5THS OF ITS
POPULATION WERE PEASANTS - LIVING & WORKING ON LARGE, ESTATES
OWNED BY THE ARISTOCRACY - OR THE CHURCH ... LIKE THE MIDDLE
CLASS THE PEASANTS ALSO HAD A NUMBER OF GRIEVANCES
AGAINST THE FIRST 2 ESTATES

FINALLY - & NOT LEAST IMPORTANT - THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT ITSELF
WAS ARBITRARY & DESPOTIC ... THE KING HAD THE POWER TO
ARREST & IMPRISON AT WILL ... TORTURE IN FRENCH PRISONS WAS
COMMON ... AS WAS CENSORSHIP
ADD TO THESE PROBLEMS - DURING 1788-89 FRANCE EXPERIENCED A WAVE
OF DROUGHT & DISEASE LEADING TO POOR HARVESTS & SOARING
PRICES FOR GRAIN ... PEASANTS FLOODED INTO CITIES, LOOKING FOR
JOBS THAT DID NOT EXIST ... THE POPULATION OF PARIS - IN
PARTICULAR - MOST OF THEM HUNGRY & ANGRY
SO - BY 1789 FRANCE WAS ALREADY FACING A NUMBER OF SEVERE LONG-
TERM SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, & POLITICAL PROBLEMS ... WHEN COMBINED
WITH THE SHORT-TERM ECONOMIC CRISIS OF 1788-89 - THE
SITUATION WAS QUITE LITERALLY REVOLUTIONARY
FACED WITH THIS CRISIS LOUIS XVI WAS FORCED TO CONVENE A SESSION
OF FRANCE’S PARLIAMENT - THE ESTATES-GENERAL ... AN ASSEMBLY
THAT WAS COMPOSED OF REPRESENTATIVES OF EACH OF THE 3 ESTATES
IT SPEAKS VOLUMES ABOUT FRANCE’S ABSOLUTE MONARCHY THAT
THE ESTATES-GENERAL HADN’T HELD A SESSION SINCE 1614
WHEN THE ESTATES-GENERAL CONVENED IN MAY 1789 - THEY WERE

NOT IN A REVOLUTIONARY FRAME OF MIND ... MOST DELEGATES ONLY
WANTED TO ENACT MODERATE FINANCIAL & LEGAL REFORM
FOR REASONS BEST EXPLAINED BY YOUR BOOK - THIS SITUATION
DRAMATICALLY CHANGED WHEN LOUIS XVI REFUSED TO CONSIDER THE
EVEN MODERATE REFORMS … LEADING THE 3rd ESTATE TO DECLARE
ITSELF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OF FRANCE
French National Assembly
MEANTIME, FOOD RIOTS BROKE OUT IN PARIS & LOUIS THEN COMMITTED
THE WORST OF ALL BLUNDERS BY SENDING 17,000 SOLDIERS TO THE
CAPITAL TO RESTORE ORDER
FEARING THEY WOULD BE SLAUGHTERED - THE PARISIANS FORMED A
CITIZEN’S MILITIA & ATTACKED MILITARY ARSENALS FOR WEAPONS
THESE ATTACKS CLIMAXED ON THE 14TH of July WHEN A MOB TOOK THE
BASTILLE - AN OLD PRISON USED TO HOLD POLITICAL DISSIDENTS
Bastille painting
THE ATTACK ON THE BASTILLE WAS LARGELY SYMBOLIC - THERE WERE
ONLY A HANDFUL OF PRISONERS BEING HELD WITHIN ITS WALLS - BUT
THE PRISON REPRESENTED THE TYRANNY OF THE OLD REGIME
FOR THIS REASON THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE WAS ONE OF THE
CRUCIAL EVENTS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ... & THAT IS WHY THE
14TH OF JULY IS CELEBRATED IN FRANCE TODAY - JUST AS THE 4TH of

JULY IS CELEBRATED IN THE UNITED STATES
THIS SPIRIT OF VIOLENCE THEN SPREAD TO THE COUNTRYSIDE
PEASANTS ATTACKED MANOR HOUSES - KILLING THE NOBLES WHICH
SIGNALED THE END OF THE OLD FEUDAL ORDER ... IN THIS WAY, THE
FRENCH REVOLUTION - UNLIKE THE ONE IN AMERICA - OVERTURNED
THE SOCIAL & ECONOMIC ... AS WELL AS THE POLITICAL ORDER
IN AUGUST 1789 - THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY ISSUED THE
"DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN" WHICH GUARANTEED
INDIVIDUAL FREEDOMS & LEGAL RIGHTS FOR ALL FRENCHMEN
AT 1ST FRANCE WAS GOVERNED AS A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY - LIKE
BRITAIN ... BUT IN 1792 - THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY ABOLISHED THE
MONARCHY & DECLARED A REPUBLIC
THE RADICALISM OF THE REVOLUTION WAS FURTHER INFLAMED WHEN
THE MAJOR POWERS OF EUROPE - LED BY AUSTRIA & PRUSSIA -
DECIDED THAT ENOUGH WAS ENOUGH & WENT TO WAR WITH
REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE
FROM 1793 TO 1815 FRANCE WAS INVOLVED IN SERIES OF WARS WITH
THE OTHER POWERS OF EUROPE ... IT SHOULD BE SAID THAT THE FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARIES ACTUALLY DECLARED THE 1st OF THESE WARS ... AS
RADICALS IN THE GOVERNMENT DECIDED THAT IT WAS TIME TO SPREAD

THE REVOLUTION ALL ACROSS EUROPE
IT LOOKED AS IF THE PRUSSIAN & AUSTRIAN ARMIES WOULD TAKE PARIS
WITH NO OPPOSITION — UNTIL THEY DECLARED THEY WOULD RESTORE
LOUIS XVI TO HIS OLD POSITION AS AN ABSOLUTE MONARCH ... THEY
ALSO THREATENED TO SACK PARIS IF THEY MET ANY RESISTANCE
THIS WAS NO IDLE THREAT ... TO SACK A CITY MEANT THAT THE
SOLDIERS WOULD BE ALLOWED TO ROB THE INHABITANTS OF ANY THING
THEY WISHED, TO RAPE THE WOMEN & TO BURN WHAT THEY COULDN'T
TAKE WITH THEM
BUT - INSTEAD OF COWING THE FRENCH PEOPLE - THESE THREATS LED TO
A WAVE OF SUPER PATRIOTIC FEELING - FUELED BY A NUMBER OF
PATRIOTIC SONGS ... NOTABLY THE MARSEILLAISE ...
WHICH YOU'VE PROBABLY HEARD AT 1 TIME OR ANOTHER - THO' YOU MAY
NOT KNOW IT - & WHICH TODAY IS FRANCE'S NATIONAL ANTHEM
ON A MORE PRACTICAL LEVEL ... THE FRENCH ARMY WAS COMPLETELY
RE-ORGANIZED - & EVENTUALLY WAS ABLE TO REPEL THE INVADING
ARMIES ... I’LL COME BACK TO THIS SUBJECT A BIT LATER
MORE IMMEDIATELY - THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN THREAT TO RESTORE
LOUIS XVI TO HIS FORMER POSITION AS FRANCE'S ABSOLUTE MONARCH
BROUGHT ON THE NEXT STAGE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

III. Reign of Terror
RUMORS SPREAD THROUGHOUT PARIS THAT THE KING & OTHER
ARISTOCRATS & PRIESTS WHO OPPOSED THE REVOLUTION - WHAT ARE
CALLED COUNTER-REVOLUTIONARIES - WERE PLOTTING TO HELP
THE INVADING ARMIES
THE RESULT WAS WHAT IS KNOWN AS THE REIGN OF TERROR ... THAT
BEGAN IN JANUARY 1793 WITH THE EXECUTION OF LOUIS - HIMSELF
Guillotine photo
LIKE THOSE WHO FOLLOWED - LOUIS WAS EXECUTED WITH A NEW - & IT WAS
THOUGHT AT THE TIME - MORE HUMANE - DEVISE THE GUILLOTINE
THIS GIVES YOU AN IDEA OF WHAT ONE LOOKED LIKE
Illustration - guillotine in operation
AND THIS ILLUSTRATION WILL GIVE YOU AN IDEA OF HOW IT WORKED
THE GUILLOTINE GOT ITS NAME - BY THE WAY - FROM THE MAN WHO
INVENTED IT - DR JOSEPH GUILLOTIN ... CONTRARY TO POPULAR MYTH
DR GUILLOTIN WAS NOT HIMSELF GUILLOTINED
IT WOULD MAKE FOR A GOOD STORY - BUT, ALAS, IT’S NOT TRUE
Louis XVI execution
LOUIS - AS I SAID - A MOMENT AGO - WAS NOT SO LUCKY ... THIS IS A PRINT
SHOWING LOUIS’S EXECUTION ... AS YOU CAN SEE, AFTER THE EXECUTION
IT WAS COMMON TO HOLD UP THE SEVERED HEAD
LOUIS’S EXECUTION WAS SOON FOLLOWED BY THE EXECUTION OF HIS
WIFE - MARIE-ANTOINETTE WHO - AS I SAY, WAS THE SUBJECT OF ALL
SORTS OF WILD RUMORS ... FOR INSTANCE, WHEN SHE HAD BEEN TOLD
ABOUT THE STARVING MEN, WOMEN, & CHILDREN OF PARIS ...
IT WAS CLAIMED SHE MERELY SAID - “LET THEM EAT CAKE” ... THERE IS
NO EVIDENCE WHATSOEVER THAT SHE SAID SUCH A THING - BUT THE
STORY HAS STUCK TO THIS DAY ... IN SOME WAYS, SHE WAS A HATE FIGURE
AT LEAST AS MUCH AS HER HUSBAND, THE KING
Robespierre portrait
THE MAN WHO LED FRANCE DURING THE REIGN OF TERROR WAS
MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE - AN IDEALISTIC LAWYER WHO
WANTED TO TURN FRANCE INTO A UTOPIAN REPUBLIC ... AS IS TYPICAL
OF MANY IDEALISTS - SO FAR AS ROBESPIERRE WAS CONCERNED - THOSE
WHO DID NOT SHARE HIS DREAM OF THIS PERFECT SOCIETY HAD TO BE
ELIMINATED
INITIALLY - ROBESPIERRE HAD FAIRLY WIDESPREAD SUPPORT AMONG HIS
FELLOW REVOLUTIONARIES ... AT WAR WITH MOST OF EUROPE -
ROBESPIERRE’S GOVERNMENT ALSO FACED A SERIES OF REVOLTS IN THE
FRENCH COUNTRYSIDE BY THOSE STILL LOYAL TO THE MONARCHY

CONFRONTED WITH THESE DANGERS ROBESPIERRE & HIS FELLOW
REVOLUTIONARIES RESPONDED WITH EQUALLY DRASTIC ACTION TO
UNITE FRANCE & STAMP OUT ALL OPPOSITION - A POLICY THAT BECAME
KNOWN AS THE REIGN OF TERROR
THE REIGN OF TERROR WAS THE MOST RADICAL PHASE OF THE
REVOLUTION ... OVER THE COURSE OF ONE YEAR - BETWEEN 1793 & 1794 -
BETWEEN 30,000 & 40,000 MEN, WOMEN - & IN SOME CASES
CHILDREN - WERE EXECUTED ... HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF
OTHERS WERE IMPRISONED IN HORRIBLE CONDITIONS
THEIR TRIALS WERE HELD BY REVOLUTIONARY COURTS WHERE
MANY WERE CONVICTED ON LITTLE - IF ANY - REAL EVIDENCE
AT THE SAME TIME ROBESPIERRE’S GOVERNMENT CONFISCATED LAND
OWNED BY THE NOBLES WHICH WAS THEN HANDED OVER TO PEASANTS
CHURCHES WERE CLOSED - & TO DEMONSTRATE THEIR HOSTILITY
TOWARD RELIGION THE REVOLUTIONARIES ELIMINATED SUNDAY
IN FACT - FRANCE'S RADICAL LEADERS DEVISED AN ENTIRELY NEW
CALENDAR - ONE BASED NOT ON THE BIRTH OF CHRIST - BUT ON THE
FOUNDING OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC ... YEAR 1 - ACCORDING TO THE
NEW CALENDAR BEGAN ON THE OLD CALENDAR DATE OF 22 September 1792
Map - Cambodia
FRANCE’S REVOLUTIONARIES ARE NOT UNIQUE IN THIS RESPECT
IN 1975 THE COMMUNIST KHMER ROUGE TOOK CONTROL OF THE NATION
OF CAMBODIA
Photo - Pol Pot
THE KHMER ROUGE WERE LED BY THIS MAN - POL POT
AFTER TAKING CONTROL OF THE COUNTY, POL POT THE START OF A NEW
YEAR - YEAR ZERO TO MARK THE FOUNDING OF THEIR NEW SOCIETY
HIS REGIME THEN LAUNCHED A GENOCIDE - A MASS MURDER - OF THE
CAMBODIAN PEOPLE
Photo - Cambodian genocide dead
NO ONE KNOWS FOR CERTAIN HOW MANY MEN, WOMEN, & CHILDREN WERE
PUT TO DEATH OVER THE NEXT 3 YEARS ... ACCORDING TO ONE ESTIMATE,
THE KHMER ROUGE MURDERED 2 MILLION OF THEIR FELLOW
CAMBODIANS {Patterson, Grand Expectations, 767} ... OTHERS BELIEVE THE
FIGURE IS EVEN HIGHER ... THE MEN & WOMEN IN THIS PHOTO ARE SOME
OF THOSE MILLIONS
IF YOU JUMP AHEAD IN THE DUIKER & SPIELVOGEL BOOK TO p 908, YOU’LL
SEE THAT THEY TELL POL POT WAS FOLLOWING THE EXAMPLE OF MAO
ZEDONG & HIS CULTURAL REVOLUTION IN CHINA
BUT IN FACT, BOTH WERE FOLLOWING THE EARLIER EXAMPLE OF THE
BOLSHEVIKS IN RUSSIA AFTER THEIR REVOLUTION IN 1917 ... & ALL OF
THEM LOOKED FURTHER BACK TO THE EXAMPLE OF ROBESPIERRE &
THE REIGN OF TERROR

Painting - Raising French armies
IV. A “Nation at Arms”
WHICH IS THE SUBJECT I SHOULD RETURN TO HERE ... AS WELL AS
EXECUTING COUNTER-REVOLUTIONARIES - REAL & IMAGINED -
ROBESPIERRE’S GOVERNMENT FACED THE INVASION OF FRANCE BY
SEVERAL FOREIGN ARMIES ... TO MEET THIS CHALLENGE THEY TOOK AN
EQUALLY REVOLUTIONARY COURSE BY INSTITUTING A SERIES OF
DRAMATIC MILITARY REFORMS
1IF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC WAS GOING TO SURVIVE THE RENEWED THREAT
OF INVASION MEANT THAT - THE ENTIRE NATION HAD TO BE MOBILIZED
FOR WAR ... WHAT IS CALLED THE NATION AT ARMS
AT ONE LEVEL THE NATION AT ARMS MEANT THE BEGINNINGS OF
MASS CONSCRIPTION - ("LEVÉÉ EN MASSE") FOR THE FRENCH ARMIES
AFTER August 1793 - ALL UNMARRIED YOUNG MEN WERE SUBJECT TO
CONSCRIPTION -IN OTHER WORDS THE DRAFT -- AND THIS ENABLED THE
GOVERNMENT TO PUT INTO THE FIELD AN UNBELIEVABLE 14 SEPARATE
ARMIES - SOMETHING NEVER SEEN BEFORE IN EUROPE
OF COURSE, THESE HUGE NUMBERS OF SOLDIERS WOULD HAVE BEEN ALL
BUT WORTHLESS IF THEY COULD NOT BE ARMED & SUPPLIED
SO - AT THE SAME TIME -- ROBESPIERRE & HIS ASSOCIATES -- PUT THE
FRENCH ECONOMY AT THE COMMAND OF THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT
CREATING ... IN EFFECT - A WAR ECONOMY

FINALLY - & NOT LEAST IMPORTANT - THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT WAS
ABLE TO TAP INTO THAT WELL OF PATRIOTIC FEELING - OR
NATIONALISM THAT HAD SAVED THE REVOLUTION SO MANY TIMES IN
THE PAST - & WAS THE DECISIVE ELEMENT THIS TIME, TOO
YOUR BOOK COVERS THIS TOPIC ON p 533
TOGETHER THESE CHANGES WAS THAT THEY TURNED ALMOST CERTAIN
DEFEAT AT THE HANDS OF EUROPE'S PROFESSIONAL SOLDIERS INTO
VICTORY FOR FRANCE'S NEW ARMIES ... DESPITE THIS - INSTEAD OF
ENDING THE TERROR, ROBESPIERRE INTENSIFIED IT & THIS PROVED TO
BE HIS UNDOING ... IN JULY 1794, ROBESPIERRE WAS OVERTHROWN &
THEN HE, TOO, WAS SENT TO THE GUILLOTINE {World History, 534}
THE REGIME THAT REPLACED ROBESPIERRE & HIS COLLEAGUES - CALLED
THE DIRECTORY WAS AS CORRUPT AS IT WAS INEFFICIENT ...
Napoleon
Portrait
& PAVED THE WAY FOR THE RISE OF THIS MAN -
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
Charles Dickens Photo
IN 1859 THE BRITISH WRITER - CHARLES DICKENS WROTE A NOVEL

ABOUT THE REIGN OF TERROR CALLED A TALE OF TWO CITIES
HIS STORY BEGINS WITH THESE FAMOUS WORDS:
IT WAS THE BEST OF TIMES, IT WAS THE WORST OF TIMES
IT WAS THE AGE OF WISDOM, IT WAS AGE OF FOOLISHNESS ...
IT WAS THE SEASON OF LIGHT, IT WAS THE SEASON OF DARKNESS
IT WAS THE SPRING OF HOPE
IT WAS THE WINTER OF DESPAIR

NOTHING - I THINK - BETTER SUMS UP THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ... THIS
WATERSHED EVENT IN WORLD HISTORY NOT ONLY BROUGHT AN END TO
THE OLD ORDER TO FEUDALISM - T HAS ALSO INSPIRED GENERATIONS
OF MEN & WOMEN WHO BELIEVE IN LIBERTY & EQUALITY
BUT - AS YOU'VE ALSO SEEN THOSE IDEALS WERE EVENTUALLY REPLACED
WITH THE TERROR & THE GUILLOTINE
THESE TWIN LEGACIES - LIBERTY ON ONE SIDE - & TERROR IN THE
NAME OF LIBERTY ON THE OTHER - HELP EXPLAIN WHY THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION STILL AFFECTS HUMAN HISTORY ... BECAUSE THEY ARE - ALL
TOO OFTEN - THE TWIN LEGACIES OF THE MODERN AGE
IN ANY EVENT - BY 1799 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS OVER
THE NAPOLEONIC AGE WAS ABOUT TO BEGIN
V. The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
David’s painting - Napoleon crossing the Alps
IT'S SELDOM THAT A COURSE LIKE THIS CAN DWELL FOR ANY LENGTH OF
TIME ON ONE INDIVIDUAL ... BUT - THERE ARE EXCEPTIONS & THIS MAN –
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE IS ONE OF THEM
YOU MIGHT GET A SENSE OF THAT FROM THIS PAINTING OF HIM BY THE
ARTIST DAVID ... INDEED, THE 1ST 15 YEARS OF THE 19th century ARE
CALLED THE AGE OF NAPOLEON - HOW MANY PEOPLE CAN SAY THAT?
AT THE SAME TIME, THOUGH, NAPOLEON'S CAREER IS A CLASSIC EXAMPLE
OF AN AGE-OLD CONTROVERSY IN HISTORY ... WHICH IS OFTEN SUMMED
UP IN A QUESTION - DO THE TIMES MAKE THE MAN? …
OR – DOES THE MAN MAKE HIS TIMES?
IN OTHER WORDS, COULD NAPOLEON HAVE HAD THE SAME IMPACT ON THE
WORLD HAD HE BEEN BORN -- SAY A HUNDRED YEARS EARLIER OR,
EVEN, A HUNDRED YEARS LATER?
FOR HIMSELF - NAPOLEON BELIEVED THAT IT WAS HIS MISSION WAS
TO CONSOLIDATE THE GAINS MADE IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION &
FURTHER - TO SPREAD THOSE GAINS TO THE REST OF EUROPE &,
INDEED, TO THE REST OF THE WORLD
IN FACT, HAD IT NOT BEEN FOR THE FRENCH REVOLUTION - NAPOLEON
VERY LIKELY WOULD HAVE REMAINED AN OBSCURE OFFICER IN THE
FRENCH ARMY ... IN THAT SENSE, THE TIMES MADE THE MAN
YET, IT IS ALSO TRUE, THAT NAPOLEON - UNLIKE MANY OTHERS IN HIS

SAME POSITION - TOOK ADVANTAGE OF THE CHANGES WROUGHT BY THE
REVOLUTION .. LATER, AS HE FAMOUSLY PUT IT ... HE FOUND THE CROWN
OF FRANCE IN A GUTTER & HE PICKED IT UP WITH A SWORD
Map - Napoleonic Europe
NAPOLEON WAS BORN - NOT IN FRANCE - BUT ON THE ISLAND OF CORSICA
WHICH IS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN - BETWEEN FRANCE & ITALY
& ABOVE THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA ON THIS MAP
BY THE AGE OF 17, HE WAS A LIEUTENANT IN THE FRENCH ARMY ... BUT
WITHOUT THE CONNECTIONS THAT YOUNG NOBLES HAD PROSPECTS WERE
NOT VERY GOOD ... THAT CHANGED WITH THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
WITH THE OFFICER CORPS DEPLETED AS ARISTOCRATIC OFFICERS FOUND
THEMSELVES CARTED OFF TO THE GUILLOTINE - & WITH THE CREATION
OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC’S NEW MASS ARMIES - NAPOLEON ROSE VERY
QUICKLY THROUGH THE RANKS ...

Napoleon 1796 portrait
HE 1ST MADE A NAME FOR HIMSELF IN 1793 WHEN HE HELPED TO RE-
CAPTURE THE FRENCH CITY OF TOULON FROM THE BRITISH
BY 1796 - AT THE AGE OF 27 - NAPOLEON WAS A GENERAL COMMANDING
FRANCE'S ARMY FIGHTING IN ITALY AGAINST THE AUSTRIANS ... NOT
ONLY DID HE DEFEAT THE AUSTRIANS ... HE THEN PERSONALLY
NEGOTIATED A PEACE SETTLEMENT WITH THEM

THIS WAS TOO MUCH FOR HIS SUPERIORS IN PARIS - WHO DISPATCHED
HIM TO EGYPT - OF ALL PLACES - ON A FOOLHARDY ADVENTURE TO
DEFEAT THE BRITISH

Photo - Sphinx
BY THE WAY - IF YOU’VE EVER WONDERED WHY THE SPHINX IS
POCKMARKED - IT’S GOT NOTHING TO DO WITH AGE OR THE WEATHER
NAPOLEON’S SOLDIERS USED IT FOR TARGET PRACTICE
IT’S EVIDENT THAT THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT HOPED TO KEEP NAPOLEON
OUT OF THE WAY FOR A WHILE, PERHAPS EVEN PERMANENTLY
INSTEAD- HE RETURNED TO FRANCE AT JUST THE RIGHT TIME
BY 1799 FRANCE HAD EXPERIENCED A FULL DECADE OF REVOLUTIONARY
UPHEAVAL ... NOW, THE COUNTRY WAS RULED BY A DIRECTORY THAT
WAS - BY COMMON CONSENT - WEAK & CORRUPT - OPENING THE WAY
FOR A MILITARY COUP D'ETAT LED BY NAPOLEON ... THE NEW
GOVERNMENT - CALLED THE CONSULATE - WAS AN IDEA TAKEN FROM
THE ANCIENT ROMAN REPUBLIC ... HE WAS ONLY 30 YEARS OLD
Napoleon as 1st Consul
NAPOLEON WAS NAMED 1st CONSUL OF THE REPUBLIC - WHICH FOR ALL
PRACTICAL PURPOSES WAS SOON A DICTATORSHIP AS POWER WAS
CONCENTRATED IN THE HANDS OF THE 1st CONSUL -- i.e., NAPOLEON

DURING THIS PERIOD OF THE CONSULATE (1799-1804) NAPOLEON
ACHIEVED ONE OF HIS MOST FAR-REACHING ACCOMPLISHMENTS
WHEN HE ANNOUNCED WHAT ARE CALLED THE NAPOLEONIC CODES
THESE CODES - WHICH YOUR BOOK CALLS THE CIVIL CODE - IT’S THE
SAME THING - SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECTED ALL OF THE LAWS
PASSED SINCE THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
TODAY - THE NAPOLEONIC CODE IS THE BASIS FOR THE LEGAL SYSTEMS
NOT JUST IN FRANCE BUT, ALSO, IN PARTS OF THE WORLD THAT WERE
LATER PART OF FRANCE’S COLONIAL EMPIRE IN AFRICA & ASIA
THESE CODES ALSO BECAME THE FOUNDATION OF THE LEGAL SYSTEMS IN
MANY PARTS OF EUROPE LATER CONQUERED BY NAPOLEON’S ARMIES
AS WORLD HISTORY TELLS YOU ON pp. 535-536 ... THE NAPOLEONIC
CODE - FOR INSTANCE - PROMISED EQUALITY FOR ALL CITIZENS BEFORE
THE LAW ... IN OTHER WORDS, THERE WOULD NOT BE ONE LAW FOR THE
NOBILITY & ANOTHER FOR EVERYONE ELSE
THE CODE PROMISED FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE - AS WELL AS THE
RIGHT OF ANY PERSON TO PURSUE THE OCCUPATION OF HIS CHOICE ... IN
OTHER WORDS, CAREERS WOULD BE OPEN TO ANY PERSON WHO HAD THE
TALENT NEEDED FOR THE JOB ... HE OR SHE WOULDN'T BE GIVEN TO A
PERSON SIMPLY BECAUSE - SAY - HE BELONGED TO THE NOBILITY
WOMEN - HOWEVER - WERE THE BIG LOSERS IN THIS NEW LEGAL SYSTEM
THEY LOST MANY OF THE GAINS THEY HAD MADE THANKS TO THE
REVOLUTION
WHILE THESE PROMISES & GOALS SOUND GOOD ... THEY OFTEN WERE
ONLY PROMISES IN THEORY ... AS 1st CONSUL -- NAPOLEON WAS AFTER ALL
A DICTATOR ... SO, RIGHTS SUCH AS FREE SPEECH & A FREE PRESS
WERE CONSTANTLY VIOLATED ... IN OTHER WORDS, THERE OFTEN WAS A
WIDE GAP BETWEEN THE PROMISE OF THE NAPOLEONIC CODES & THE
REALITY IN WHICH THEY OPERATED UNDER HIM
MEANWHILE - NAPOLEON HAD HIMSELF MADE "CONSUL FOR LIFE" - IN
EFFECT DICTATOR FOR LIFE ... BUT - THAT WASN'T ENOUGH FOR HIM
Portrait - the coronation of Napoleon & Josephine
IN 1804 HE PROCLAIMED HIMSELF EMPEROR - CROWNING BOTH HIMSELF
& HIS WIFE JOSEPHINE - & TO MAKE THE EVENT LEGITIMATE - HE EVEN
FORCED THE POPE TO COME TO PARIS FOR HIS CORONATION
YOUR BOOK SHOWS A PAINTING OF THIS EVENT ON p 536 ... HERE IS A
CLOSE-UP OF THE DRAMATIC EVENT WHEN, AT THE MOMENT THE POPE
WAS TO PLACE THE CROWN ON NAPOLEON’S HEAD - NAPOLEON
SNATCHED THE CROWN FROM THE POPE’S HANDS & CROWNED
HIMSELF ... HE THEN TURNED TO JOSEPHINE – & CROWNED HER
BY THIS TIME IDEALS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WERE LONG SINCE
DEAD ... FRANCE WAS AGAIN AN AUTHORITARIAN REGIME

A POLICE STATE -- IF YOU WILL
VI. A new French empire in the Americas
FOR ALL THAT, HOWEVER, NAPOLEON’S HOLD ON POWER WAS NOT SECURE
WITHIN A FEW YEARS, HE WOULD CONTROL MOST OF EUROPE ... BUT
NOT GREAT BRITAIN ... & SO LONG AS BRITAIN WAS BEYOND HIS CONTROL
THERE WAS ALWAYS THE CHANCE THAT EUROPE WOULD RISE UP AGAINST
HIM ... WHICH PROVED TO BE THE CASE
NAPOLEON’S PROBLEM WAS THAT, WHILE HIS POWER RESTED ON LARGE
ARMIES - BRITISH POWER RESTED ON THEIR ROYAL NAVY & HE COULD
NEVER GET THE BRITISH TO COMMIT TO A LARGE LAND WAR IN WHICH HE
COULD DEFEAT THEM
Map - the Caribbean pre-1803
IN THE MEANTIME, HE ALSO WAS CONFRONTED WITH A PROBLEM IN THE
CARIBBEAN ... IF YOU TURN TO YOUR BOOK, BEGINNING ON p 533, YOU’LL

FIND A VERY GOOD SUMMARY OF HOW THE 1ST NATION IN LATIN
AMERICA CAME TO WIN ITS INDEPENDENCE
AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP, FRANCE POSSESSED A NUMBER OF ISLANDS
IN THE CARIBBEAN, INCLUDING ROUGHLY ½ OF THE ISLAND OF
HISPANIOLA THEN KNOWN AS SAINT DOMINQUE

INSPIRED BY THE IDEALS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, SLAVES ON THE
ISLAND REBELLED
Portrait - Toussaint L’Ouverture
LED BY THIS MAN - TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE - THE REBELS AIMED
TO TAKE CONTROL OF ALL OF HISPANIOLA
AND THIS IS WHERE NAPOLEON CAME IN ... DESPITE THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION’S LOFTY WORDS ABOUT EQUALITY OF MEN, HE RE-INSTITUTED
SLAVERY IN FRANCE’S CARIBBEAN POSSESSIONS & SENT AN ARMY TO
QUELL L’OUVERTURE’S REBELLION
Painting - the war in Haiti
FIGHTING BETWEEN THE FRENCH FORCES & L’OUVERTURE’S FOLLOWERS
WAS BRUTAL & ADD TO THAT LARGE NUMBERS OF FRENCH SOLDIERS
SUCCUMBED TO TROPICAL DISEASES, ESPECIALLY YELLOW FEVER
AND THIS IS WHERE THE SECOND PART OF THIS STORY COMES IN
SINCE NAPOLEON COULD NEVER DRAW THE BRITISH INTO A DECISIVE
LAND BATTLE IN EUROPE, HE TURNED HIS ATTENTIONS ELSEWHERE
ONE WAY FOR FRANCE TO ATTACK BRITAIN WAS IN THE AMERICAS - AS IT
HAD DONE IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
WHILE NAPOLEON’S 60,000 FRENCH SOLDIERS WERE FIGHTING & DYING
ON HE ALSO SIGNED A SECRET TREATY WITH SPAIN, IN WHICH THE FRENCH
REGAINED TITLE TO A HUGE TRACT OF LAND THEN KNOWN AS LOUISIANA
Map - Louisiana Territory

I'M NOT JUST TALKING ABOUT THE PRESENT STATE THAT GOES BY
THAT NAME ... LOUISIANA TERRITORY COMPRISED ALL THE LANDS WEST
OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER & BEYOND THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS
AS I SAY - THE TREATY GIVING NAPOLEON THE LOUISIANA TERRITORY WAS
SECRET ... ONCE HIS ARMY HAD DEFEATED THE SLAVE REBELLION ON
HISPANIOLA, HE WOULD SEND IT TO TAKE POSSESSION OF THE PORT OF
NEW ORLEANS ... FROM THERE, IT COULD TRAVEL UP THE MISSISSIPPI

RIVER TO THREATEN WHAT WAS THEN CALLED BRITISH NORTH
AMERICA - WHICH THE BRITISH WERE BOUND TO DEFEND
UNFORTUNATELY - FOR NAPOLEON, ANYWAY - THINGS DIDN’T GO AS
PLANNED ... ALTHOUGH THE FRENCH CAPTURED TOUSSAINT
L’OUVERTURE - WHO SOON DIED IN PRISON, THEY COULDN’T

OVERCOME HIS FOLLOWERS ... IN 1804, THEY FORCED NAPOLEON TO
ACCEPT DEFEAT & THE NATION OF HAITI WAS DECLARED ... MAKING IT, AS
I SAID EARLIER, THE FIRST LATIN AMERICAN STATE TO WIN ITS
INDEPENDENCE
Portrait - Thomas Jefferson as president
IN THE MEANTIME, RUMORS OF NAPOLEON’S TAKEOVER OF LOUISIANA HAD
REACHED AMERICA’S 3RD PRESIDENT - THOMAS JEFFERSON
WHEN THESE RUMORS WERE CONFIRMED, JEFFERSON REALIZED THIS
PLACED THE UNITED STATES SQUARELY BETWEEN FRANCE & BRITAIN

IN ANY WAR ON THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT
IT ALSO MEANT NAPOLEON COULD PRESSURE THE AMERICANS TO SIDE
WITH HIM BECAUSE CONTROL OF LOUISIANA MEANT CONTROL OF
NEW ORLEANS - & CONTROL OF NEW ORLEANS MEANT CONTROL OF
THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER - & CONTROL OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER
MEANT CONTROL OF THE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE
WEST ... & THAT WOULD MEAN THE UNITED STATES WOULD GO TO WAR
ON THE SIDE OF A DICTATOR
IF NAPOLEON ACTUALLY TOOK POSSESSION OF NEW ORLEANS, JEFFERSON
FAMOUSLY SAID, THEN:"WE MUST MARRY OURSELVES TO THE
BRITISH FLEET & NATION"
IN OTHER WORDS, THE UNITED STATES MUST GIVE UP ITS INDEPENDENCE &
RE-JOIN THE BRITISH EMPIRE - A REMARKABLE STATEMENT FROM THE
MAN WHO WROTE THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
BEFORE HE WOULD SEE THAT HAPPEN, JEFFERSON SENT 2 AMERICAN
ENVOYS {JAMES MONROE & ROBERT LIVINGSTON} TO PARIS TO SEE IF
THEY COULD CONVINCE NAPOLEON TO SELL NEW ORLEANS TO THE
UNITED STATES
FORTUNATELY - FOR THE AMERICANS - NAPOLEON’S AMERICAN
STRATEGY WASN'T GOING VERY WELL ... HIS ARMY, AS I POINTED OUT
EARLIER, WAS BOGGED DOWN IN HAITI & - AS IT HAPPENED, NAPOLEON

WAS PREPARING TO WAGE ANOTHER WAR IN EUROPE ... IT SEEMS HE HAD
LOST INTEREST IN THE AMERICAS - & HE NEEDED CASH TO FUND HIS
LATEST ATTEMPT AT DOMINATING THE EUROPEAN CONTINENT
SO - WHEN THE AMERICANS OFFERED TO BUY NEW ORLEANS - HE TURNED
THEM DOWN COLD ... BUT - HE SAID - HE WOULD SELL THE ENTIRE
LOUISIANA TERRITORY - FOR A COOL $15 MILLION - & EVEN THOUGH

THE AMERICAN ENVOYS HAD NO AUTHORITY TO MAKE SUCH A PURCHASE
THEY VERY WISELY SAID - “DEAL”
THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE WAS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT TURNING
POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ... IT WAS THE LARGEST
PEACEFUL ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY IN THIS NATION’S HISTORY ...

NOT A SHOT WAS FIRED &, AS I SAY, WITH THE STROKE OF A PEN, US
NEARLY DOUBLED ITS SIZE
EVENTUALLY, HOWEVER, THE UNITED STATES WAS PULLED INTO THE
NAPOLEONIC WARS WHEN, IRONICALLY, IN 1812, THE AMERICANS WENT
TO WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN OVER A NUMBER OF ISSUES THAT WE
DON’T NEED TO GO INTO HERE
Map - War of 1812
STRANGELY, YOUR BOOK DOESN’T GO INTO THIS, BUT THE WAR HAD A
PROFOUND IMPACT ON CANADIANS - GIVING THEM A SENSE OF IDENTITY

THAT WAS SEPARATE & DISTINCT FROM THEIR NEIGHBORS TO THE
SOUTH & THIS EXPLAINS WHY THE WAR OF 1812 IS GIVEN MUCH GREATER
ATTENTION IN CANADA THAN IT IS IN THE UNITED STATES
IT WAS A GOOD THING FOR AMERICA THAT THE WAR ENDED WHEN IT DID IN
DECEMBER 1814 ... UNTIL THEN, BRITAIN'S MAIN WORRY HAD BEEN THE
DEFEAT OF NAPOLEON'S ARMIES IN EUROPE ... FOR THEM, THE WAR OF
1812 WAS ESSENTIALLY A SIDESHOW
IRONICALLY, THE MOST FAMOUS BATTLE OF THE WAR TOOK PLACE
AFTER THE PEACE TREATY WAS SIGNED ... A BRITISH ARMY WAS SENT TO
TAKE THE PORT OF NEW ORLEANS ... THE CITY WAS DEFENDED BY AN
ARMY LED BY A MAN WHO HAS BEEN IN THE NEWS A LOT LATELY - AT
LEAST HIS STATUES HAVE BEEN - ANDREW JACKSON ... YOU CAN SEE
HIM ON THE WHITE HORSE IN THIS PAINTING
Battle of New Orleans painting
EVEN THOUGH THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS TOOK PLACE AFTER WAR
ENDED, IT MADE A NATIONAL HERO - & LATER PRESIDENT OUT OF
JACKSON
WHILE THE UNITED STATES DID NOT WIN THE WAR OF 1812, IT DID NOT
LOSE IT, EITHER ... IRONICALLY, THE WAR’S GREATEST LEGACY WAS
FOR THE AMERICANS - LIKE THE CANADIANS - WAS PSYCHOLOGICAL
FOR AMERICANS IT ENDED ANY FEELINGS OF COLONIAL DEPENDENCY -

AFTER THIS WAR ANY IDEAS THAT THE UNITED STATES WOULD ONE DAY
RETURN TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE WERE GONE
Cartoon - William Pitt, the Younger & Napoleon
VII. From master of Europe to defeat at Waterloo
LET ME WRAP UP THIS TALK ABOUT NAPOLEON
AS I SAID WHEN TALKING ABOUT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE, NAPOLEON’S
REAL AMBITION WAS TO CONTROL EUROPE ... & FOR A WHILE IT SEEMED
AS IF HE MIGHT SUCCEED
Map - Napoleon’s Europe, 1810
BUT IN JUNE 1812, HE LAUNCHED AN INVASION OF RUSSIA THAT -
ULTIMATELY - BROUGHT ABOUT HIS DOWNFALL
NAPOLEON LED THE LARGEST ARMY EVER SEEN IN EUROPE UP TO THIS
TIME {McKay, Hill, Buckler, 718} CERTAIN THAT IT WOULD SOON DEFEAT
THE RUSSIANS ... BUT ALTHOUGH HE CAPTURED MOSCOW, HE WAS
SOON FORCED TO RETREAT
Painting - Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow
OF THE 600,000 SOLDIERS WHO HAD SET OUT WITH NAPOLEON - ONLY
20,000 - 30,000 RETURNED HOME ... THE HAD DIED OF STARVATION,
DISEASE, ATTACKS BY RUSSIAN SOLDIERS ... & NOT LEAST BY THE
RUSSIAN WINTER
BY THIS TIME, HIS CONTINUED AGGRESSION HAD MADE IT OBVIOUS
THAT AS LONG AS HE AS WAS AROUND THERE COULD BE NO PEACE ... PUT
ANOTHER WAY, HE HAD BECOME A DESTABILIZING INFLUENCE
MOREOVER - NAPOLEON’S CONTROL OF EUROPE WAS INCREASINGLY
UNPOPULAR ... WHILE HE INTRODUCED MANY REFORMS. SUCH AS THE
ENDING SERFDOM - THE INTERESTS OF THE CONQUERED NATIONS &
THEIR PEOPLE ALWAYS CAME 2ND TO INTERESTS OF FRANCE
AS WELL AS BEING TAXED VERY HEAVILY BY THE FRENCH - THESE
NATIONS ALSO HAD TO SUPPLY SOLDIERS TO FIGHT IN NAPOLEON’S
WARS ... FAR FROM BEING SEEN AS A LIBERATOR - NAPOLEON CAME TO
BE REGARDED AS A CONQUERING TYRANT
NOWHERE WAS THIS MORE TRUE THAN IN SPAIN WHERE OPPONENTS TO
FRENCH RULE BEGAN TO WAGE A "GUERRILLA WAR" ... THE SPANISH
TERM FOR LITTLE WAR - A WAR THE BRITISH WERE IN AN EXCELLENT
POSITION TO SUPPORT WITH THEIR NAVY
NAPOLEON’S DEFEAT IN RUSSIA INSPIRED EUROPE’S OTHER LEADERS TO
RISE UP AGAINST HIM ... ONE OF THE TOOLS THEY USED TO INSPIRE THEIR
PEOPLE WAS THE VERY SAME TOOL USED BY THE FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARIES TO REPEL INVADERS OF THEIR LAND -
NATIONALISM
Map - showing Elba
BY THE END OF THIS "WAR OF LIBERATION" AGAINST NAPOLEON, THE

VICTORIOUS ARMIES MARCHED INTO PARIS ITSELF IN 1814
NAPOLEON WAS FORCED TO ABDICATE HIS THRONE & GO INTO EXILE
ON AN ISLAND IN THE MEDITERRANEAN - ELBA - WHICH YOU CAN SEE
ON THIS NOT-VERY-GOOD MAP BETWEEN CORSICA & ITALY
Napoleon’s Escape from Elba
NAPOLEON WASN’T CONTENT WITH HIS “CLUB MED” RETIREMENT,
HOWEVER, & IN EARLY 1815 HE ESCAPED FROM ELBA - LANDING IN FRANCE
HE APPEALED FOR SUPPORT &, AS CAN SEE FROM THIS PAINTING, HIS OLD
ARMY SOON RALLIED TO HIS SIDE
BUT - NAPOLEON HAD TAKEN A HUGE RISK ... THE ALLIES WERE
NOT ABOUT TO ALLOW HIM TO REMAIN IN POWER ... INSTEAD, AN ARMY
WAS SENT TO DEFEAT NAPOLEON’S FORCES, LED BY THIS MAN - A BRITISH
GENERAL - THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON
Duke of Wellington portrait
WELLINGTON WAS KNOWN AS THE IRON DUKE ... & YOU GET A SENSE OF
WHY FROM THIS PORTRAIT - & HE WASN’T EASILY INTIMIDATED
WHEN ONE OF HIS MISTRESSES THREATENED TO RUIN HIS REPUTATION
BY PUBLISHING THEIR LOVE LETTERS UNLESS HE PAID HER A LARGE SUM
OF MONEY, WELLINGTON REPLIED: “PUBLISH - & BE DAMNED”
SHE PUBLISHED - & WAS DAMNED

Waterloo painting
ON THE 18TH OF JUNE 1815 WELLINGTON’S FORCES CRUSHED NAPOLEON’S
ARMY AT THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO ... THIS TIME THE ALLIED POWERS
TOOK NO CHANCES ... NAPOLEON WAS EXILED A 2nd TIME -- NOW TO THE
BRITISH-HELD ISLAND OF ST HELENA - OFF THE COAST OF AFRICA ...
St Helena map
IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC, WHERE HE DIED IN 1821 - AN ERA HAD ENDED
VIII. The dynamic legacy of Napoleon
Napoleon crossing the Alps
NAPOLEON'S LEGACY WAS DISPUTED OVER EVEN BEFORE HE DIED & THAT
DISPUTE CONTINUES TO THIS DAY ... CERTAINLY - HE WAS A MILITARY
GENIUS ... HIS INNOVATIONS IN BOTH ORGANIZATION & STRATEGY ARE
STILL STUDIED BY THE MILITARY OF MANY NATIONS
BEYOND THE BATTLEFIELD ... BOTH THE REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON'S
QUEST TO DOMINATE EUROPE LET LOOSE FORCES ON THE WORLD
THAT STILL REVERBERATE ... AS THAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN CHINA’S
THEN PREMIER CHOU EN-LAI & HENRY KISSINGER MAKES CLEAR
THE IDEALS OF LIBERTY, EQUALITY & FRATERNITY - CONCEIVED

IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT - PUT INTO PRACTICE - TO SOME DEGREE -
DURING THE REVOLUTION - WERE THEN SPREAD BY NAPOLEON'S
TROOPS TO THE REST OF EUROPE - AGAIN - IF ONLY IN THEORY ... IN

TIME - THESE IDEALS SPREAD TO THE REST OF THE WORLD
IN PARTICULAR -- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION & THE AGE OF NAPOLEON
LED TO 2 CONCEPTS THAT HAVE AFFECTED THE WORLD EVER SINCE
THE 1st OF THESE CONCEPTS IS LIBERALISM ... THE POLITICAL
MOVEMENT THAT - GENERALLY SPEAKING - EMBODIED THE CONCEPTS
OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ...
IN PRACTICE, LIBERALISM WAS AT ODDS WITH MONARCHY &
ARISTOCRACY - & FAVORED, INSTEAD, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT ... GOVERNMENTS THAT WOULD
GUARANTEE THE RIGHTS & LIBERTIES OF ALL CITIZENS - NO
MATTER THEIR PLACE IN SOCIETY
THE 2nd OF THESE CONCEPTS WAS NATIONALISM WHICH, SIMPLY PUT,
IS THE IDEA THAT PEOPLE WHO SHARE A COMMON FEELING OF
DISTINCTION FROM ALL OTHERS - TYPICALLY BASED ON A COMMON
LANGUAGE, RELIGION, SHARED HISTORY, & THE PERCEPTION OF RACE
THESE PEOPLE, SHARING THIS COMMON FEELING - HAVE THE
RIGHT TO THEIR OWN POLITICAL STATE
NATIONALISM MAY BE OBVIOUS TO US TODAY ... BUT - THIS SENTIMENT
ONLY BECAME WIDESPREAD DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ...
BEFORE THAT - A PERSON'S LOYALTY WAS TO HIS OR HER KING OR

QUEEN- NOT TO THE COUNTRY ITSELF
LIBERALISM & NATIONALISM ARE THE 2 MOST IMPORTANT
POLITICAL TRENDS OF THE 19TH - 20TH - &, NOW THE 21ST CENTURIES
IN EUROPE & ELSEWHERE ... LIBERALISM THREATENED RULE BY
ABSOLUTE MONARCHS & OTHER NOBLES - &, TODAY, DICTATORS
NATIONALISM POSED AN EVEN LONGER TERM THREAT TO RULERS
WHO PRESUMED THE RIGHT TO GOVERN NATIONAL GROUPS WITH WHOM
THEY HAD NO CONNECTION
THE VICTORIOUS ALLIES HAD WITNESSED THE FORCES THESE IDEAS
UNLEASHED - A NUMBER OF THEM HAD BATTLED NAPOLEON’S ARMIES ...
AND WHILE IT’S DIFFICULT TO VISUALIZE IDEAS LIKE LIBERALISM &
NATIONALISM THEIR IMPACT WAS DEMONSTRATED BY THE MILITARY
UPHEAVALS OF THE NAPOLEONIC AGE ... (roughly 1799 - when Napoleon
became 1ST CONSUL TO 1815)
THE FRENCH SUCCEEDED IN DOMINATING EUROPE FOR MOST OF A QUARTER
CENTURY BECAUSE THEY HAD MASTERED THE CONCEPT OF THE
NATION AT ARMS ... TO DEFEAT THE FRENCH - NAPOLEON, SPECIFICALLY
THE OTHER NATIONS OF EUROPE HAD TO ADOPT THE SAME POLICY
WHILE THIS EVENTUALLY LED TO VICTORY FOR THE ANTI-FRENCH

ALLIANCE - THAT VICTORY CAME AT A HIGH PRICE ... & THIS EXPERIENCE
GOES SOME WAY TOWARD EXPLAINING WHY THEY LONGED TO TURN
BACK THE CLOCK ... TO RESTORE THE WORLD THEY HAD ONCE KNOWN
WHICH - OF COURSE - WAS IMPOSSIBLE
THE LESSONS OF THE NAPOLEONIC WARS HAD BEEN LEARNED -
THEY COULDN’T BE UNLEARNED
THE SAME WAS TRUE OF THE OTHER LESSONS - OR, FORCES, IF YOU WILL -
OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD, NAMELY LIBERALISM &
NATIONALISM
FOR EVERY ONE PERSON WHO WANTED TO GO BACK TO WHAT IS CALLED
THE ANCIEN REGIME ... THERE WERE MANY MORE WHO DID NOT ...
FROM THE BEGINNING THE ARCHITECTS OF THE RESTORATION WERE
AWARE THAT THEY WERE ERECTING A FRAGILE EDIFICE - A FACT THAT
WAS BROUGHT HOME TO THEM BY NAPOLEON HIMSELF WHEN HE
ESCAPED FROM ELBA
PLAYING IT SAFE WAS - IN SOME WAYS - ALSO THE GOAL OF THE MEN WHO
GATHERED AT VIENNA TO RE-CREATE THE OLD EUROPE
WHILE A NUMBER OF EUROPEAN STATES WERE REPRESENTED AT WHAT
WAS CALLED THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA

Congress of Vienna painting
THE MEETINGS WERE DOMINATED THE 4 MAIN POWERS THAT HAD
DEFEATED NAPOLEON & THE 4 MEN WHO REPRESENTED THOSE POWERS

GREAT BRITAIN (REPRESENTED BY VISCOUNT CASTLEREAGH)
RUSSIA (REPRESENTED BY TSAR ALEXANDER I)
PRUSSIA (REPRESENTED BY KING FREDERICK WILLIAM III)
AND AUSTRIA (REPRESENTED BY COUNT METTERNICH)
IT BEARS REPEATING THAT THE AIM OF THESE 4 MEN WAS TO HAMMER OUT
NOT JUST A PEACE SETTLEMENT FOR FOR EUROPE -- BUT, MORE THAN
THAT - AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE - THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA WAS
CONVENED TO RESTORE THE WORLD THEY HAD KNOWN BEFORE
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Map - Latin American independence
ONE PLACE WHERE THESE MEN WERE DETERMINED TO TURN BACK THE
CLOCK WAS IN LATIN AMERICA ... BUT BECAUSE IT HAS BEEN A WHILE
SINCE I’VE TALKED ABOUT THAT PART OF THE WORLD, IT WOULD BE BEST
TO LEAVE THIS TOPIC FOR ANOTHER TIME

1HIST 125 – Introduction to World History: Lecture 5
I. Independence in Latin America

II. The impact of the Industrial Revolution
III. Adam Smith’s “invisible hand”
IV. Industrialization & transportation
V. Marx & Marxism
1. Latin American conquests map

2. Caribbean & West Indies map
3. Atlantic slave trade map
4. Latin America map, 1800
5. Portrait - Napoleon
6. Portrait - Bolívar
7. Portrait – San Martín
8. Latin American independence map
9. British warships painting
10. Monroe/Adams joint portraits
11. John F Kennedy photo
12. Fidel Castro/Nikita Khrushchev photo
13. Cuban Missile Crisis map
14. Ironbridge photo
15. Coalbrookdale painting
16. Photo - Chinese factory, Yangtze River
17. Industrial Britain map
18. Portrait – James Watt
19. Photo – Watt’s steam engine
20. Map – Europe’s industrialization
21. British slum photo
22. British canal photo (1)
23. Portrait – Adam Smith
24. Railroad painting
25. British canal photo (2)
26. Train locomotive photo
27. 1848-49 Revolution map
28. Karl Marx photo
29. Engels photo
30. Delacroix’s “Liberty leading the people” painting
31. Labour Party poster
Latin American conquests map
I. Independence in Latin America
SINCE YOU’VE HAD TO TAKE AN EXAM TODAY, I’M SURE THE LAST THING YOU
WANT TO DEAL WITH IS A LECTURE … BUT, BECAUSE THIS COURSE HAS TO
COVER A LOT OF GROUND IN JUST A FEW WEEKS, WE HAVE DO AN
ABBREVIATED SESSION THIS AFTERNOON
I HAVEN’T HAD A CHANCE TO TALK MUCH ABOUT LATIN AMERICA SINCE
WE COVERED COLUMBUS’S EARLY VOYAGES … BUT I TRUST YOU READ
ABOUT THESE EVENTS IN CHAPTER 14 OF DUIKER & SPIEVOGEL’S BOOK
AS THIS MAP INDICATES, THESE CONQUESTS – PARTICULARLY THOSE OF
THE SPANISH – WERE AIMED AT GAINING CONTROL OF THE GOLD &
SILVER POSSESSED BY THE EMPIRES THEY ENCOUNTERED – WHETHER
IT WAS THE AZTECS IN PRESENT-DAY MEXICO OR THE INCA

WHOSE EMPIRE STRETCHED ALONG SOUTH AMERICA’S PACIFIC COAST
IF YOU RECALL THE FACT THAT THESE EMPIRES WERE BASED ON
MERCANTILISM, YOU WON’T FIND ANY OF THIS SURPRISING
WHEN IT CAME TO THE PORTUGESE, THEIR LANDS IN PRESENT-DAY BRAZIL
HAD LITTLE IN THE WAY OF GOLD OR SILVER TO ENRICH THE MOTHER
COUNTRY … BUT AS THIS MAP SHOWS, THEY SOON MADE PORTUGAL RICH AS
A SOURCE OF COMMODITIES LIKE SUGAR & COFFEE
Caribbean & West Indies map
THE SAME WAS TRUE WHEN THE EUROPEANS LAID CLAIM TO THE
NUMEROUS ISLANDS OF CARIBBEAN & THE WEST INDIES – WHERE
THE BRITISH, THE FRENCH, OF THE DUTCH GAINED STAKED CLAIMS
&, EVEN, GAINED FOOTHOLDS IN BOTH CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICA
IN ALL OF THESE CASES, THE NATIVE TRIBES WERE DECIMATED – BY

BRUTAL CONQUEST BUT, EVEN MORE, BY DISEASES BROUGHT OVER BY
THE EUROPEANS … & AS YOUR BOOK ALSO TELLS YOU ON p 405, MANY
OTHERS DIED BECAUSE OF FORCED LABOR – IN OTHER WORDS SLAVERY
Atlantic slave trade map
WITH THE NATIVE POPULATION LITERALLY WORKED TO DEATH, ALL OF THE
EUROPEAN POWERS TURNED TO AFRICA FOR A NEW SOURCE OF FORCED
LABOR &, AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP, ANY EVER GROWING NUMER
OF AFRICAN MEN, WOMEN, & CHILDREN WERE ENSLAVED THROUGHOUT
LATIN AMERICA – ESPECIALLY ON SUGAR PLANTATIONS TO FEED
THE EUROPEANS’ GROWING ADDICTIONS FOR SWEETS
Latin America map, 1800
AS LATE AS 1800, BOTH SPAIN & PORTUGAL STILL POSSESSED LARGE

EMPIRES IN THE AMERICAS … BUT THE FACT WAS, BOTH NATIONS HAD
LONG SINCE FALLEN INTO DECLINE
Portrait - Napoleon
WHICH – BRIEFLY – BRINGS US BACK TO THIS MAN … AS YOUR BOOK TELLS
YOU ON p 578, WHEN NAPOLEON TOPPLED THE MONARCHIES OF SPAIN &
PORTUGAL, REBELS IN THEIR LATIN AMERICAN EMPIRES SAW THE
CHANCE TO DECLARE THEIR OWN INDEPENENCE
AS HAPPENED IN NORTH AMERICA, THE ENLIGHTENMENT HAD A
PROFOUND IMPACT ON MANY PEOPLE IN THESE EMPIRES & THEY WERE,
IN ADDITION, INSPIRED BY THE EXAMPLE OF THE EXAMPLE OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION – THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL COLONIAL
REVOLUTION IN HUMAN HISTORY, IT BEARS REPEATING
OTHERS LOOKED TO THE EXAMPLE OF THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE, AS

HAPPENED, EARLIER IN HAITI
Portrait - Bolívar
YOUR BOOK, WORLD HISTORY, DOES AN ABLE JOB SUMMARIZING THESE
WARS OF INDPENDENCE IN WHICH TWO MEN, IN PARTICLULAR STOOD OUT
SIMÓN BOLÍVAR WHO LIBERATED MUCH OF NORTHERN SOUTH
AMERICA - & JOSÉ DE SAN MARTÍN WHO DID THE SAME IN THE
SOUTHERN PART OF THE CONTINENT … HERE HE IS WRAPPED IN THE FLAG
OF HIS NATIVE ARGENTINA
Portrait – San Martín
HOWEVER, THESE WARS OF LIBERATION LASTED FAR LONGER THAN IS
NOW REMEMBERED … LONG AFTER NAPOLEON’S FINAL DEFEAT AT
WATERLOO IN 1815 – AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP
Latin American independence map

AND THAT WAS A REAL PROBLEM FOR THESE NEW REPUBLICS ... FOR THEIR
PART, THE SPANISH, ANYWAY, WERE DETERMINEDTO RE-CONQUER
THEIR LOST LANDS IN THE AMERICAS & THEY LOOKED TO THEIR ALLIES IN
EUROPE - RUSSIA, PRUSSIA, & AUSTRIA - TO HELP … AFTER ALL,
THESE POWERS WERE COMMITTED TO RETURNING THE WORLD TO THE
ONE THAT EXISTED BEFORE THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
HOWEVER, ONE EUROPEAN POWER WAS NOT INTERESTED & THAT WAS
GREAT BRITAIN … & THAT WAS CRUCIAL – BECAUSE THE BRITISH HAD
THE WORLD’S LARGEST MILITARY FLEET … SPAIN COULD MASS ALL THE
SOLDIERS IN THE WORLD, BUT IF THEY COULDN’T GET TO ACROSS THE
ATLANTIC – WHAT WAS THE POINT?
British warships painting
THE BRITISH WEREN’T PROTECTING THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS

OUT OF THE GOODNESS OF THEIR HEARTS … AS WELL AS HAVING THE
WORLD LARGEST NAVY, THE BRITISH WERE A COMMERCIAL NATION & HAD
BEEN LOCKED OUT OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN MARKETS WHEN THE
CONTINENT HAD BEEN RULED BY SPAIN & PORTUGAL
AFTER INDEPEDENCE, BRITISH BUSINESSES RUSHED INTO THE CONTINENT
SO DID BUSINESSES FROM THE UNITED STATES
BY 1822, THE AMERICANS - THE UNITED STATES - HAD RECOGNIZED 5
LATIN AMERICAN REPUBLICS - MEXICO, ARGENTINA, CHILE,
COLUMBIA & PERU ... &, LIKE THE BRITISH, WERE HAPPY TO
SELL THEIR GOODS TO THE LATIN AMERICANS
BOTH THE BRITISH & THE AMERICANS ALSO KNEW THAT IF THE SPANISH
CAME BACK - THEY WOULD AGAIN BE LOCKED OUT OF THOSE MARKETS
RATHER THAN SEE THAT HAPPEN - & EVEN THOUGH THE BRITISH & THE
HAD RECENTLY FOUGHT A WAR WITH ONE ANOTHER – THE BRITISH
PROPOSED THAT THE TWO GOVERNMENTS ISSUE A JOINT DECLARATION
OPPOSING ANY PLAN BY THE SPANISH TO RE-CONQUER THEIR
FORMER COLONIES
Monroe/Adams joint portraits
THE AMERICANS HAD OTHER IDEAS
THEIR 5TH PRESIDENT - JAMES MONROE - & HIS SECRETARY OF STATE –
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS - INSISTED THAT THE UNITED STATES SHOULD
ISSUE ITS OWN DECLARATION … DECEMBER 1823 - MONROE PRESENTED TO
CONGRESS THE POLICY THAT WOULD BEAR HIS NAME –
THE MONROE DOCTRINE -
EVEN THOUGH IT REALLY WAS THE WORK OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS
YOUR BOOK ONLY BRIEFLY MENTIONS THE MONROE DOCTRINT, ON p 580

IN ESSENCE, IT DECLARED THAT THE AMERICAS WERE "HENCEFORTH
NOT TO BE CONSIDERED AS SUBJECTS FOR
FUTURE COLONIZATION BY ANY EUROPEAN POWERS"
NOW - NOTE: THE US DIDN’T SAY THAT IT WOULD INTERFERE WITH
EXISTING COLONIES - WE WOULDN’T TRY TO KICK THE BRITISH
OUT OF CANADA OR THE SPANISH OUT OF CUBA - BUT, THE UNITED
STATES WOULD OPPOSE FUTURE COLONIZATION, OR RE-ESTABLISHING
OF OLD ONES
IN RETURN, DOCTRINE PROMISED THAT THE UNITED STATES WOULD
NOT BECOME INVOLVED IN THE AFFAIRS OF EUROPE
ONE HISTORIAN HAS POINTED OUT "THIS WAS VERY LARGE BARK
FROM A VERY SMALL DOG" {Tindall & Shi, 267}
THE FACT WAS THAT THE UNITED STATES COULD NOT HAVE ENFORCED
THE MONROE DOCTRINE ON ITS OWN
THROUGHOUT THE 19TH CENTURY & INTO THE 20TH, THE MONROE
DOCTRINE WAS ENFORCED BY THE ROYAL NAVY ... AS I SAID, THE BRITISH
HAD THEIR OWN REASONS FOR BACKING THIS POLICY – NAMELY, TO SECURE
ITS TRADE WITH THE NEWLY INDEPENDENT LATIN AMERICAN STATES
IN ANY CASE, THE TWIN ACTIONS BY THESE TWO NATIONS ENSURED THAT
THERE WOULD BE NO RE-CONQUEST OF LATIN AMERICA BY SPAIN OR
PORTUGAL
BUT - LATER ON, THE MONROE DOCTRINE WOULD BE USED BY THE
UNITED STATES ITSELF TO BECOME INVOLVED IN LATIN AMERICAN
AFFAIRS — WHICH IT DOES TO THIS DAY
John F Kennedy photo

PERHAPS MOST FAMOUSLY THIS FUTURE AMERICAN PRESIDENT INVOKED
THE MONROE DOCTRINE DURING WHAT BECAME KNOWN AS THE
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
Fidel Castro/Nikita Khrushchev photo
AFTER THE MAN ON THE LEFT OF THIS PHOTO – FIDEL CASTRO – TOOK
CONTROL OF CUBA IN 1959, HE ANNOUNCED HE WAS A COMMUNIST
TURNED FOR HELP TO THE SOVIET UNION & THE OTHER MAN IN THIS
PHOTO – NIKITA KHRUSHCHEV
FOLLOWING A US-BACKED ATTEMPT TO OVERTHROW CASTRO’S REGIME IN
1961, THE SOVIETS SECRETLY BEGAN BUILIDING BASES IN WHICH THEY
PLANNED TO STATION NUCLEAR MISSILES WHCH COULD THEN THREATEN
MOST OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES, AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP
Cuban Missile Crisis map
KENNEDY’S MILITARY ADVISORS WANTED HIM TO INVADE CUBA … WE
NOW KNOW THAT THERE LARGE NUMBERS OF SOVIET MILITARY FORCES
IN CUBA AT THE TIME … SO IF THE AMERICANS HAD INVADED, IT’S ALL BUT
CERTAIN THAT THERE WOULD HAVE BEEN AN ALL-OUT NUCLEAR WAR
& YOU & I WOULDN’T BE HERE
INSTEAD, KENNEDY ANNOUNCED THAT THE SOVIETS WERE VIOLATING THE
MONROE DOCTRINE … INSTEAD OF INVADING, HE ALSO TOLD THE
WORLD THAT THE US NAVY WOULD “QUARANTINE” CUBA – IN REALITY
A NAVAL BLOCKADE - UNTIL THE SOVIETS WITHDREW THEIR MISSILES
IN THE END, IT WORKED … THE SOVIETS WITHDREW THEIR MISSILES
THE AMERICANS AGREED THEY WOULDN’T TRY TO OVERTHROW CASTRO
AND YOU & I WERE GIVEN THE CHANCE TO LIVE

BUT THIS IS THE CLOSEST THE WORLD HAS COME TO A WAR IN WHICH
NUCLEAR WEAPONS ALMOST CERTAINLY WOULD HAVE BEEN USED & THAT
WOULD HAVE LED TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE HUMAN RACE
IT WAS A CLOSE-RUN THING
Ironbridge photo
II. The impact of the Industrial Revolution
LET ME GO BACK TO EUROPE FOR A MOMENT TO TALK ABOUT AN EVENT –
A PROCESS, REALLY – THAT IS STILL TAKING PLACE
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

AS I BELIEVE I SAID EARLIER, I OFTEN FIND THAT STUDENTS HATE
TALKING ABOUT THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ... I KNOW I DID WHEN
I WAS A STUDENT ... BECAUSE THE WAY IT’S EXPLAINED MAKES IT A
TORTUROUS BORE
TYPICALLY - THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IS PRESENTED AS A
SERIES OF INVENTIONS THAT SEEM HAVE NOTHING TO DO WITH
OUR LIVES ... BUT OUR LIVES WOULD BE UNIMAGINABLE HAD THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION NEVER TAKEN PLACE
THIS PHOTO IS OF PLACE THAT TAKES ITS NAME FROM THE STRUCTURE —
IRONBRIGE … A PLACE IN ENGLAND THAT IS KNOWN AS THE CRADLE
OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION … LOOKS IDYLLIC, DOESN’T IT?
Coalbrookdale painting
THIS IS A PAINTING OF A PLACE NEARBY, COALBROOKDALE … MADE
DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION & WHICH ONLY BEGINS TO HINT AT
WHAT A HELLISH PLACE THIS ONCE WAS

Photo - Chinese factor, Yangtze River
AND WHILE IT MAY TAKE SOME IMAGINATION, THAT IMAGE IS NOT A WHOLE
LOT DIFFERENT FROM THIS PHOTO OF A FACTORY ON CHINA’S YANGTZE
RIVER … IT BEARS REPEATING, THE INUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IS NOT A
AN HISTORICAL EVENT - IT IS STILL TAKING PLACE TODAY IN MANY PARTS
OF THE DEVELOPING WORLD – ... IN PARTS OF ASIA, AFRICA, & IN
LATIN AMERICA
IF YOU WANT A DEFINITION - THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IS THIS
IT WAS THE “SHIFTING OF PRODUCTION FROM HAND TOOLS, POWERED
BY MUSCLE, WIND & WATER TO MACHINERY POWERED BY STEAM,

COMBUSTION, ELECTRICITY ... OR ATOMIC ENERGY"
FROM A SOCIAL POINT OF VIEW, IT HAS MARKED THE SHIFT FROM AN
AGRARIAN CULTURE TO AN URBAN -- OR CITY -- CULTURE
FOR THIS REASON ALONE - THE CONSEQUENCES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
HAVE BEEN PROFOUND ... SOME HISTORIANS ARGUE THAT THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION IS THE MOST IMPORTANT HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
SINCE THE ADVENT OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION
WHETHER OR NOT YOU AGREE WITH THAT - IN EVERY COUNTRY WHERE
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION HAS TAKEN PLACE, THE RESULTS TYPICALLY
ARE THE SAME
INDUSTRIALIZATION CHANGES PATTERNS OF WORK ... IT AFFECTS THE
SOCIAL CLASS STRUCTURE ... THAT THE OLD WORLD OF ARISTOCRATS &
PEASANTS FOR THE MOST PART DISAPPEARS & IS REPLACED BY NEW
CLASSES OF PEOPLE - CAPITALISTS – WORKERS & - NOT LEAST - THE
MIDDLE CLASS
Industrial Britain map
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGAN IN GREAT BRITAIN & THIS FACT
GOES A LONG WAY TOWARD EXPLAINING WHY THIS SMALL GROUP OF
ISLANDS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN WAS THE DOMINANT WORLD
POWER FOR MUCH OF THE 18TH, ALL OF THE 19TH ... & EVEN INTO THE
EARLY 20TH CENTURY
James Watt portrait
MOST HISTORIANS BELIEVE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION WAS LAUNCHED
AROUND 1760 ... IF YOU WANT AN EVENT FROM WHICH TO DATE IT - YOU
COULD DO NO BETTER ANY BETTER THAN JAMES WATT’S INVENTION OF
THE STEAM MACHINE IN 1769

Steam engine photo
THAT - FOR THE 1ST TIME - ALLOWED HUMANS TO HARNESS STEAM
POWER ... IT’S HARD TO IMAGINE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
WITHOUT THIS DEVELOPMENT
IN A WORD, STEAM POWER FREED WORKERS FROM DEPENDING ON
WATER, WIND, ANIMAL & HUMAN ENERGY ... UNLIKE THESE POWER
SOURCES - STEAM WAS MORE RELIABLE AND CONTROLLABLE
THAN THESE OTHER, TRADITIONAL METHODS OF ENERGY
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION WAS ITSELF THE PRODUCT OF OTHER
DEVELOPMENTS SUCH AS THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION - WHICH
DRAMATICALLY INCREASED FOOD PRODUCTION - & AT THE SAME TIME
MEANT THAT FEWER PEOPLE WERE NEEDED TO WORK ON THE VAST

FARMS & ESTATES - A CHANGE THAT, AGAIN, AS WAS 1ST SEEN IN BRITAIN
FOR MOST OF THESE DISPOSSESSED RURAL WORKERS THEIR ONLY
OPTION WAS TO MOVE TO EUROPE’S GROWING CITIES ... THIS
URBANIZATION IN TURN CREATED A READY-MADE WORKFORCE -
WHICH - IN TURN - MADE POSSIBLE, 1ST BRITAIN’S & THEN EUROPE’S
SURGING INDUSTRIALIZATION - THE LATTER - EUROPE’S INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION ONLY REALLY BEGAN TO TAKE OFF AFTER THE END OF THE
NAPOLEONIC WARS
Europe’s industrialization map
BUT DON’T GET THE IDEA THAT THIS TRANSITION WAS EASY -
ESPECIALLY FOR THOSE WORKERS WHO EXCHANGED LIFE ON THE
FARM FOR LIFE IN THE CITY
British slum photo

EXCHANGING LIFE ON THE FARM FOR LIFE IN ONE OF EUROPE’S CITIES
WAS NO GUARANTEE THAT THE POOR WERE ANY BETTER OFF ... IF
ANYTHING, CHANCES WERE THAT THEIR MISERY ONLY INTENSIFIED
IN MOST PLACES - MOST OF THE TIME - THERE WERE MORE HANDS THAN
THERE WAS WORK TO GO AROUND ... SO - INSTEAD OF BETTERING HIS
OR HER CIRCUMSTANCES ... THE RURAL WORKER WHO HAD FLED TO THE
CITY OFTEN FOUND THERE WAS NO WORK TO BE HAD
MOREOVER - THE WORKER & HIS OR HER FAMILY HAD EXCHANGED
THEIR LIVES IN THE VILLAGES & WITH PEOPLE THEY HAD KNOWN FOR
LIFE IN AN ALIEN & POVERTY-STRICKEN ENVIRONMENT
THERE WAS - OF COURSE - NO SUCH THING AS A WELFARE STATE
NO HELP FOR THE POOR OR FOR CHILDREN ... THE SQUALOR &
DESPERATE CONDITIONS IN WHICH MANY EUROPEANS FOUND

THEMSELVES WERE COMMONPLACE WELL INTO THE 1900s - A FACT
DEMONSTRATED BY THIS EARLY PHOTOGRAPH OF A BACK STREET IN A
SLUM IN ONE OF BRITAIN’S INDUSTRIAL CITIES
HAVING GIVEN YOU EVERY REASON IN THE WORLD TO LAMENT THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ... IT IS WELL WORTH REMEMBERING THAT IT
WAS 1 OF THE MAJOR FORCES THAT ALTERED CIVILIZATION
IT MAY SOUND TRITE - BUT IT BEARS REPEATING THAT THE WORLD YOU & I
LIVE IN WOULD BE UNIMAGINABLE HAD IT NOT BEEN FOR THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION DID NOT HAPPEN OVERNIGHT
RATHER IT WAS A GRADUAL PROCESS ... IN BRITAIN, AS ELSEWHERE

IT SHOULD ALSO BE SAID HERE THAT THIS REVOLUTION WAS NEW ...
IT WAS UNLIKE ANYTHING HUMANS HAD EXPERIENCED BEFORE ... &
IT WAS QUITE UNPLANNED
THE BRITISH - AT LEAST - HAD NO MODELS OR GUIDES ... THEY HAD TO
PIONEER NOT JUST THE INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY ON WHICH THIS
REVOLUTION WAS BASED &, AT THE SAME TIME, FASHION RESPONSES
TO THE URBAN CONDITIONS & SOCIAL CHANGES THAT I’VE OUTLINED
1 QUESTION THAT I HAVEN’T RAISED IS THIS - ... WHY DID THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TAKE PLACE IN BRITAIN, 1st ?
WHY NOT- SAY - IN FRANCE OR GERMANY?
THERE WERE SEVERALFACTORS - SOME NATURAL - SOME MAN-MADE
THAT WERE UNIQUE TO BRITAIN & THEY WERE CRUCIAL TO THIS
REVOLUTION
Canal photo (1)
1ST - BRITAIN POSSESSED A COLONIAL EMPIRE -- WHICH, ALONG WITH
THE BRITISH THEMSELVES PROVIDED A READY & - GROWING - MARKET
FOR THE MANUFACTURED GOODS THAT WOULD BE PRODUCED
2ND - THE MASS-PRODUCTION MADE POSSIBLE BY THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION WAS ONE THING - GETTING GOODS TO MARKET WHETHER
THAT MARKET WAS DOMESTIC OR FOREIGN - WAS ANOTHER ... HERE,
AGAIN, THE BRITISH HAD AN ADVANTAGE BECAUSE NO PART OF ENGLAND
ANYWAY, IS MORE THAN 20 MILES AWAY FROM NAVIGABLE WATER
IN AN AGE WHERE IT WAS CHEAPER TO SEND GOODS BY WATER THAN BY
LAND -- THIS WAS CRUCIAL ... & IT GAVE BRITAIN A NATURAL
ADVANTAGE OVER OTHER COUNTRIES ... AN ADVANTAGE THAT WAS

FURTHER ENHANCED BY THE BUILDING OF CANALS
3RD - THE BRITISH ALSO POSSESSED NATURAL RESOURCES,
ESPECIALLY IRON ORE & COAL - THAT WERE CRITICAL RAW
MATERIALS IN THE EARLY INDUSTRIAL AGE & WHICH WERE ABUNDANT
IN ENGLAND & WALES
FINALLY - & NOT LEAST IMPORTANT - WHILE THEY MAY NOT HAVE
REALIZED IT, BRITAIN’S LEADERS CREATED THE CONDITIONS NEEDED TO
SUSTAIN THE COUNTRY AS IT WENT THROUGH THIS RADICAL TRANSITION
WHEN COMPARED TO THE REST OF EUROPE - FOR MUCH OF THE MID-18TH
TO EARLY 19TH CENTURY ... THE BRITISH HAD A STABLE
GOVERNMENT - & NO LESS IMPORTANT, IN 1694 - PARLIAMENT CREATED
THE BANK OF ENGLAND - AN EFFECTIVE RELIABLE CENTRAL

BANK - THAT, AMONG OTHER THINGS COULD MOBILIZE CREDIT - i.e.,
MONEY - FOR THE GOVERNMENT THIS IS HOW THE BRITISH WERE ABLE
TO FINANCE THAT SERIES OF WARS AGAINST THE ARCH-ENEMY -
FRANCE {Heyck, 42} DURING THE 18TH CENTURY
THAT SAID - IT WOULD BE WRONG TO THINK THAT BRITAIN’S POLITICAL
CLASS WAS ANYMORE ENLIGHTENED THAN THEIR COUNTERPARTS IN
MOST OF THE REST OF EUROPE
WHILE EARLY ATTEMPTS BY WORKERS TO ASSERT THEIR RIGHTS WERE
RUTHLESSLY PUT DOWN ... DESPITE OBVIOUS INJUSTICES - BOTH POLITICAL
& SOCIAL - OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ... BRITISH GOVERNMENTS OF
THE DAY TURNED A DEAF EAR TO DEMANDS FOR REFORM OF THE
ECONOMY & OF THE WAY IN WHICH THE COUNTRY ITSELF WAS
GOVERNED - I’LL COME BACK TO THIS SUBJECT LATER IN THIS COURSE

Portrait – Adam Smith
III. Adam Smith’s “invisible hand”
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION WOULD HAVE BEEN IMPOSSIBLE TO
SUSTAIN HAD THE NATIONS OF THE WEST CONTINUED TO OPERATE UNDER
THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM I TALKED ABOUT EARLIER - MERCANTILISM
REMEMBER - MERCANTILISTS ARGUED THERE WAS A FIXED AMOUNT OF
WEALTH IN THE WORLD - WEALTH COULD NOT BE CREATED ... THEY ALSO
ARGUED A NATION SHOULD ONLY TRADE WITH OTHER NATIONS TO
INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF GOLD IN ITS NATIONAL TREASURY ...

MEANING THAT GOVERNMENTS STRICTLY REGULATED COMMERCE
THE MAN WHO CHALLENGED MERCANTILISM WAS A SCOTSMAN ...
ADAM SMITH, WHOSE WORK IS DISCUSSED IN YOUR BOOK BACK ON p 514
IN 1776 SMITH PUBLISHED THE WEALTH OF NATIONS ... THIS
BOOK BECAME THE BASIS FOR THE STUDY OF ECONOMICS ... MORE
THAN THAT, IT IS THE FOUNDATION OF MODERN CAPITALISM
SMITH ARGUED THAT GOVERNMENT SHOULD ONLY PERFORM 3 DUTIES
1ST - PROTECT THE NATION FROM FOREIGN INVASION
2ND - MAINTAIN DOMESTIC LAW & ORDER THROUGH THE COURTS &
POLICE FORCES ... &
3RD - SPONSOR CERTAIN PUBLIC WORKS - FOR EXAMPLE, SCHOOLS &
ROADS - THAT PRIVATE BUSINESS WOULD BE UNLIKELY TO INVEST IN

{McKay, Hill, Buckler, History of Western Society, 655}
LIKE NEWTON’S VIEW THAT THE NATURAL WORLD - WAS GOVERNED
BY SCIENTIFIC LAWS - ADAM SMITH ARGUED THAT THERE WERE LAWS
GOVERNING THE ECONOMY
SMITH FAMOUSLY ARGUED THAT THE BEST WAY TO PROMOTE THE
COMMON GOOD IS TO ALLOW EACH INDIVIDUAL TO PURSUE HIS OR HER
OWN SELF-INTEREST ... IN SO DOING – THE INVISIBLE HAND OF THE
MARKET-PLACE WOULD BALANCE OUT THESE COMPETING INTERESTS &
INCREASE THE WEALTH OF RICH & POOR ALIKE {McKay, Hill, Buckler, 656}
SMITH’S PHILOSOPHY UNDERPINS WHAT IS CALLED LAISSEZ-FAIRE
CAPITALISM ... LAISSEZ-FAIRE - IS A FRENCH TERM MEANING
“HANDS OFF” OR “LEAVE ALONE” ... QUITE SIMPLY, LAISSEZ-FAIRE

CAPITALISTS BELIEVE THAT GOVERNMENT SHOULD INTERVENE IN THE
ECONOMY AS LITTLE AS POSSIBLE - THE BETTER TO ALLOW ADAMS
SMITH’S “INVISIBLE HAND” TO WORK ITS MAGIC
THE PROBLEM WITH LAISSEZ-FAIRE CAPITALISM IS THAT IT FAILED TO
ACCOUNT FOR WHAT HAPPENS WHEN CAPITALISTS DENY THE RIGHTS
WORKERS
BRITISH LAISSEZ-FAIRE CAPITALISTS WERE THE 1ST TO CHAMPION WHAT IS
CALLED FREE TRADE ... BEFORE THE MID-19TH CENTURY ALL NATIONS
HEAVILY TAXED THE MOVEMENT OF GOODS ... ESPECIALLY THE
IMPORT OF PRODUCTS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES
FOR OTHERS - HOWEVER - PLAYING A GAME OF CATCH-UP IN THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION - FREE TRADE WAS NOT AN OPTION
TAKE THE UNITED STATES ... THE AMERICAN MARKET WAS FLOODED
WITH BRITISH-MADE PRODUCTS - WHICH BECAUSE OF THE BRITISH LEAD
AS AN INDUSTRIAL POWER - WERE CHEAPLY MADE - & THEREFORE WERE
SOLD MORE CHEAPLY - THAN THE SAME AMERICAN-MADE PRODUCTS
IN RESPONSE, AMERICAN FACTORY OWNERS IN THE NORTH DEMANDED THE
IMPOSITION OF AMERICAN TARIFFS - AS I SAY, A TARIFF IS SIMPLY A TAX
ON FOREIGN MADE PRODUCTS
BY TAXING GOODS MADE OVERSEAS, IMPORTERS WOULD BE FORCED TO
PASS ALONG THE ADDITIONAL COST TO CONSUMERS - SO, EVEN THOUGH IT
MIGHT COST THE BRITISH LESS TO PRODUCE, SAY, A CLOCK - THAT BRITISH
MADE CLOCK WOULD COST THE SAME AS THE AMERICAN-MADE VERSION
TARIFFS ARE STILL A FACTOR IN TRADE RELATIONS TODAY ... EVEN
THOUGH THE UNITED STATES IS NOW - OFFICIALLY - COMMITTED TO FREE

TRADE ...
THAT IS, A WORLD IN WHICH TARIFFS ARE REDUCED OR ELIMINATED
ALTOGETHER - SOME SAY THAT TARIFFS ARE AGAIN NEEDED BECAUSE OF
UNFAIR COMPETITION FROM NATIONS SUCH AS CHINA ... A POLICY IT’S
ADVOCATES CALL FAIR TRADE ... A SUBJECT I HOPE TO COME BACK TO AT
THE END OF THIS COURSE
THE INDUSTRY THAT HAD THE GREATEST IMPACT IN PROPELLING THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ITS EARLY PHASES WAS TEXTILES - i.e., THE
PRODUCTION OF CLOTH ... I WANT TO LOOK AT THAT TOPIC, BUT WE
RETURN TO THE ISSUE OF SLAVERY IN
RELATION TO SLAVERY - SO LET ME LEAVE THAT FOR ANOTHER TIME
INSTEAD, I WANT TO FOCUS, FOR NOW, ON HOW THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION AFFECTED - LITERALLY - HOW PEOPLE GET AROUND

ON BOTH SIDES OF THE ATLANTIC
Railroad painting
IV. Industrialization & transportation
ACCORDING TO SOME HISTORIANS - THE RAILROAD WAS THE MOST
SIGNIFICANT INNOVATION IN TRANSPORTATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY
BUT IT WASN’T THE 1ST SUCH INNOVATION - &, AS WELL AS SPEEDING UP
THE WAY PEOPLE - & THINGS MOVED ... THIS TRANSPORTATION
REVOLUTION ALSO SPEEDED UP THE MOVEMENT OF INFORMATION
IF YOU WANTED TO GET ANYWHERE FAST IN THE 18TH & EARLY 19TH
CENTURIES YOU TRAVELED BY WATER – BY RIVERS, LAKES, OCEANS
Canal photo (2)
THE PROBLEM IS THAT WATER ROUTES DON’T ALWAYS TAKE YOU WHERE
YOU WANT TO GO ... THE SOLUTION WAS CANALS – OR MAN-MADE
WATERWAYS ... THE BRITISH BUILT AN EXTENSIVE NETWORK OF CANALS
TO EXTEND THEIR LEAD IN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
CANALS WERE ALSO IMPORTANT WHEN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
STARTED IN AMERICA … THE MOST FAMOUS OF THE AMERICAN
WATERWAY PROJECTS WAS THE ERIE CANAL
THE ERIE CANAL - AT 363 MILES LONG - WAS FAR LONGER THAN ANY
CANAL BUILT BEFORE - IT STRETCHED FROM ALBANY, NEW YORK, ON THE
HUDSON RIVER - TO BUFFALO ON LAKE ERIE ... PROPOSED IN 1817, IT
WAS COMPLETED JUST 8 YEARS LATER IN 1825 … IT WAS EASILY THE
GREATEST ENGINEERING FEAT OF ITS DAY – LINKING NEW YORK
CITY WITH WHAT WAS THEN THE AMERICAN WEST - CONFIRMING
NEW YORK’S STATUS AS THE CENTER OF AMERICA’S ECONOMY

IN THE SAME YEAR THAT THE ERIE CANAL OPENED - 1825 - ANOTHER
INNOVATION WAS INTRODUCED THAT, IN TIME, WOULD ECLIPSE CANALS
THE RAILROAD ... THE 1st RAILWAYLINE WAS BUILT IN Gt BRITAIN
JUST 5 YEARS LATER, IN 1830, THE 1ST AMERICAN RAILROAD LINE OPENED
NEARBY - THE BALTIMORE & OHIO RAILROAD ... IT DIDN'T GO VERY FAR
AT 1ST IT WAS ALL OF 13 MILES LONG - BUT - WITHIN 30 YEARS, BY 1860,
THERE WERE 31,000 MILES OF RAILROAD LINES IN THE UNITED STATES
UNTIL THE EVE OF THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, WATER TRANSPORT
CARRIED MORE FREIGHT THAN TRAINS - BUT EVEN THEN, IT WAS CLEAR
THAT RAILROADS WOULD DOMINATE THE FUTURE - & NOT JUST IN
AMERICA - BUT AROUND THE WORLD
Train locomotive photo

THESE LEAPS IN TRANSPORTATION LED TO ANOTHER REVOLUTION - THIS
ONE IN COMMUNICATIONS ... 1st - OF COURSE - IT MEANT THAT IT WAS
NOW POSSIBLE TO SEND MAIL MUCH MORE RAPIDLY ... BUT - 2ND - THE
EVEN MORE DRAMATIC ADVANCE — SAMUEL MORSE'S INVENTION OF
THE TELEGRAPH IN THE UNITED STATES
1848-49 Revolution map
V. Marx & Marxism
DESPITE THE EFFORTS OF THOSE WHO HAD DEFEATED NAPOLEON TO
“TURN BACK THE CLOCK”, EUROPR WAS ROCKED BY A SERIES OF
REVOLUTIONS – 1ST, IN 1830 THEN, EVEN MORE WIDELY IN 1848
WITH THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ALSO SPREADING ACROSS EUROPE
THE DEMANDS FOR WIDESPREAD REFORM ACCELERATED –
PROPELLED AT THE SAME TIME BY ANOTHER LEGACY OF THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION - NATIONALSM
NATIONALISM WAS THE SPARK TO THESE REVOLUTIONS ACROSS THE
EUROPEAN CONTINENT … FROM THE ITALIAN PENINSULA {Sperber, 397}
TO HUNGARY ... & PERHAPS MOST IMPORTANTLY – TO GERMANY
BY ONE COUNT THERE WERE AS MANY AS 50 REVOLUTIONS IN
DIFFERENT PARTS OF EUROPE … IN MANY OF THESE REVOLTS THE
LEADERS WERE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS & THEIR PROFESSORS
IN CITIES SUCH AS BOTH VIENNA & BERLIN
THE SITUATION WAS PARTICULARLY SERIOUS IN THE AUSTRIAN
EMPIRE - WHERE DEMANDS FOR REFORM WERE ACCOMPANIED BY
UPRISINGS AMONG THE HAPSBURG’S MULTI-NATIONAL SUBJECTS …
CZECHS, CROATS, SERBS - BUT ESPECIALLY HUNGARIANS ... ALL OF

WHOM DEMANDED THEIR OWN, SEPARATE NATIONAL STATE
THESE DEMANDS FOR INDEPENDENCE WERE SUPPRESSED — BUT THEY
WOULD RE-EMERGE IN AN BLOODIER FORM DURING WORLD WAR I
AS THE REVOLUTIONARY YEAR OF 1848 TURNED INTO THE REVOLUTIONARY
YEAR OF 1849 EUROPE’S MONARCHIES STRUCK BACK ... LIBERAL REFORM
MOVEMENTS WERE RUTHLESSLY SUPPRESSED
ONE LEGACY OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 OCCURRED IN THE MANY
STATES OF GERMANY ... AS IN ITALY - LIBERALS WANTED TO UNIFY
GERMANY AS A SINGLE NATIONAL STATE & ELECTED A AN ASSEMBLY MET
AT THE CITY OF FRANKFURT & OFFERED THE CROWN OF A UNITED
GERMANY TO THE KING PRUSSIA - HE REFUSED
ONCE THAT HAPPENED HOPES FOR A UNITED GERMANY DISAPPEARED - AT
LEAST FOR THE TIME BEING ... THE FAILURE OF 1848 WAS - ACCORDING TO
SOME HISTORIANS - A MORTAL BLOW TO GERMAN LIBERALISM ... IN
THE EYES OF MANY GERMANS ... CERTAINLY IN THE EYES OF GERMAN
NATIONALISTS - LIBERALISM WAS DISCREDITED
THE "LESSON OF 1848" SEEMED TO BE THAT IF GERMANY WAS TO BE UNITED
THE JOB HAD TO DONE BY PRUSSIA - THE MOST CONSERVATIVE -
& THE MOST MILITARISTIC - OF ALL THE GERMAN STATES
THAT MEANT A UNITED GERMANY — WOULD BE CONSERVATIVE &
MILITARISTIC, TOO — SETTING EUROPE, & THE WORLD, ON THE ROAD
THAT WOULD LEAD TO TWO WORLD WARS
Karl Marx photo
THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 ALSO LEFT ANOTHER LEGACY – ONE THAT
CENTERS ON THIS MAN – KARL MARX

MARX WAS BORN IN GERMANY ... BUT AFTER UNIVERSITY & A CAREER AS A
RADICAL JOURNALIST, HE FLED TO PARIS WHERE POLITICS STILL
CENTERED ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION - A FACT THAT INFLUENCED
MARX & HIS LATER WRITINGS ... AFTER THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS, HE
SETTLED IN LONDON WHERE HE LIVED FOR THE REST OF HIS LIFE
BECAUSE MARX LIVED BEYOND HIS MEANS ... HE & HIS FAMILY
OFTEN WERE KEPT AFLOAT BY HIS FRIEND, FRIEDRICH ENGELS
Engels photo
ENGELS, LIKE MARX, WAS GERMAN - & ALSO LIKE MARX, HE LIVED IN
ENGLAND - WHERE HE MANAGED A FAMILY-OWNED BUSINESS
BOTH MARX & ENGELS WERE SOCIALISTS ... BUT - THAT WORD - SOCIALIST –
ENCOMPASSES MANY DIFFERENT IDEAS & METHODS FOR MAKING A

BETTER SOCIETY
UTOPIAN SOCIALISTS BELIEVED THAT IT WAS POSSIBLE TO CREATE
COMMUNITIES BASED ON COOPERATION - INSTEAD OF COMPETITION
RELIGIOUS SOCIALISTS ATTEMPTED TO CREATE COMMUNITIES BASED
ON THEIR RELIGIOUS CREEDS ... A NUMBER OF CHRISTIAN SOCIALIST
COMMUNITIES SPRANG UP IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE 19TH & EARLY 20TH
CENTURIES - ONE OF THESE CHRISTIAN SOCIALISTS – FRANCIS BELLAMY
WROTE THE PLEDGE OF ALLEGIANCE TO THE AMERICAN FLAG
LIKE MANY OTHERS, MARX & ENGELS WERE REPELLED BY THE MISERY
CAUSED BY THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION & - LIKE OTHER SOCIALISTS –
THEY REGARDED THE EXISTING ECONOMIC SYSTEM AS UNJUST
SPECIFICALLY, MARX & ENGELS ATTACKED THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM OF

PRIVATE ENTERPRISE & PRIVATE PROPERTY
FINALLY, LIKE MANY OTHER SOCIALISTS, MARX & ENGELS SUPPORTED
COMMUNAL OR GOVERNMENTAL CONTROL OF THE ECONOMY
BUT - UNLIKE OTHER SOCIALISTS - MARX DEVELOPED A SET OF IDEAS - A
DOCTRINE THAT, HE CLAIMED, UNITED SOCIOLOGY, ECONOMICS, INDEED
ALL HUMAN HISTORY - INTO A SINGLE, COMPREHENSIVE THEORY
THIS THEORY, MARX CLAIMED WOULD BE A GUIDE TO A SOCIALIST
SOCIETY WHERE ALL MEN & WOMEN WOULD BE FREE & EQUAL
MARX’S IDEAS WERE ROOTED THE WORK OF AN EARLIER GERMAN
PHILOSOPHER - GEORG HEGEL (1770-1831) ... HEGEL WAS AN IDEALIST
HE ARGUED THAT HISTORICAL CHANGE AS A PROCESS OF CONSTANT
CONFLICT OF IDEAS CALLED DIALECTICS

HEGEL WROTE THAT ONE SITUATION OR STATE OF AFFAIRS - OR -
"DOMINANT SET OF IDEAS" - INEVITABLY PRODUCES AN OPPOSITE
SITUATION OR STATE OF AFFAIRS, OR, AGAIN "AN OPPOSING SET OF IDEAS"
THE USUAL WAY THIS IS EXPLAINED IS THAT A THESIS INEVITABLY LEADS
TO ITS ANTITHESIS - & THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE THESIS & ITS
ANTITHESIS LEADS TO A COMBINATION OF THE TWO... OR, SYNTHESIS
MARX CLAIMED THAT THE DRIVING FORCE OF THESE CHANGES -OF THESIS
& ANTITHESIS PRODUCING SYNTHESIS — IS THE ECONOMIC
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CLASSES
A THEORY THAT MARX CALLED DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
IN THE YEAR OF REVOLUTIONS - 1848 - MARX & ENGELS EXPOUNDED ON
THESE IDEAS IN THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO

MARX & ENGELS ARGUED THAT MODERN SOCIETY POSSESSED 2 CLASSES
THE BOURGEOISIE - THE CAPITALIST CLASS - OR THESIS
ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE, THE ANTITHESIS - THE WORKERS - OR TO USE
MARX’S PREFERRED TERM - THE PROLETARIAT - WHICH,
ACCORDING TO MARX WAS CREATED BY THE BOURGEOISIE
CAPITALISTS OWN THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION — THEY OWN THE
FACTORIES - WHO EMPLOY WORKERS - OR THE PROLETARIAT
THE PROLETARIAT - BY CONTRAST HAS NO MEANS OF PRODUCTION
THAT IS, THEY HAVE NO WAY OF MAKING A LIVING ON THEIR OWN
THEY MUST SELL THEIR LABOUR IN ORDER TO LIVE
MARX CALLED THE TENSIONS BETWEEN THESE 2 SIDES THE CLASS
STRUGGLE ... THIS STRUGGLE - WITH CAPITAL ON ONE SIDE, &
LABOR ON THE OTHER - MARX ARGUED, WAS INEVITABLE ... AGAIN, ITS
IMPORTANT TO BEAR IN MIND THAT, FOR MARX, ALL HUMAN HISTORY -
IS THE STORY OF THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ECONOMIC CLASSES ...
A STRUGGLE - MARX CLAIMED - THAT WAS INEVITABLE
JUST AS THE BOURGEOISIE HAD OVERTHROWN THE ARISTOCRACY IN
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION - MARX PREDICTED - THE PROLETARIAT
WOULD OVERTHROW THE BOURGEOISIE IN AN EQUALLY VIOLENT
REVOLUTION - A LA THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 {Taylor, 12-13}
THIS STRUGGLE - MARX ARGUED - COULD NOT BE AVOIDED OR RESISTED
& ANY EFFORT TO REFORM THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM - HE WROTE AT THE
END OF THE MANIFESTO IS DOOMED TO FAIL
MARX TOOK HEGEL'S IDEALISTIC & ABSTRACT & PRODUCED, INSTEAD A
VIOLENT CONCEPTION OF HISTORY, INDEED OF ALL HUMAN AFFAIRS

IN THIS CASE, THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE BOURGEOISIE & THE
PROLETARIAT - MARX PROMISED HIS FOLLOWERS - EVENTUALLY WOULD
LEAD TO THE SYNTHESIS OF A NEW SOCIETY ... A COMMUNIST
SOCIETY - WHERE THERE WOULD BE TOTAL EQUALITY & - IN TIME -
THE END OF THE CLASS SYSTEM
ONE OF THE 1ST PROBLEMS WITH MARX’S USE OF HEGEL’S THEORY OF
DIALECTICS IS THAT DIALECTICS IS AN EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS -NOT
REVOLUTIONARY & THAT’S JUST FOR STARTERS {see AJP Taylor essay, 14}
THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO HAD VERY LITTLE IMPACT WHEN IT WAS
1ST PUBLISHED IN 1848 ... CURIOUSLY - THOUGH IT WAS WRITTEN TO BE A
BLUEPRINT FOR THE REVOLUTIONS EVERYONE SAW COMING THAT YEAR,
MARX’S TRACT MISSED WHAT WAS PERHAPS THE DRIVING FORCE FOR
THESE INSURRECTIONS ... NATIONALISM

Delacroix’s “Liberty leading the people”
AS WAS TRUE OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1830, NATIONALISM WAS FAR &
AWAY A STRONGER FORCE IN DRIVING THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848
THAN WERE THE ECONOMIC FORCES THAT MARX CONCENTRATED ON
THERE IS NO BETTER EXAMPLE - I THINK - OF HOW MARX TRIED TO FORCE
THE WORLD TO FIT HIS THEORIES ... PERHAPS HIS PREJUDICES WOULD
BE A BETTER WAY TO PUT IT - THAN THIS INSTANCE
MARX DESPISED NATIONALISM - {Taylor, 33, 40} ... IN THE MANIFESTO,
DECLARING THAT “WORKING MEN HAVE NO COUNTRY” {McKay, 849}
MARX INSISTED THAT THE PROLETARIAT HAD MORE IN COMMON WITH
ONE ANOTHER THAN WITH CAPITALISTS IN THEIR OWN COUNTRIES
INSTEAD, HE URGED THAT WORKERS OF ALL NATIONS SHOULD UNITE IN THE

STRUGGLE AGAINST THE COMMON ENEMY - THE BOURGEOISIE
NOR WAS THIS ALL THAT MARX GOT WRONG ... MARX WAS WRITING ABOUT
THE CONDITIONS HE WITNESSED AT THE TIME … BUT, EVEN AT THE TIME,
CAPITALISM WAS EVOLVING ... PUT ANOTHER WAY, THE MANIFESTO WAS,
IN MANY WAYS, IRRELEVANT NOT LONG AFTER IT WAS WRITTEN
MARX ONLY BECAME AN IMPORTANT FIGURE WITH THE PUBLICATION OF HIS
MOST FAMOUS WORK DAS KAPITAL ... OR CAPITAL TO GIVE IT ITS
TITLE IN ENGLISH
IN THE 3 VOLUMES THAT MAKE UP DAS KAPITAL, MARX FURTHER
DEVELOPED HIS IDEAS ABOUT ECONOMIC DETERMINISM -- THE IDEA
THAT A SOCIETY'S HISTORY CAN BE EXPLAINED BY ITS ECONOMIC SYSTEM
THAT THE CLASS STRUGGLE IS AT THE ROOT OF ALL ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

MARX & ENGELS WERE NOT ARMCHAIR REVOLUTIONARIES ... IN 1864,
THEY FOUNDED THE INTERNATIONAL WORKING MEN’S ASSOCIATION
OR, AS IT IS BETTER KNOWN - THE 1ST INTERNATIONAL {McKay, 849}
SOME HISTORIANS HAVE ARGUED THAT THE 1ST INTERNATIONAL WAS
MARX’S GREATEST LEGACY BECAUSE IT LED TO THE CREATION OF
WORKING CLASS POLITICAL PARTIES WHOSE GOAL WAS & IS TO
PROTECT THE WORKERS’ INTERESTS {Taylor, 39}
IN TIME - SOCIALIST PARTIES SPRANG UP THROUGHOUT EUROPE - & IN
MUCH OF THE REST OF THE WORLD

Labour Party poster
WHILE SOME SOCIALIST PARTIES EMBRACED MARX’S ANALYSIS - & HIS
PRESCRIPTIONS - OTHERS WERE LESS INTERESTED IN MARX & MORE
INTERESTED IN BETTERING THE CONDITIONS OF WORKERS ...

BRITAIN’S LABOUR PARTY & GERMANY’S SPD BEING TWO EXAMPLES
MARX DIED IN 1883 & SINCE THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNIST REGIMES IN
MOST OF THE WORLD, SOME SAY HE IS IRRELEVANT ... CERTAINLY –
MOST OF HIS PREDICTIONS TURNED OUT TO BE WRONG
FOR INSTANCE - MARX WAS CERTAIN PROLETARIAN REVOLUTION
WOULD OCCUR IN THE MOST DEVELOPED, INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES - SUCH AS
Gt. BRITAIN & GERMANY ... INSTEAD, THE 1ST COMMUNIST
REVOLUTION TOOK PLACE IN ONE OF THE MOST BACKWARD, RURAL
SOCIETIES OF EUROPE - RUSSIA
MARX ALSO FAILED TO SEE THAT CAPITALIST SOCIETIES WERE
ADAPTABLE THAN HE THOUGHT POSSIBLE ... IN THE MOST ADVANCED
SOCIETIES - IN BRITAIN, GERMANY, & THE UNITED STATES - THE
CONDITIONS OF WORKERS GRADUALLY IMPROVED

AMONG OTHER THINGS - WORKERS GAINED THE RIGHT TO VOTE - WHICH
ENABLED THEM TO INFLUENCE GOVERNMENTAL DECISIONS
EQUALLY IMPORTANT - WORKERS BEGAN TO FORM TRADE UNIONS
& THESE UNIONS - MORE THAN ANYTHING ELSE - LED TO HIGHER WAGES
& BETTER WORKING CONDITIONS
IT'S WORTH NOTING THAT IN THOSE COUNTRIES - OR PARTS OF COUNTRIES
THAT RESISTED UNIONS TENDED TO BE THE PLACES THAT WERE MOST
RADICAL & MOST LIKELY TO FIND MARXIAN REVOLUTION ATTRACTIVE
ON ONE SUBJECT - MARX HAS PROVED TO BE SURPRISINGLY ACCURATE -
NAMELY, GLOBALIZATION ... HIS CRITIQUE - WRITTEN MORE THAN 150
YEARS AGO IN THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO STILL HOLDS TRUE IN SOME

RESPECTS TODAY {Penguin ed., AJP Taylor intro, pp 83-84: Marx described how
globalization forces everyone to buy the same products, etc}
FINALLY - THERE IS ONE ULTIMATE IRONY ... MARX TOTALLY
DISCOUNTED THE INFLUENCE OF IDEAS ON THE COURSE OF HISTORY
SO FAR AS HE WAS CONCERNED THE ONLY THING THAT MATTERS IS THE
ECONOMIC SYSTEM ... THAT WAS WHAT MARX BELIEVED DETERMINED
THE COURSE OF HISTORY … BUT - MARX HIMSELF - HAS DISPROVED THIS
NOTION ... THE IDEAS OF MARXISM HAVE HAD AN ENORMOUS IMPACT
& HAVE - QUITE LITERALLY - CHANGED THE WORLD
1HIST 125 - Introduction to World History: Lecture 6
I. Wars of unification
II. King Cotton
III. “Mexico will poison us”
IV. Civil War in America
V. A modern war
VI. “We must make Italians”
VII. Bismarck’s Germany
1. Napoleon III & Bismarck, Battle of Sedan

2. Canada – Dominion map, 1867
3. Canada expansion map
4. Two Civil War soldiers
5. Louisiana Purchase map
6. Constitutional Convention painting
7. Revolutionary War map
8. Nathanael Greene
9. Catherine Greene
10. Eli Whitney
11. Cotton Gin
12. Spread of cotton map
13. Spread of slavery map
14. American Indian photo
15. Trail of Tears map
16. Wounded Knee
17. Mexico, 1821-36 map
18. Santa Anna portrait
19. Manifest Destiny/Mexican War map
20. Lincoln photo
21. Civil War Secession map
22. Jemison photo
23. Winchester battle painting
24. Andersonville photo
25. Gettysburg dead photo
26. Slaves & slave cabin photo
27. Civil War battles map
28. Slave photo
29. Black soldiers
30. Black soldiers (close-up)
31. Sherman & Grant photos
32. Appomattox Courthouse painting
33. Lincoln’s last photo

34. Grant Reconstruction cartoon
35. KKK photo
36. Anti-Jim Crow demonstration
37. German unification map

38. Italian unification map
40. Count Cavour
41. Giuseppe Garibaldi
42. Victor Emmanuel II
43. Henri Dunant
44. Italian unification map
45. Pope Pius IX
47. Otto von Bismarck
48. Napoleon III
49. Napoleon III & Bismarck at Sedan
50. Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser at Versailles
52. Bismarck at the Congress of Berlin
53. Wilhelm II portrait
54. “Dropping the Pilot” cartoon
55. Wilhelm II photo
Napoleon III & Bismarck, Battle of Sedan
I. Wars of unification
IN THE MIDDLE 1800s THREE NATIONS WAGED WHAT SOME HISTORIANS
LUMP TOGETHER AS “WARS OF UNIFICATION
BY THE END OF THESE WARS, ITALY WAS A SINGLE NATION FOR THE FIRST
TIME SINCE THE ROMAN EMPIRE
A HODGE-PODGE OF KINGDOMS & PRINCIPALITIES & OTHER STATES AT THE
HEART OF EUROPE WERE NOW PART OF A SINGLE GERMAN EMPIRE
AND THE AMERICAN PEOPLE FOUGHT THEIR OWN VICIOUS WAR OVER
THE ISSUE OF SLAVERY
Canada – Dominion map, 1867
THE IS ONE OTHER MAJOR NATION THAT WAS UNITED AT THIS TIME –
ALTHOUGH IT IS ALMOST NEVER MENTIONED – CANADA
MAYBE THAT’S BECAUSE THE NATION WAS CREATED PEACEABLY … THERE
WAS NO WAR OF UNIFICATION IN THIS CASE
WHICH IS STRANGE BECAUSE – IF YOU TAKE A LOOK AT p 587 OF YOUR
BOOK, YOU’LL SEE THERE WAS – IN FACT, THERE CONTINUES TO BE
FRICTION - BETWEEN FRENCH-SPEAKING CANADIANS, LIVING
MAINLY IN THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC … & THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING
MAJORITY LIVING ELSWHERE
Canada expansion map

NEVERTHELESS, LIKE THE UNITED STATES, THROUGHOUT THE 19TH CENTURY
CANADIANS CONTINUED TO EXPAND INTO THE WEST UNTIL THEIR
COUNTRY ALSO EVENTUALLY BECAME A CONTINENTAL POWER
ONE OTHER MISTAKE THAT’S OFTEN MADE WHEN TALKING ABOUT THESE
WARS OF UNIFICATION IS THAT WE TEND TO LOOK AT THEM IN ISOLATION
Two Civil War soldiers
IN FACT THESE WARS, LIKE MOST CONFLICTS, AFFECTED PEOPLE FAR BEYOND
THOSE WHO TOOK PART IN THEM - OR, EVEN, THE COUNTRIES THEMSELVES
TO SHOW WHAT I MEAN, LET ME TURN, FIRST, TO THE AMERICAN CIVIL
WAR – A CONFLICT THAT IS MUCH IN THE NEWS TODAY, IF ONLY BECAUSE
OF THE CONTROVERSY OVER CONFEDERATE STATUES
AGAIN, AMERICANS THINK OF THEIR CIVIL WAR AS BEING SOLELY ABOUT
THIS COUNTRY, AN INTERNAL CONFLICT
THAT’S NOT HOW IT WAS SEEN AT TIME … AS ONE AMERICAN PUT IT, THE
“INVOLVED THE DESTINIES OF MANKIND” – IT DIVIDED PEOPLE FROM
EUROPE TO CHINA {Quote, Geo Bancroft, in Doyle Cause of al Nations, 1}

Louisiana Purchase map
A SESSION OR TWO BACK, I TALKED ABOUT THE LOUISIAN PURCHASE – THE
DOUBLING OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1803 THAT TOOK THE UNITED STATES
FAR INTO THE WEST
FROM THE START THERE WAS A QUESTION ABOUT THESE NEW LANDS
NAMELY – WOULD THEY ENTER THE UNION AS FREE STATES OR WOULD
THEY BECOME SLAVE STATES
Constitutional Convention painting
IT WASN’T SUPPOSED TO BE THAT WAY
AT THE TIME THE AMERICAN CONSTUTION WAS DRAFTED, IT WAS
BELIEVED THAT SLAVERY WAS DYING OUT IN THE COUNTRY …
ONE AFTER ANOTHER, IT WAS BEING ABOLISHED IN THE NORTHERN
STATES &, IT WAS ASSUMED, THE SAME THING WOULD HAPPEN IN THE
SOUTH … THE REASON THAT IT DIDN’T CAN BE SUMMED UP IN ONE WORD –

COTTON
Revolutionary War map
AND THAT REQUIRES ME TO TAKE A FURTHER STEP BACK
YOU WILL RECALL, I HOPE, THAT IN THE LAST YEARS OF THE AMERICAN
REVOLUTION, THE BRITISH TRIED TO SEPARATE THE SOUTHERN
STATES FROM THE REST OF THE COUNTRY WITH THE AIM OF HOLDING
ONTO THEM AS COLONIES … THAT WOULD HAVE MEANT LOSING
GEORGIA, BOTH OF THE CAROLINAS & MAYBE, EVEN, VIRGINIA
Nathanael Greene
THE BRITISH FAILED THANKS TO THIS MAN – AN AMERICAN GENERAL
FROM RHODE ISLAND, A YANKEE, NAMED NATHANAEL GREENE
GREENE’S AMERICAN FORCES SAVED THESE SOUTHERN STATES
AT THE END OF THE WAR, TO SHOW THEIR GRATITUDE, THE PEOPLE OF

GEORGIA LITERALLY GAVE GREENE A PLANTATION … HE ACCEPTED THE
OFFER & BROUGHT HIS FAMILY DOWN SOUTH TO JOIN HIM …
Catherine Greene
HIS WIFE CATHERINE – THIS IS A PORTRAIT OF HER IN HER LATER
YEARS - & THEIR 5 CHILDREN ... GREENE, HOWEVER, DIDN’T LIVE VERY
LONG TO ENJOY HIS NEW WEALTH - HE DIED IN 1786 AT THE AGE OF 44
THOUGH GREENE WAS DEAD, HIS WIDOW HAD DECIDED TO STAY AT THE
FAMILY PLANTATION ... & IN 1793 SHE HIRED A YOUNG COLLEGE GRADUATE
FROM YALE NAMED - ELI WHITNEY - TO TUTOR HER CHILDREN
Eli Whitney
AT THIS TIME A LITTLE BIT OF COTTON WAS GROWN ON SOUTHERN
PLANTATIONS ... BUT - THERE WAS A BARRIER TO ITS LARGE-SCALE

PRODUCTION ... AFTER THE COTTON WAS PICKED, IT COULD NOT BE SOLD
UNTIL THE SEEDS WERE REMOVED WHICH WAS A LONG, TEDIOUS
PROCESS ... IT TOOK AN ENTIRE DAY FOR 1 PERSON TO HAND-CLEAN
1 POUND OF COTTON
WHITNEY - SEEING ALL OF THIS WHILE HE WAS LIVING ON THE GREENE'S
PLANTATION - PUT HIS MIND TO THE PROBLEM- &, IT SEEMS, IN
COLLABORATION WITH CATHERINE GREENE - WHITNEY BUILT A
MACHINE THAT SEPARATED THE COTTON FROM THE SEEDS

Cotton Gin photo
THIS WAS THE COTTON ENGINE - OR COTTON GIN FOR SHORT - A SIMPLE,
HAND-CRANKED MACHINE. WITH THE COTTON GIN, A PERSON - TYPICALLY
A SLAVE - COULD EASILY CLEAN 50 POUNDS OF COTTON PER DAY
Spread of cotton map

WITH THAT - COTTON PRODUCTION SKYROCKETED - AS COTTON
PLANTATIONS SPREAD ACROSS THE SOUTH ... THIS COTTON WAS
EXPORTED - 1ST TO TEXTILE MILLS IN BRITAIN ... BRITAIN BEING THE 1ST
COUNTRY TO GO THROUGH THEINDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION - &, SOON,
THIS COTTON WAS BEING SENT TO TEXTILE MILLS IN THE NORTHERN
STATES OF THIS COUNTRY & TO GREAT BRITAIN
1 DIRECT CONSEQUENCE OF THIS DEVELOPMENT STILL AFFECTS
YOU TODAY ... BEFORE THE MASS PRODUCTION OF COTTON MOST PEOPLE
DID NOT BOTHER WITH UNDERWEAR
IF YOU WERE WEALTHY & COULD AFFORD THE MATERIAL - YOU HAD A FEW
PAIR OF SILK UNDERWEAR ... OTHER HAD A FEW PAIRS MADE OF LINEN
SOME PEOPLE EVEN WORE WOOLEN UNDERWEAR
BUT - WHAT WAS EVEN MORE COMMON WAS THAT MOST PEOPLE DIDN’T
WEAR UNDERWEAR AT ALL
THAT CHANGED WITH THE INVENTION OF THE COTTON GIN - WHICH - OF
COURSE HAS ALL KINDS OF ADVANTAGES WHEN IT COMES TO
CLEANLINESS & HYGIENE

Spread of slavery map
OF COURSE - THERE WAS A PRICE TO BE PAID FOR THIS ADVANCE & IT
WAS PAID BY BLACK SLAVES ... COTTON PRODUCTION SPREAD THROUGH
GEORGIA & SOUTH CAROLINA - & AS THE COUNTRY DEVELOPED ACROSS
WHAT WE CALL THE DEEP SOUTH - ALABAMA, MISSISSIPPI & UP INTO
TENNESSEE ... & SLAVERY WENT WITH IT AS YOU CAN SEE BY COMPARING
THESE TWO MAPS

American Indian photo
AND SLAVES WEREN’T THE ONLY LOSERS IN THIS STORY ... EVEN WITHOUT
THE SPREAD OF COTTON, THE DISPOSSESSION OF AMERICA’S INDIANS

WOULD HAVE OCCURRED AS SETTLERS MOVED WEST
BUT, IN THIS CASE, THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MOUNTED A POLICY
OF FORCED REMOVALS OF TRIBES IN THE AMERICAN SOUTH, TO MAKE
WAY FOR COTTON PLANTATIONS

Trail of Tears map
THE RESULT WAS THE INFAMOUS TRAIL OF TEARS – WHEN INDIANS
LIVING AS FAR EAST AS GEORGIA & NORTH CAROLINA WERE FORCED TO
LEAVE THEIR ANCESTRAL LANDS &, IN MANY CASES HAD TO WALK TO WHAT
WAS THEN CALLED INDIAN TERRITORY – WHAT IS TODAY OKLAHOMA
BY THE END OF THIS FORCED MARCH - WHICH TOOK PLACE IN THE MIDDLE
OF WINTER - AS MANY AS 1-QUARTER OR 1/4TH OF THE CHEROKEE
TRIBE, FOR INSTANCE - HAD DIED - VICTIMS OF COLD - HUNGER, &
DISEASE
WHAT IS IRONIC IS THAT SOME OF THE MEMBERS OF THESE TRIBES WERE
THEMSELVES SLAVE-OWNERS & TOOK THESE SLAVES WITH THEM
AT ANY RATE, ONCE SETTLED IN THIS NEW LAND - THIS "INDIAN
TERRITORY" - THE SURVIVORS WERE TOLD THEY WOULD HAVE THIS LAND
“AS LONG AS THE GROWS & THE WATERS FLOW”- & THEY DID …
UNTIL WHITE SETTLERS DISCOVERED THE LAND WAS GOOD FOR FARMING
SO - A LARGE PORTION WAS TAKEN IN 1889 TO FORM STATE OF
OKLAHOMA ... MORE INDIANLANDS WERE TAKEN IN THE 1920s WHEN
OIL WAS DISCOVERED ON WHAT WAS LEFT OF THEIR RESERVATIONS
OVER THESE SAME DECADES, THERE WERE A NUMBER OF SO-CALLED
INDIAN WARS – WHICH HAD NEVER STOPPED, REALLY, SINCE THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES IN THE 1600s

Wounded Knee, 1890
LIKE THE LAST OF THESE, THE 1890 MASSACRE OF INDIAN MEN, WOMEN, &
CHILDREN AT WOUNDED KNEE IN SOUTH DAKOTA THESE TRIBES
STOOD NO CHANCE AGAINST THE FIREPOWER OF THE US ARMY
Mexico, 1821-36 map
III. “Mexico will poison us”
YOU MAY RECALL THAT ONE OF THE NATIONS TO GAIN ITS INDEPENDENCE
FROM SPAIN BY THE EARLY 1820s WAS MEXICO
THIS IS WHAT MEXICO LOOKED LIKE WHEN ITS PEOPLE FREED THEMSELVES
&, AS YOU CAN SEE, IT WAS AN ENORMOUS NATION
UNFORTUNATELY, IT WAS ALSO AN UNSTABLE ONE &, SOON, POOR ONE TOO
FROM 1833 TO 1855, FOR INSTANCE, MEXICO’S PRESIDENCY CHANGED

HANDS NO FEWER THAN 36 TIMES … 11 OF THOSE TIMES, THE PRESIDENT
WAS THIS MAN – ANTONIO LOPEZ DE SANTA ANNA … THIS IS HIM
AS A YOUNG MAN
Santa Anna portrait
THIS REPEATED CIVIL STRIFE CAUSED MASSIVE DESTRUCTION THROUGHOUT
THE COUNTRY, INCLUDING – UNBELIEVABLY – THE FLOODING OF MANY
OF ITS SILVER MINES – WHAT SHOULD HAVE BEEN A MAJOR SOURCE OF
NATIONAL WEALTH
AND THEN THERE WERE THE AMERICANS …
THE AMERICAN EXPANSION INTO THE WEST WAS BOUND TO COLLIDE WITH
THEIR NEIGHBOR TO THE SOUTH, THOUGH – IRONICALLY – THE MEXICANS
INITIALLY INVITED SETTLERS INTO ONE OF THEIR TERRITORIES – TEXAS
TO ACT AS A BUFFER AGAINST REPEATED ATTACKS FROM THE
COMMANCHE – AN INDIAN TRIBE PARTICULARLY SKILLED AT WAR

THESE AMERICANS – NOW TEXANS – BROUGHT WITH THEM THEIR
COTTON PLANTATIONS - & THEIR SLAVES
WHEN, IN 1835, MEXICO ABOLISHED SLAVERY, THE TEXANS REBELLED
SANTA ANNA LED AN ARMY TO DEFEAT THE TEXANS ONLY TO BE DEFEATED
IN BATTLE AFTER WHICH HE WAS FORCED TO AGREE TO TERMS DECLARING
THAT TEXAS WAS AN INDEPENDENT COUNTRY IN 1836
THAT’S WHERE MATTERS STOOD FOR ABOUT A DECADE … BY THE MID-1840s
SOME AMERICANS WERE ESPOUSING MANIFEST DESTINY … THE IDEA
THAT CAN BE TRACED BACK TO THE PURITANS’ “CITY UPON A HILL”
AS I SAID IN A PREVIOIUS SESSION, MANIFEST DESTINY WAS THE
BELIEF THAT GOD HAD CREATED THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT
FOR THE AMERICAN PEOPLE TO “OVERSPREAD & POSSESS” - & WITH
THIS LAND, THEY WOULD CREATE EMPIRE OF LIBERTY

Manifest Destiny/Mexican War map
IN 1846 – TO PUT IT BLUNTLY – THE UNITED STATES PROVOKED A WAR WITH
MEXICO … AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP, SOME EXPONENTS OF MANIFEST
DESTINY WANTED TO TAKE ALL OF MEXICO … THE AMERICAN PRESIDNET
AT THE TIME – JAMES K POLK – WANTED TO GO PART OF THE WAY SOUTH
OF THE RIO GRANDE … IN THE END, THE AMERICANS SETTLED FOR TAKING
ROUGHLY ONE-HALF OF MEXICO ONCE YOU INCLUDE TEXAS
EVEN AT THE TIME, THE MEXICAN WAR WAS CONTROVERSIAL
ONE YOUNG AMERICAN ARMY OFFICER CALLED IT THE “ONE OF THE MOST
UNJUST EVER WAGED BY A STRONGER AGAINST A WEAKER NATON”
THAT YOUNG OFFICER WAS ULYSESS S GRANT
THE AMERICAN POET – RALPH WALDO EMERSON – WAS EVEN MORE

BLUNT … “MEXICO”, HE SAID, “WILL POISON US”
WHAT EMERSON MEANT WAS THAT THE COUNTRY NOW CONFRONTED THE
FACT THAT, INSTEAD OF CREATING AN "EMPIRE OF LIBERTY" – AS
WAS PROMISED BY MANIFEST DESTINY - AMERICANS WERE CREATING –
INSTEAD - AN "EMPIRE FOR SLAVERY"
THE SOUTH’S LEADERS HAD EVERY INTENTION OF TAKING SLAVERY ALL
THE WAY TO THE PACIFIC OCEAN … THIS DISPUTE FESTERED FOR THE
NEXT DECADE BUT, BY 1860, THE ATTEMPT TO TAKE SLAVERY INTO
THE WEST SET AMERICANS ON A COURSE LEADING TO CIVIL WAR
Lincoln photo
IV. Civil War in America
THE TRIGGER FOR THE CIVIL WAR WAS THE ELECTION OF AMERICA’S 1ST
REPUBLICAN PRESIDENT - ABRAHAM LINCOLN … EVEN THOUGH HE

PERSONALLY HATED SLAVERY, TO KEEP THE COUNTRY UNITED, HE SAID HE
WOULD SLAVERY ALONE WHERE IT ALREADY EXISTED … BUT HE ALSO
PLEDGED TO PREVENT THE SPREAD OF SLAVERY INTO THE WEST
Civil War secession map
IN DECEMBER 1860 - EVEN BEFORE LINCOLN ENTERED THE WHITE HOUSE
THE 1ST SOUTHERN STATE - SOUTH CAROLINA - ANNOUNCED THAT IT
WAS LEAVING - OR SECEDING FROM - THE AMERICAN UNION ... THE
BY THE SPRING OF 1861 - A TOTAL OF 11 STATES HAD SECEDED BRINGING
ON THE BLOODIEST WAR IN AMERICAN HISTORY
MORE THAN 3 MILLION AMERICANS FOUGHT IN THE CIVIL WAR
MOST OF THEM WERE YOUNG MEN & BOYS
NO ONE KNOWS FOR SURE HOW MANY AMERICANS HAD DIED BY THE TIME
THIS 4-YEAR WAR HAD FINISHED ... ONE RECENT ESTIMATE PUTS THE
NUMBER AT 752,000 {White, Republic for Which it Stands, 28}
Jemison photo
HERE’S ONE OF THEM - PRIVATE EDWIN JEMISON ... WHO WAS JUST
16 YEARS OLD WHEN HE WAS KILLED HERE IN VIRGINIA
THAT FIGURE OF 752,000 DEAD REPRESENTED JUST UNDER 2 ½ % OF A
POPULATION THAT WAS JUST OVER 31 MILLION PEOPLE WHEN THE WAR
BEGAN
TO GIVE YOU AN IDEA OF WHAT THAT WOULD MEAN IF A CIVIL WAR WAS
FOUGHT IN THIS COUNTRY TODAY ... ACCORDING TO THE US CENSUS, THIS
NATION’S POPULATION TODAY IS AROUND 326 MILLION
SO, IF THE CIVIL WAS FOUGHT TODAY - & THIS COUNTRY LOST JUST UNDER 2
½ % OF ITS POPULATION, THAT LOSS WOULD AMOUNT TO

7 MILLION 889 THOUSAND PEOPLE
MORE THAN THAT, THE WAR FOUGHT BETWEEN 1861 & 1865 WAS EXACTLY
WHAT THE NAME MEANS - IT WAS A CIVIL WAR ... WHICH IS THE
WORST POSSIBLE KIND OF WAR
WHEN WE THINK OF THE CIVIL WAR, WE TEND TO THINK OF LARGE ARMIES
OF MEN IN BLUE & GRAY & CANNONS BOOMING, & FLAGS FLYING, &
CAVALRY CHARGING & ALL THAT ... WE THINK OF BATTLES LIKE
GETTYSBURG & VICKSBURG - & THE WAR WAS THAT -AS HERE AT
WINCHESTER - NOT SO FAR FROM HERE IN VIRGINIA
Winchester battle painting
BUT THE CIVIL WAR ALSO WAS A COUNTLESS - INDEED AN UNCOUNTABLE
NUMBER OF SMALL SKIRMISHES BETWEEN MEN WHO WORE LITTLE IF

ANYTHING THAT COULD BE CALLED A UNIFORM ... & IN THESE SMALL
BATTLES, THESE BRIEF, BITTER SKIRMISHES, THE MEN FIGHTING ON
OPPOSITE SIDES OFTEN KNEW ONE OTHER
THEY WERE FRIENDS,
THEY WERE BROTHERS,
THEY WERE FATHERS AND SONS
THEY HAD WORKED TOGETHER
THEY HAD GONE TO SCHOOL TOGETHER
THEY HAD - MANY TIMES - WORSHIPED GOD TOGETHER
AND IN TOO MANY CASES, WHAT THEY DID TO EACH OTHER & TO THEIR
FAMILIES AMOUNTED TO WHOLESALE BUTCHERY
Andersonville photo
THIS IS A UNION SOLDIER, CAPTURED BY CONFEDERATES & SENT TO A

SOUTHERN POW CAMP CALLED ANDERSONVILLE
AMERICANS DID THIS TO OTHER AMERICANS
THE CIVIL WAR MEANT RAPE, IT MEANT PILLAGING, IT MEANT MURDER
NOW -THOSE THINGS HAPPEN IN ALL WARS
THEY ALWAYS HAVE & UNFORTUNATELY - THEY PROBABLY ALWAYS WILL
BUT - WHEN YOUR HOME IS DESTROYED & YOUR FAMILY IS
BRUTALIZED ... & THE MEN WHO HAVE DONE THOSE THINGS WERE YOUR
FRIENDS & YOUR NEIGHBORS … THAT CREATES A BITTERNESS IN
PEOPLE THAT LASTS FOR GENERATIONS
Gettysburg dead photo
WHILE GOING THROUGH THIS TERRIBLE EXPERIENCE, AMERICANS ALSO
UNDERWENT A FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE IN THE WAY THEY VIEWED
THEMSELVES & THEIR COUNTRY ... SUPPOSE THE PROVERBIAL MAN

FROM MARS CAME DOWN TO EARTH & ASKED WHAT THIS COUNTRY HAS
BEEN DOING IN AFGHANISTAN - YOU WOULD SAY
THE UNITED STATES IS AT WAR IN AFGHANISTAN
YOU WOULDN'T SAY
THESE UNITED STATES ARE AT WAR IN AFGHANISTAN
SEE THE DIFFERENCE? ...
IN 1st INSTANCE, THE COUNTRY IS SPOKEN OF IN THE SINGULAR, THE U.S.
IS ONE COUNTRY ... IN THE 2nd INSTANCE, THE U.S. IS SPOKEN OF IN THE
PLURAL - THAT IS, AS A COLLECTION OF STATES ... BEFORE 1865 -
BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR - AMERICANS WERE A COLLECTION OF STATES
AFTER 1865, AFTER THE CIVIL WAR AMERICANS BECAME ONE PEOPLE
Slaves & slave cabin photo

TO DO THAT, AMERICANS HAD TO SETTLE THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY
BUT, HERE, TOO, THERE'S MORE THAN MEETS THE EYE ... WHEN ABRAHAM
LINCOLN SAID THE COUNTRY COULD NOT SURVIVE "HALF FREE & HALF
SLAVE" HE WASN'T JUST TALKING ABOUT FREE STATES v SLAVE STATES
HE MEANT THAT IF YOU COULD ENSLAVE BLACKS UNDER THE AMERICAN
SYSTEM -- BECAUSE THE ARE BLACK - THEN, LOGICALLY - THERE WAS
NO REASON WHY THIS SAME SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT SHOULD STOP
YOU FROM ENSLAVING IRISH, OR GERMANS, OR CATHOLICS ...
OR LATINOS, OR ASIANS - OR ANY OTHER GROUP OF PEOPLE
SIMPLY BECAUSE OF WHO THEY ARE
SOUTHERNERS TOOK A VERY DIFFERENT VIEW ... THEY ARGUED THAT
SLAVERY WAS BUILT INTO THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT - &
THEY WERE RIGHT ... IN THE VERY 1ST ARTICLE OF THE US

CONSTITUTION, SLAVES WERE COUNTED AS 3/5ths OF A PERSON
Civil War battles map
V. A modern war
THERE’S NO TIME, HERE, TO GO THROUGH ALL OF THE BATTLES OF THE
CIVIL WAR … IT’S ENOUGH TO SAY THAT WHILE THE SOUTH, ALSO KNOWN
AS THE CONFEDERACY, WAGED A MAINLY DEFENSIVE WAR
THE NORTH, OR THE UNION, WAGED AN OFFENSIVE WAR
THAT’S BECAUSE, IN ORDER TO WIN THIS CONFLICT, TO RESTORE THE
SOUTHERN STATES TO THE UNION, THE NORTH HAD TO PHYISCALLY
TAKE BACK CONTROL OF THESE STATES … THAT’S WHY MOST OF THE
BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR TOOK PLACE IN THE SOUTH
Slave photo
OF ALL THE TURNING POINTS OF THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR - NONE WAS
MORE IMPORTANT THAN LINCOLN’S DECISION TO FREE - OR EMANCIPATE
THE SLAVES IN THE SOUTH - THE CONFEDERACY
AGAIN, BECAUSE THIS TOPIC HAS BEEN IN THE NEW RECENTLY, IT BEARS A
WORD HERE … LINCOLN’S EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION WAS MADE AS
A WARTIME MEASURE … IT DID NOT ABOLISH IN THE ENTIRE
COUNTRY … LINCOLN DID NOT HAVE THAT POWER, EVEN AS PRESIDENT
THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION ONLY APPLIED TO THE STATES
THAT HAD JOINED THE CONFEDERACY … IT DIDN’T’ APPLY TO SLAVES IN
THE BORDER STATES – THESE STATES – DELAWARE, MARYLAND,
KENTUCKY, & MISSOURI – WERE SLAVE STATES … BUT THEY HADN’T
JOINED THE CONFEDERACY
MOREOVER, BECAUSE THIS WAS A WARTIME MEASURE – IT WASN’T EVEN A
LAW PASSED BY CONGRESS … & EVEN WITH THE PROCLAMATION, SLAVES
WERE ONLY FREED IN ANY LARGE NUMBERS WHEN THEY WERE LIBERATED
BY UNION SOLDIERS … THEY WERE NOT IN THE POSITION TO LIBERATE
THEMSELVES
ABOLISHING SLAVERY ONCE & FOR ALL - & FOR THE ENTIRE COUNTRY
COULD ONLY BE ACCOMPLISHED BY AMENDING THE US CONSTITUTION
THAT’S WHY IT WAS ONLY WITH THE RATIFICATION OF THE 13TH
AMENDMENT IN DECEMBER 1865 THAT YOU CAN TRULY SAY THAT
LEGAL SLAVERY ENDED IN THE UNITED STATE
Black soldiers
ALTHOUGH THERE WAS OPPOSITION - LINCOLN ALSO ORDER THAT THE
US MILITARY RECRUIT BLACK AMERICANS ... DESPITE THE FACT THAT
THEY SERVED IN SEGREGATED UNITS, WERE NOT ALLOWED TO BECOME
OFFICERS - & RECEIVED LESS PAY THAN WHITE UNION SOLDIERS, AT
LEAST 180,000 MEN & BOYS - MANY OF THEM FORMER SLAVES -

SERVED IN THE UNION ARMY & NAVY
THE IMPACT OF THESE SOLDIERS & SAILORS IS SOMETHING WE TEND TO
FORGET ... IT WAS CERTAINLY UNDERSTOOD BY THE SOUTH’S
LEADERS AT THE TIME
ONE CONFEDERATE LEADER – HOWELL COBB - PUT IT THIS WAY
“YOU CANNOT MAKE SOLDIERS OF SLAVES” – HE SAID - “NOR SLAVES
OF SOLDIERS ... IF SLAVES WILL MAKE GOOD SOLDIERS, OUR
WHOLE THEORY OF SLAVERY IS WRONG”
Black soldiers (close-up)
NOTHING DID MORE TO CUT THE LEGS OUT FROM UNDER THE SOUTH’S
PHILOSOPHY OF SLAVERY THAN THE FACT OF THESE BLACK AMERICAN
SOLDIERS & SAILORS ... WHICH LIKELY EXPLAINS THEIR TREATMENT IF
CAPTURED ... BECAUSE IF THEY WERE CAPTURED -THEY WERE

NOT TREATED AS PRISONERS OF WAR ... IF TAKEN PRISONER BY THE
CONFEDERATES - BLACKS SOLDIERS WERE FORCED TO WORK AS
SLAVES, OR, THEY WERE MURDERED
IN MANY WAYS, THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR THE IT THE WORLD’S 1ST
"MODERN WAR" … WHAT I MEAN IS THAT THE WAR WAS ABOUT MORE
THAN DEFEATING THE OTHER SIDE’S MILITARY FORCES … TO WIN YOU
IT WAS ALSO NECESSARY TO WAGE WAR ON THE OTHER’S SIDE SOCIETY
YOUR OBJECTIVE IS TO DESTROY THE ENEMY'S WILL TO RESIST
Sherman & Grant photos
TWO UNION GENERALS UNDERSTOOD THIS WAS THE FUTURE OF
WARFARE … THE MAN ON THE LEFT - WILLIAM TECUMSEH
SHERMAN - & THE MAN ON THE RIGHT ULYSSES S. GRANT
THE SAME ULYSESS S GRANT WHO HAD OPPOSED THE WAR AGAINST MEXICO
WHILE SHERMAN TOOK THE WAR INTO THE SOUTH – THROUGH GEORGIA &
INTO THE CAROLINAS - GRANT WAGED WAR HERE IN VIRGINIA SO THAT,
FINALLY, BY THE SPRING OF 1865 CONFEDERATE ARMIES BEGAN TO
SURRENDER, STARTING WITH ROBERT E LEE’S ARMY, AGAIN, HERE IN
VIRIGINA … THE SOUTH HAD, INDEED, LOST ITS WILL TO RESIST
Appomattox Courthouse painting
LESS THAN A WEEK AFTER LEE’S SURRENDER, ABRAHAM LINCOLN WAS
ASSASSINATED … THE FIRST OF 4 AMERICAN PRESIDENTS TO BE MURDERED
IN OFFICE
Lincoln’s last photo
WE’LL NEVER KNOW HOW HE WOULD HAVE HANDLED WHAT BECAME
KNOWN AS RECONSTRUCTION - A DECADE-LONG EFFORT TO
REUNITE THE COUNTRY & TO ENSURE EQUAL RIGHTS FOR THE

FORMER SLAVES OF THE SOUTH
RECONSTRUCTION WAS LONG CONSIDERED A FAILURE - NOT LEAST
BECAUSE IT IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRESIDENCY OF ULYSSES S GRANT

Grant Reconstruction cartoon
AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS CARTOON
WHILE GRANT HIMSELF WAS HONEST DOWN TO HIS BONES - HIS
ADMINISTRATION WAS ONE THE MOST CORRUPT IN HISTORY
IN FACT, GRANT TRIED TO MAKE RECONSTRUCTION WORK DESPITE
THE IMPLACABLE & OFTEN VIOLENT OPPOSITION OF EX-CONFEDERATES
WHOSE SECRET SOCIETIES AIMED TO TERRORIZE - & IF TERRORISM DIDN’T
WORK, MURDER - ANYONE WHO SUPPORTED RECONSTRUCTION, MOST
ESPECIALLY, EX-SLAVES - OR FREEDMEN, AS THEY WERE NOW KNOWN

KKK photo
THESE SECRET SOCIETIES WENT BY A NUMBER OF NAMES ... BUT THE MOST
FAMOUS OF THEM WAS THE KU KLUX KLAN ... THIS IS ONE OF THE
EARLIEST KNOWN PHOTOS OF KLANSMEN ... GRANT CRUSHED THE KU
KLUX KLAN - SO SOUNDLY THAT IT DID NOT RE-APPEAR UNTIL 1915
Anti-Jim Crow demonstration
UNFORTUNATELY, AFTER GRANT LEFT OFFICE HIS SUCCESSORS TURNED
THEIR BACKS ON RECONSTRUCTION ALLOWING SOUTHERNERS TO
CREATE A SYSTEM OF INSTITUTIONALIZED DISCRIMINATION &
SEGREGATION – KNOWN AS JIM CROW - THAT LASTED WELL INTO THE
20TH CENTURY
German unification map
VI. “We must make Italians”

AT ABOUT THE SAME TIME THAT THE AMERICAN PEOPLE WERE BATTLING
OVER THE FUTURE OF THE UNITED STATES - SEPARATE STRUGGLES
FOR NATIONAL UNIFICATION WERE TAKING PLACE IN EUROPE ...
SPECIFICALLY WARS OF UNIFICATION THAT LED TO THE CREATION
OF 2 NEW EUROPEAN STATES - ITALY & GERMANY
THIS PROCESS OF UNIFICATION BEGAN WITH THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848
IN BOTH CASES, LIBERALS HAD TRIED TO CREATE NATIONAL
GOVERNMENTS - & IN BOTH CASES THEY FAILED ... THIS FAILURE IN 1848
SHOWED THAT IDEAS - NO MATTER HOW GOOD THEY WERE - COULD
NOT BE REALIZED WITHOUT THE MEANS TO ACHIEVE THEM
FOR THIS REASON - AFTER 1848 - A NEW ATTITUDE APPEARED ON THE
EUROPEAN POLITICAL SCENE ... A NEW TOUGHNESS OF MIND CALLED
REALPOLITIK - WHICH SIMPLY MEANS THE "POLITICS OF REALITY"

AS YOUR BOOK DEFINES IT ON p 565
IN PRACTICE, THIS MEANS THAT GOVERNMENT'S SHOULD LOOK OUT ONLY
FOR THEIR OWN PRACTICAL INTERESTS ... THEY SHOULD HAVE NO
REGARD FOR SCRUPLE OR FOR MORALITY ... THEY SHOULD -INSTEAD
USE WHATEVER MEANS ARE NECESSARY TO GAIN THEIR OBJECTIVES ...
THIS ATTITUDE IS FAMOUSLY SUMMED UP BY THE PHRASE THE
ENDS JUSTIFY THE MEANS
NOWHERE DID THIS LESSON SEEM TO BE MORE TRUE THAN IN THE
UNIFICATION OF THE ITALIAN & GERMAN PEOPLES
IT’S PERHAPS HARD FOR US TO REALIZE, TODAY, BUT WHEN PEOPLE SPOKE
ITALY & GERMANY FOR MOST OF EUROPE’S HISTORY ... THEY WERE
TALKING - IN EACH CASE - ABOUT A PLACE - NOT - A COUNTRY

YOU CAN GET A VISUAL SENSE OF THIS FROM THIS FIRST MAP OF GERMANY
&, AS A MATTER OF FACT, IT DOESN'T TELL THE WHOLE STORY
FROM THIS MAP, IT'S EASY TO GET THE IDEA THAT GERMANY WAS – AT
MOST DIVIDED INTO 6, MAYBE 7 SEPARATE STATES … BUT - IF YOU LOOK AT
THE BLUE REGION OF GERMANY, YOU'LL SEE THAT THERE ARE AT LEAST 3
STATES IN THAT REGION, ALONE - BADEN - WURTTEMBURG - & BAVARIA
THE SAME WAS TRUE IN ITALY WHICH, LIKE GERMANY, WAS SERIOUSLY
FRAGMENTED & DIVIDED INTO A NUMBER OE SMALL, OFTEN QUARRELING
STATES
Italian unification map
THE RISORGIMENTO (RE-SHURG-E-MENTO ) - OR RESURGENCE
OF ITALY WAS THE WORK OF 2 MEN - THE SARDINIAN STATESMAN -
CAMILLO CAVOUR - A PRACTITIONER OF REALPOLITIK IF EVER

THERE WAS ONE ...
Cavour portrait
AND HIS ANTITHESIS - GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI - THE
INSPIRATIONAL FIGURE OF THIS STRUGGLE ... WHO - LIKE HIS SOLDIERS
FAMOUSLY WORE A RED SHIRT INTO BATTLE
Garibaldi portrait
WHICH, I MUST SAY, STRIKES ME AS INSANE - BUT NEVER MIND
ORIGINALLY - GARIBADI WAS A - SMALL “R” - REPUBLICAN ... THAT IS, HE
WANTED TO CREATE AN ITALIAN REPUBLIC ... I’LL ADD THAT GARIBALDI
IN 1861 GARIBALDI WAS THE MOST FAMOUS MAN IN EUROPE - SO MUCH SO
THAT AS THE UNITED STATES DRIFTED TOWARD CIVIL WAR THERE WAS A
SERIOUS MOVE TO INVITE GARIBALDI TO LEAD UNION ARMIES
AGAINST THE CONFEDERACY ... HOW THAT WOULD HAVE TURNED OUT
IS ONE OF THOSE “WHAT IF’S” OF HISTORY

Victor Emmanuel photo
ANYWAY, DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR ITALIAN UNIFICATION, GARIBALDI
BECAME CONVINCED THAT ITALY COULD ONLY BE UNITED UNDER A
MONARCH - NAMELY, THE KING OF PIEDMONT-SARDINIA - THIS
HANDSOME DEVIL, VICTOR EMMANUEL - & THIS BROUGHT
GARIBALDI INTO AN ALLIANCE WITH CAVOUR
YOUR BOOK ONLY BRIEFLY SUMMARIZES ITALY’S WARS OF UNIFICATION
IN CHAPTER 19 - & FAILS TO MENTION ONE OF ITS MOSTI IMPORTANT
GLOBAL LEGACIES
IF YOU GO BACK TO THE MAP OF ITALY, YOU’LL SEE THE CROSSED SWORDS
TO MARK THE BATTLE OF SOLFERINO JUST SOUTH OF MILAN
Henri Dunant
THE BATLE WAS WITNESSED BY A SWISS CITIZEN - HENRI DUNANT - WHO
WAS SO HORRIFIED BY WHAT HE SAW THAT HE CAMPAIGNED FOR WHAT
BECAME THE 1ST GENEVA CONVENTION
THIS CONVENTION ESTABLISHED RULES FOR THE TREATMENT OF
PRISONERS OF WAR & THE WOUNDED … IT ALSO LED TO THE
CREATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL RED CROSS & RED CRESCENT
SOCIETIES - WHICH, AS I HOPE YOU KNOW, ALSO ARE ON THE FRONT
LINES TO HELP COMMUNITIES HIT BE NATURAL DISASTERS &
OTHER SUCH CALAMITIES
ITALY WAS NOT COMPLETELY UNITED UNTIL WHAT WERE CALLED THE
PAPAL STATES WERE TAKEN IN 1870 & ITALY’S NATIONAL ARMY MARCHED
INTO ROME
Pius IX portrait
THESE PAPAL STATES WERE HELD BY THE HEAD OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC
CHURCH – IN THIS CASE POPE PIUS IX - &, AS YOU MIGHT IMAGINE, HE
WAS NONE TO HAPPY ABOUT LOSING THESE LANDS … IN RESPONSE, HE
DECLARED HIMSELF A “PRISONER OF THE VATICAN” IN ROME
{Sperber, Europe, 1850-1914, 170}

THIS WAS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE THE PAPACY’S REFUSAL TO ACCEPT
ITALY’S UNIFICATION & - MORE BROADLY, LIBERALISM - INDEED IT’S
REFUSAL TO ACCEPT THE MODERN WORLD - DID NOT END WITH ITALY’S
WARS OF UNIFICATION
HISTORIANS HAVE POINTED TO ITALY’S UNIFICATION TO EXPLAIN WHY -
IN SUBSEQUENT DECADES - THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH ALLIED
ITSELF WITH THE MOST CONSERVATIVE & REACTIONARY ELEMENTS
OF EUROPEAN POLITICS & SOCIETY ... THE CHURCH’S OPPOSITION TO
LIBERALISM REALLY WOULDN’T CHANGE UNTIL THE

2ND VATICAN COUNCIL - OR VATICAN II - IN THE 1960s
1 YOUR BOOK DISCUSSES THE 2ND VATICAN COUNCIL ON p 855 - YOU
OUGHT TO TAKE A LOOK AT THAT
AS FOR ITALY THE NATION - THE NEW STATE WAS A CONSTITUTIONAL
MONARCHY ... BUT EVEN THOUGH THE NATION HAD A PARLIAMENT - IT
WAS IN FACT A CONSERVATIVE STATE ... THE FRANCHISE - THE
RIGHT TO VOTE, FOR EXAMPLE, WAS STRICTLY LIMITED
MOREOVER - ALTHOUGH UNITED POLITICALLY - ITALY WAS FAR FROM
UNITED SOCIALLY - & - PERHAPS MORE IMPORTANT, ECONOMICALLY -
A FACT RECOGNIZED BY ONE OF CAVOUR’S SUCCESSORS - WHO SAID OF THE
NATIONAL MOVEMENT ... “WE HAVE MADE ITALY; NOW WE MUST MAKE
ITALIANS” {Attributed to Massimo d’Azeglio in Sperber, Europe, 1850-1914, 96}
LIKE THE UNITED STATES AT THIS TIME - ITALY WAS DIVIDED BETWEEN
THE NORTH -ITS INDUSTRIAL & BANKING CENTER ...
& THE SOUTH - WHICH WAS MAINLY RURAL & POOR ... &, IF ANYTHING,
THIS GAP ACTUALLY WIDENED AFTER UNIFICATION &
CONTINUES TO THIS DAY ... BY 1914 - THE EVE OF WORLD WAR I -
ITALY WAS THE LEAST OF THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE
VII. Bismarck’s Germany
LIKE THE STORY OF ITALY’S UNIFICATION - THAT OF GERMANY’S IS
VERY MUCH ROOTED IN THE FAILURE OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848
FOR MOST GERMAN NATIONALISTS, THE LIBERALS' FAILURE TO BRING
ABOUT A SINGLE GERMAN STATE PROVED THAT THEIR DREAM COULD
NOT BE REALIZED WITHOUT THE SUPPORT OF PRUSSIA & ITS RULING
FAMILY, THE HOHENZOLLERNS

BUT - THIS INEVITABLY RAISED A DILEMMA ... BECAUSE, OF COURSE,
THERE WAS A COMPETITOR FOR THIS ROLE AS THE DOMINANT POWER
IN UNITED GERMANY ... AUSTRIA & ITS RULING FAMILY THE
HAPSBURGS
Bismarck photo - with helmet
BUT THE MAN WHO UNITED GERMANY WAS NOT PRUSSIA’S KING ...
IT WAS, INSTEAD, THE KING’S - PRIME MINISTER - OTTO VON BISMARCK
YOU MAY NOT RECOGNIZE HIM FROM THIS PHOTO OF HIM AS A YOUNGER
MAN - HE’S BETTER KNOWN FOR PORTRAITS LIKE THIS, OF HIM WEARING
ONE OF THE FAMOUS PRUSSIAN SPIKED HELMETS
FROM 1860 BISMARCK DOMINATED NOT ONLY GERMANY BUT ALL OF
EUROPE FOR THE NEXT 3 DECADES
BISMARCK CAME FROM THE PRUSSIAN ARISTOCRACY ... THE JUNKERS

(PRONOUNCED ... U-NKERS) ... & EVEN AFTER 1871 - HIS PRIMARY
ALLEGIANCE WAS NOT TO GERMANY BUT TO PRUSSIA & TO THE
PRUSSIAN KING ... HE ONLY UNITED GERMANY TO PROTECT PRUSSIAN
INTERESTS ... AS BISMARCK MIGHT HAVE PUT IT - WHAT WAS GOOD FOR
PRUSSIA WAS GOOD FOR GERMANY
BEYOND THAT - BISMARCK WAS A FIRM BELIEVER IN MILITARISM & IN
AUTOCRATIC GOVERNMENT ... HE HAD NO TIME FOR NOTIONS LIKE
LIKE DEMOCRACY & HE DETESTED LIBERALISM ... HE WAS THE
MOST FAMOUS PRACTITIONER OF REALPOLITIK
BISMARCK’S DISDAIN FOR PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY WERE SUMMED
UP IN WHAT BECAME KNOWN AS HIS “BLOOD & IRON SPEECH” ... “THE
GREAT QUESTIONS OF THE DAY WILL NOT BE DECIDED BY SPEECHES &
RESOLUTIONS”- HE DECLARED - “BUT BY BLOOD & IRON”

IN OTHER WORDS – BY WAR
BETWEEN 1864 & 1871 BISMARCK LED PRUSSIA INTO 3 SEPARATE WARS
AT THE END OF WHICH HE HAD CREATED A UNIFIED GERMAN STATE
FOR HIS ADMIRERS, BISMARCK ACHIEVED WITH THE PRUSSIAN ARMY
WHAT THE REVOLUTIONARIES OF 1848 HAD FAILED TO ACHIEVE
WITH WORDS
THE 3 WARS FOUGHT BY BISMARCK WERE WITH - DENMARK IN 1864 -
AUSTRIA IN 1866 - &, FINALLY, FRANCE IN 1870-71
IN ALL 3 CASES - & AGAINST ALL EXPECTATIONS, THE PRUSSIAN ARMY
SCORED STUNNING VICTORIES

Napoleon III portrait
IN BOTH OF THE 1ST TWO WARS - BISMARCK WAS CAREFUL NOT TO
HUMILIATE THE DANES & THE AUSTRIANS ... NOT SO, WHEN IT
CAME THE FRENCH - WHO WERE LED BY THIS MAN, NAPOLEON III ...
THE NEPHEW OF - YES - NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
NAPOLEON III ROSE TO POWER IN THE WAKE OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF
1848 & CONVINCED HIMSELF THAT HE WAS EVERY BIT AS MUCH A GREAT
LEADER AS WAS HIS FAMOUS UNCLE ... HE WAS NOT
TO COMPLETE GERMAN UNIFICATION, BISMARCK PROVOKED A WAR &
IN THE PROCESS, MANAGED TO MAKE NAPOLEON III LOOK LIKE THE
AGGRESSOR
Bismarck & Napoleon III at Sedan

IF THAT WERE NOT ENOUGH, AT THE 1ST MAJOR OF WHAT IS CALLED THE
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR - THE BATTLE OF SEDAN IN 1870 - NOT ONLY
WAS THE FRENCH ARMY DEFEATED ... NAPOLEON WAS CAPTURED
HERE’S A RATHER STYLIZED PAINTING SHOWING A THE DEJECTED
FRENCH EMPEROR WITH BISMARCK

THE DEFEAT AT SEDAN BROUGHT NAPOLEON’S 2ND EMPIRE TO A CRASHING
END - BUT FRANCE’S WAR WITH THE PRUSSIANS & THE OTHER GERMAN
STATES DIDN’T FINALLY END IN MAY 1871
MEANTIME, BISMARCK - WHO HAD AN EYE FOR THE DRAMATIC - TOOK
ADVANTAGE OF THE FACT THAT ALL OF GERMAN PRINCES WERE IN
FRANCE &, IN THE FLUSH OF VICTORY OVER THE FRENCH - USED THE
SITUATION TO INCORPORATE 4 REMAINING GERMAN STATES INTO HIS
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE, OR REICH
Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser
THE PRUSSIAN KING - WILHELM I - WAS PROCLAIMED GERMAN EMPEROR
- OR TO USE THE GERMAN WORD KAISER - IN OF ALL PLACES - THE HALL
OF MIRRORS AT THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES ... THE VERY SYMBOL

OF FRANCE’S GRANDEUR & POWER SINCE THE TIME OF LOUIS XIV
AN EVENT PORTRAYED IN THIS PAINTING
BISMARCK’S DECISION TO HAVE WILHELM I PROCLAIMED KAISER AT
VERSAILLES WAS MORE THAN SYMBOLIC ... HE WAS TELLING EUROPE,
INDEED BISMARCK WAS TELLING THE WORLD - THAT GERMANY HAD
REPLACED FRANCE AS THE DOMINANT POWER ON THE
CONTINENT
THAT WAS JUST THE BEGINNING OF FRANCE'S HUMILIATION ... UNLIKE
HIS GENEROUS PEACE TREATY WIT AUSTRIA - BISMARCK IMPOSED VERY
HARSH TERMS ON THE FRENCH
NOT ONLY WAS THE COUNTRY FORCED TO PAY HUGE REPARATIONS TO

THE NEW EMPIRE - THE GERMANS IMPOSED AN ARMY OF OCCUPATION
UNTIL THE BILL WAS PAID
WORST OF ALL - FRANCE WAS FORCED TO CEDE 2 PROVINCES -
ALSACE & LORRAINE - TO GERMANY
THE LOSS OF THESE PROVINCES FATALLY POISONED RELATIONS
BETWEEN FRANCE & THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE ... FOR MOST FRENCH MEN
& WOMEN THE LOSS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE WAS A CRIME - A CRIME THAT
MUST BE AVENGED ... & THIS DETERMINATION LED DIRECTLY TO
THE TRENCHES OF WORLD WAR I
THAT WAS JUST 1 OF THE SIGNIFICANT OUTCOMES OF GERMAN

UNIFICATION
AUSTRIA'S EXPULSION FROM GERMAN AFFAIRS MEANT THAT IT
INCREASINGLY TURNED ITS ATTENTION TO THE BALKANS ...
AUSTRIA'S EXPANSION INTO THE BALKANS WAS YET ANOTHER FACTOR
THAT BROUGHT ON WORLD WAR I - &, WHILE THIS IS GETTING A BIT
AHEAD ... THIS EXPANSION ALSO CREATED THE CONDITIONS FOR THE
ETHNIC CONFLICT IN THE BALKANS WAGED IN PLACES LIKE
BOSNIA & KOSOVO IN THE 1990s
FINALLY - & MOST IMPORTANTLY - GERMAN UNIFICATION LED TO
WHAT SOME HISTORIANS CALL THE GERMAN QUESTION ... THERE WAS
NOW - AT THE HEART OF EUROPE – A MAJOR POWER - & NOT JUST A
MILITARY POWER … BUT, ALSO AN INDUSTRIAL POWER THAT WAS
SOON OUTPACING ALL OF ITS EUROPEAN COMPETITORS

THIS POINT WAS DRIVEN HOME BY GERMANY’S UNOFFICIAL - NATIONAL -
ANTHEM ... Deutschland über Alles - WHOSE LITERAL MEANING -
GERMANY OVER ALL - OFTEN WAS MISUNDERSTOOD ... WHILE THE
SONG IS MEANT TO CONVEY SIMPLE PRIDE IN & LOVE FOR GERMANY ... TO
NON-GERMANS, ESPECIALLY THOSE WHO LIVED NEARBY - IT SEEMED
TO MEAN THAT GERMANS MEANT TO DOMINATE ALL OF EUROPE
AND - IT MUST BE SAID - IN THE DECADES AFTER UNIFICATION - IT IS EASY
TO UNDERSTAND WHY OTHER EUROPEANS FELT THOSE FEARS WERE
JUSTIFIED ... IF GERMANY HAD BEEN UNIFIED IN 1848 - IT’S MIGHT HAVE
DEVELOPED AS A LIBERAL, DEMOCRATIC STATE ... INSTEAD, IT WAS
UNIFIED UNDER VERY DIFFERENT CONDITIONS ...
Bismarck at the Congress of Berlin, 1878

IN A VERY REAL SENSE – BISMARCK’S VICTORY WAS WON AT THE EXPENSE
OF GERMAN LIBERALISM ... THIS TRAGEDY - & IT WAS A TRAGEDY -
NOT JUST FOR GERMANY ALONE - WAS THAT BY FOLLOWING THE
PRUSSIAN, MILITARY MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT
THE END OF THIS ROAD - FOR BOTH GERMANY & EUROPE IN GENERAL
WOULD TO BE 2 WORLD WARS
OSTENSIBLY - THE NEW GERMAN STATE WAS A CONSTITUTIONAL
MONARCHY ... THE GERMAN PARLIAMENT HAD 2 HOUSES ... AN
UPPER HOUSE - THE BUNDESRAT - & A 2ND HOUSE - THE REICHSTAG
ALL GERMAN MALES OVER THE AGE OF 25 HAD THE RIGHT TO VOTE
FOR MEMBERS IN THE REICHSTAG - {See Hayes on Germany & France}
THE GOVERNMENT HAD AN EXECUTIVE -HEADED BY A CHANCELLOR - A
PRIME MINISTER - WITH A CABINET ... BUT REAL POWER WAS IN THE
HANDS OF THE KAISER, THE GERMAN ARISTOCRACY - THE JUNKERS &,
NOT LEAST, THE ARMY

FOR A TIME, ANYWAY, BISMARCK WAS SUCCESSFUL IN MAINTAINING THE
DOMINANCE OF THESE OLD ELITES
TO HEAD OFF HIS LIBERAL OPPONENTS - MAINLY THE SOCIALISTS
BISMARCK INSTITUTED THE WEST'S 1ST SOCIAL WELFARE STATE -
AS WAS TRUE OF VIRTUALLY ALL THE INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES
AT THIS TIME - WORKING CONDITIONS IN GERMAN FACTORIES WERE
APPALLING ... TO AVOID A REVOLUTION FROM THE LEFT, BISMARCK
DECIDED TO WIN OVER THE DISAFFECTED BY EMBARKING ON WHAT
CALLED THE WHITE REVOLUTION ... THIS TERM HAD NOTHING TO
DO WITH RACE ... INSTEAD, THE POLITICAL LEFT IN EUROPE HAD
ADOPTED THE COLOR RED & THE POLITICAL RIGHT ADOPTED THE
COLOR WHITE AS ITS SYMBOL

IN EFFECT, HE PERSUADED THE GERMAN PARLIAMENT TO PASS A SERIES
OF LAWS GIVING WORKERS BENEFITS IN CASE OF ILLNESS OR INJURY
HE ALSO ESTABLISHED THE INDUSTRIAL WORLD'S 1st STATE-SUPPORTED
OLD-AGE PENSIONS SYSTEM -WHAT YOU & I CALL SOCIAL
SECURITY ... & HE ESTABLISHED THE RETIREMENT AGE AT 65
WHEN IT CAME TO GERMANY’S RELATIONS WITH THE REST OF THE WORLD
BISMARCK WAS LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR CREATING A SERIES OF
MILITARY ALLIANCES - ALL DESIGNED TO PREVENT A SITUATION IN
WHICH GERMANY WOULD BE SURROUNDED BY ITS ENEMIES
IN HIS OWN TIME - BISMARCK’S POLICIES WERE LARGELY SUCCESSFUL
BUT - IN 1888 - WILHELM I DIED ... HIS SON & HEIR, THE LIBERAL
MINDED FREDERICK WILHELM III - HOWEVER - HAD CANCER &
FOLLOWED HIS FATHER TO HIS REWARD A MERE 99 DAYS LATER

THAT MEANT THAT THE NEW KAISER WOULD BE THE 29-YEAR-OLD
WILHELM II
Wilhelm II portrait
TO SAY THAT WILHELM II WAS HEADSTRONG WOULD BE PUTTING IT
MILDLY ... & IT WAS ALMOST FOREORDAINED THAT HE & BISMARCK
WOULD CLASH ... HERE IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF HOW POLITICIANS FAIL TO
PLAN FOR THE UNEXPECTED ... FOR ALL HIS SKILLS, IT NEVER SEEMS TO
HAVE OCCURRED TO BISMARCK THAT A GERMAN KAISER COULD BE AS
ERRATIC AS WILHELM
SO, IRONICALLY - THE VERY SYSTEM OF BISMARCK’S OWN MAKING - IN
WHICH THE KAISER WOULD DISMISS HIS CHANCELLOR WITHOUT ANY
ONE TO STOP HIM PROVED TO BE BISMARCK’S UNDOING
Dropping the Pilot cartoon

LESS THAN 2 YEARS AFTER TAKING THE CROWN, WILHELM DISMISSED
THE IRON CHANCELLOR - AS BISMARCK HAD BECOME KNOWN ... A
DISMISSAL FAMOUSLY ILLUSTRATED BY THIS CARTOON THAT APPEARED
IN THE BRITISH MAGAZINE – PUNCH
Wilhelm close-up photo
FREED OF HIS CHANCELLOR - WILHELM EMBARKED ON A SERIES OF FOREIGN
POLICY ADVENTURES THAT - 1ST PERPLEXED & THEN THREATENED THE
OTHER MAJOR EUROPEAN POWERS
WILHELM II’S AMBITIONS FOR HIS GERMAN EMPIRE WENT FAR BEYOND
ANYTHING BISMARCK ENVISIONED ... WITH THIS NEW DEPARTURE, CALLED
WELTPOLITIK - OR WORLD POLICY - WILHELM EMBRACED THE
IDEA THAT GERMANY MUST BE A WORLD POWER - WITH A COLONIAL

EMPIRE - & A NAVY - TO ACCOMPANY IT’S ALREADY HUGE ARMY
THE UPSHOT WAS THAT BY 1914 - WILHELM’S POLICIES HAD ALIENATED
NEARLY ALL THE OTHER GREAT EUROPEAN POWERS - EXCEPT FOR THE
WEAKEST OF THE GROUP - AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
IN GERMANY ITSELF - THE OLD ELITES ... THE MONARCHY - THE
ARISTOCRACY - THE ARMY - WERE BEING CHALLENGED FROM TWO
DIRECTIONS ...
1ST - THEY FACED A CHALLENGE FROM NEWER INDUSTRIAL &
COMMERCIAL GROUPS - & ...
2ND - WHAT WAS EVEN MORE THREATENING TO THESE OLD ELITES - WAS
THE CHALLENGE FROM AN INCREASINGLY LARGE WORKERS’ MOVEMENT
LED BY THE SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY - THE SPD

THE SPD DEMANDED RADICAL CHANGES TO GERMAN SOCIETY
DEMANDS THAT WERE APPEALING TO MANY GERMAN WORKING-CLASS
VOTERS
IN OTHER WORDS - BY 1914 - BOTH AT HOME & ABROAD - THE GERMANY
THAT BISMARCK HAD CREATED WAS VERY MUCH A NATION IN CRISIS
BEYOND EUROPE, ITSELF, ITALY, AS WELL AS GERMANY HAD BECOME
IMPERIAL POWERS
LIKE THE BRITISH, THE FRENCH, & OTHER EUOROPEAN POWERS - & LIKE
THE AMERICANS, & THE JAPANESE - THE GERMANS & THE ITALIANS
SET THEIR SIGHTS ON LANDS IN AFRICA & ASIA
WHAT IS KNOWN AS THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM IS A STORY WITH
MANY LAYERS – IT IS ONE THAT IS STILL AFFECTING ALL OF US TO THIS

DAY - & IT IS THE ONE I WANT TO TURN TO NEXT
I. Asia & Africa on the eve of the Imperial Age

II. A trip north to Russia
III Charles Darwin’s global impact
IV. Social Darwinism
V. Imperialism
VI. The “scramble” for Africa
VII. Imperialism in Asia
VIII. Staring into the abyss
IX. Suffragists & Suffragettes
1. Map – Portuguese contacts with Africa & Asia

2. Map — voyages of Zhen He
3. Map – colonial empires, 1815
4. Russian expansion map
5. Mongol invasion of Russia map
6. Ivan the Terrible
7. Peter the Great
8. Russian empire map 1613-1914
9. Charles Darwin portrait
10. Cartoon – Darwin & monkey
11. Woodrow Wilson
12. Herbert Spencer
13. Rhodes Colossus cartoon
14. Maxim gun photo
15. Senegalese soldier
16. French Indochina soldier
17. Map – African imperialism
18. Belgian Congo forced laborers
19. Map – Asian imperialism
20. Carving up China – French cartoon
19. Map – Capetown to Cairo
20. Boer republics map
21. Boer commandos photo
22. Boer concentration camp
23. Boer concentration camp victim
24. South Africa map
25. Map – Asian imperialism
26. Carving up China – French cartoon
27. Russo-Japanese War map
28. Russian soldiers, Russo-Japanese War

29. Painting – Russian warship sunk by Japanese navy
30. US empire map, 1900
31. Judge cartoon
32. Mark Twain
33. Roger Casement
34. End of empire map
35. German soldiers march to war with young woman, 1914
36. Factory workers, circa 1900
37. Child coal mine workers
38. British Labour Party poster
39. Immigrants, Ellis Island
40. Photo – 4 Ellis Island immigrants
41. Anti-immigrant cartoon
42. “Little Italy”, New York City
43. Lynching of Italians in New Orleans
44. Chinese immigrant workers
45. The Suffragette magazine cover
46. The Pankhursts
47. Anti-forced feeding poster
48. Women workers, Woolwich Arsenal
Watch segment from The Great War, Episode 1,
START: 17.36 minute mark – END: 21.12 minute mark
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRtdSoeYQYk&list=PL038996EE01A51D5E
Map – Portuguese contacts with Africa &

Asia
I. Asia & Africa on the eve of the Imperial Age
NOT MUCH HAS BEEN SAID ABOUT AFRICA & ASIA SO FAR IN THIS COURSE
THAT’S NOT BECAUSE THESE PLACES & THE PEOPLE WHO LIVED THERE ARE
UNIMPORTANT … FAR FROM IT
IF YOU HAVE READ THE EARLY CHAPTERS OF DUIKER & SPIELVOGEL’S
WORLD HISTORY, YOU’LL KNOW THAT THE CULTURES & SOCIETIES
FOUND ON BOTH CONTINENTS ARE RICH IN THEIR HISTORY &
ACHIEVEMENTS
I MUST SAY I AM A LITTLE DOUBTFUL, THOUGH, WHEN THE AUTHORS OF
THIS BOOK TALKS ABOUT “SEEDS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION” (p 487) IN
CHINA IN THE 1500s — OR “SEEDS OF CAPITALISM” (p 497) IN JAPAN
OVER ROUGHLY THE SAME TIME PERIOD
THERE CERTAINLY WAS AN EXPANSION IN THE CREATION OF PRODUCTS LIKE
PORCELAIN & SILK, & TRADING OF CASH CROPS … TIED TO THESE
DEVELOPMENTS WAS THE RISE OF CLASSES OF MERCHANTS & TRADERS

IN ALL OF THESE COUNTRIES
BUT APPLYING THESE TERMS — INDUSTRIALIZATTION & CAPITALISM —
AS WE WOULD UNDERSTAND THEM, TODAY — TO CONDITIONS IN THESE
SOCIETIES IS A BIT OF A STRETCH
IN ANY CASE, WHEN LOOKING AT THE PERIOD COVERED BY THIS COURSE –
1500 TO THE PRESENT — THE FACT IS THAT, INCREASINGLY, EUROPE &,
EVENTUALLY THE AMERICAS, PLAYED AN EVER MORE INFLUENTIAL ROLE
IN ALL OF THESE PLACES
AS YOUR BOOK POINTS OUT (p 413-414) WHEN TALKING ABOUT CHANGES IN
AFRICA … EVEN BEFORE 1500, THE EUROPEANS WERE AFFECTING THE LIVES
OF AFRICANS ON THE CONTINENT’S WEST COAST … THE ASHANTI
KINGDOM ACTIVELY TRADED WITH THE EUROPEANS WHILE OTHERS IN THE

NIGER RIVER DELTA ACTIVELY PARTICIPATED IN THE SLAVE TRADE
BOTH THERE, & ON AFRICA’S EAST COAST, THERE WAS A RISE IN CONFLICT
BETWEEN AFRICAN TRIBES & KINGDOMS — BETWEEN THOSE WHO ALLIED
THEMSELVES WITH THE EUROPEANS & THOSE WHO ACTIVELY OPPOSED
THEIR PRESENCE
Map - voyages of Zhen He
ONE OF THE IRONIC ASPECTS OF THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORATIONS &
TRADE IN AFRICA & ASIA IS HOW CLOSELY THEIR TRADE ROUTES – AS YOU
SEE IN THIS MAP – MIRRORED THE EARLIER VOYAGES OF ZHEN HE
REINFORCING A POINT I MADE IN A PREVIOUS SESSION – NAMELY, THAT
THE EUROPEN EXPANSION MIGHT VERY WELL HAVE BEEN STOPPED
BEFORE IT HAD EVEN STARTED IF CHINA HAD CARREIED ON WITH THESE
EARLIER VOYAGES
Map – colonial empires, 1815

AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP, AS LATE AS 1815, EUROPEAN CONTROL OF
OF AFRICAN & ASIAN TERRITORY WAS RELATIVELY MODEST
ONE EXCEPTION WAS THE BRITISH IN INDIA - WHICH I’LL GET TO
LATER … THE OTHER WAS RUSSIA
AND BECAUSE I HAVEN’T SAID A WORD ABOUT THE RUSSIANS, LET ME
TAKE A LITTLE DETOUR NORTH FOR A FEW MINUTES
Russian expansion map
II. A trip north to Russia
I’M THROWING A LOT OF MAPS AT YOU, I KNOW, BUT IF YOU’RE GOING TO
UNDERSTAND IMPERIALISM – IF YOU’RE GOING TO UNDERSTAND THE
PAST, REALLY – IT HELPS TO KNOW WHERE PLACES HAPPEN TO BE
I BRIEFLY MENTIOND RUSSIA AT THE START OF THIS COURSE AS ONE OF
THE WORLD’S “POWER CENTERS” IN 1500 … KNOWN AT THE TIME AS

MUSCOVY BECAUSE ITS CAPITAL WAS THE CITY OF MOSCOW
THERE’S LONG BEEN A DEBATE OVER WHETHER RUSSIA SHOULD BE
CONSIDERED A EUROPEAN POWER BECAUSE, AS YOU CAN SEE FROM
THIS MAP, THE RUSSIANS EXPANDED INTO THE EAST … IT MAY BE MORE
ACCURATE TO CALL IT A EURASIAN NATION
NOR IS THIS THE ONLY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RUSSIA & THE REST OF
EUROPE
RUSSIA - LIKE MOST OF ITS EUROPEAN NEIGHBORS - WAS A CHRISTIAN
STATE ... HOWEVER - RUSSIANS ADHERED TO ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY
THE BRANCH OF THE CHURCH THAT CAN BE TRACED TO THE BYZANTINE
EMPIRE & WHICH HAD FORMALLY SPLIT WITH WESTERN CHURCH IN
1054 ... AMONG OTHER THINGS, THIS MEANT THAT THE ORTHODOX
CHURCH HAD NO EXPERIENCE LIKE THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

THAT MAY SOUND LIKE A GOOD THING - ORTHODOX CHRISTIANS - & THE
RUSSIANS, IN PARTICULAR - DID NOT EXPERIENCE THE RELIGIOUS WARS
THAT SWEPT ACROSS LARGE PARTS OF EUROPE BETWEEN ROMAN
CATHOLICS & PROTESTANTS IN THE WAKE OF THE REFORMATION
BUT - THIS ALSO MEANT THAT RUSSIANS MISSED OUT ON THE
INTELLECTUAL IMPACT OF THE REFORMATION ... AN IMPACT THAT
WAS ENORMOUS & THAT EVENTUALLY BROUGHT ON THE SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION &, LATER, THE ENLIGHTENTMENT
Mongol invasion of Russia map
EQUALLY IMPORTANT - FOR ALL INTENTS & PURPOSES - RUSSIA WAS
CUT OFF FROM THE REST OF EUROPE FROM THE mid-13th TO THE
mid-15th CENTURIES - WHEN THE COUNTRY WAS INVADED BY THE
MONGOLS - ASIAN WARRIORS WHO CONQUERED RUSSIA FROM EAST

MANY HISTORIANS AGREE THAT WHAT IS CALLED THE MONGOL
DOMINATION OF SET RUSSIA BACK SEVERAL CENTURIES BEHIND THE REST
OF EUROPE - A GAP THAT THE RUSSIANS HAVE BEEN TRYING TO CLOSE
EVER SINCE
THE MONGOL DOMINATION WAS THROWN OFF BY IVAN III - A GRAND
DUKE, WHOSE LANDS WERE CENTERED ON MOSCOW ... IVAN III
PROCLAIMED HIMSELF TSAR - RUSSIAN FOR CAESAR
BUT - RUSSIANS WERE NOT REALLY FREED FROM THE MONGOLS UNTIL
REIGN OF IVAN III's GRANDSON - IVAN IV - BETTER KNOWN AS
IVAN THE TERRIBLE ... HERE IS A MUCH LATER PORTRAIT OF IVAN ...
NOT A HAPPY CHAPPY, AS YOU CAN SEE

Ivan the Terrible portrait
IN FACT, HE WAS A PSYCHOPATH … AS YOUR BOOK MENTIONS ON p 441
IVAN THE TERRIBLE KILLED HIS OWN SON IN A VIOLENT RAGE
HIS WAY OF DEALING WITH THE ANY NOBLES WAS SIMPLY TO KILL OFF
MOST OF THEM … HE WAS - TO PUT IT BLUNTLY -- A TYRANT IN EVERY
SENSE OF THE WORD
AS WELL AS GETTING RID OF THE MONGOLS & IMPOSING HIS WILL ON
RUSSIA'S NOBILITY - OR BOYARS - AS THEY WERE CALLED ...
IVAN LEFT 1 OTHER LEGACY ... DURING HIS REIGN RUSSIAN PEASANTS
BECAME TIED THE LAND - IN OTHER WORDS, THEY BECAME SERFS
WHICH HIS IRONIC - BECAUSE HE IMPOSED FEUDALISM ON RUSSIA JUST
AS IT WAS BEGINNING TO DIE OUT IN THE REST OF EUROPE
AS YOUR BOOK ALSO TELLS YOU ON p 441 - IN 1613 - A NEW FAMILY - THE
ROMANOVS - ESTABLISHED THEMSELVES AS RUSSIA’S RULING DYNASTY

A POSITION THEY WOULD HOLD UNTIL 1917 ... THE MOST IMPORTANT OF
THESE EARLY ROMANOVS WAS THE MAN WE KNOW AS PETER THE GREAT
Peter the Great portrait
PETER THE GREAT RULED RUSSIA FOR 36 YEARS UNTIL HIS DEATH IN
1725 - A FAIRLY LONG STRETCH - HE’S IMPORTANT FOR 2 REASONS
1ST - PETER WAS DETERMINED TO WESTERNIZE RUSSIA
2ND - HE WAS EQUALLY DETERMINED TO - HAS HE PUT IT - GAIN A
“WINDOW ON THE WEST" - IN PRACTICAL TERMS, THIS MEANT HE WAS
DETERMINED TO GAIN ACCESS TO THE BALTIC & BLACK SEAS
SHORTLY AFTER BECOMING TSAR - PETER DID AN EXTRAORDINARY THING
HE TRAVELED AROUND WESTERN EUROPE SOMETIMES IN DISGUISE
TO LEARN AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE ABOUT WESTERN CUSTOMS &

TECHNOLOGY WHICH HE THEN PLANNED TO INTRODUCE -
BY FORCE IF NECESSARY --- TO RUSSIA
IN PRUSSIA, HE STUDIED MILITARY ORGANISATION
IN BOTH THE NETHERLANDS & BRITAIN -- HE STUDIED SHIPBUILDING
ALSO IN BRITAIN - HE STUDIED THAT COUNTRY'S METHODS OF
COMMERCE & FINANCE
HIS TRIP WAS CUT SHORT - HOWEVER - WHEN A REVOLT AGAINST HIM WAS
MOUNTED IN RUSSIA - LED BY HIS OWN BODYGUARDS ... PETER RETURNED &
RUTHLESSLY PUT DOWN THE REBELLION ... HE EVEN EXECUTED SOME OF
THE REBELS HIMSELF ... THE UPSHOT OF THESE EXPERIENCES WAS THAT
PETER THEN ESTABLISHED A MONARCHY AS ABSOLUTE AS ANY FOUND
ANYWHERE IN EUROPE
PETER’S ATTEMPTS TO WESTERNIZE RUSSIA ACHIEVED SOME SUCCESS

HE SET UP NEW INDUSTRIES - FOR EXAMPLE ... THOUGH HE HAD TO
IMPORT TECHNICIANS FROM WESTERN EUROPE TO SUPERVISE THEM
HE ALSO INTRODUCED WESTERN SOCIAL CUSTOMS TO RUSSIA
WOMEN - FOR EXAMPLE - WHO WERE EXCLUDED FROM SOCIETY - WERE
BROUGHT OUT OF SECLUSION
PETER ALSO INSISTED THAT NOBLES ADOPT WESTERN CLOTHES STYLES
& THAT THE MEN SHOULD CUT OFF THEIR TRADITIONAL LONG-FLOWING
BEARDS ... WHEN SOME REFUSED, PETER WAS KNOWN TO WALK AROUND
HIS PALACES WITH A PAIR OF SCISSORS & CUT THEM OFF HIMSELF
HE ALSO INSISTED ON IMPOSING A NEW ETIQUETTE AT COURT ...
NOBLES WERE FORBIDDEN FROM SPITTING ON THE FLOOR, SCRATCHING

THEMSELVES - OR GNAWING ON BONES AT THE DINNER TABLE
PERHAPS HIS MOST PERMANENT ACHIEVEMENT WAS THE BUILDING OF A
NEW CAPITAL CITY ... ONE OF HIS "WINDOWS ON THE WEST" - THE CITY
OF ST PETERSBURG
BUT FOR ALL THESE ACHIEVEMENTS, PETER'S REFORMS DID LITTLE TO
HELP MOST RUSSIANS ... HE FURTHER TIED THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX
CHURCH TO HIS GOVERNMENT ... IN EFFECT, CHURCH & STATE BECAME
ONE & THE SAME
INSTEAD OF GETTING RID OF SERFDOM, PETER ACTUALLY DID HIS BEST TO
FURTHER TIE PEASANTS TO THE LAND … THIS MIDEVAL PRACTICE WAS
NOT ABOLISHED IN RUSSIA IN 1861
Russian empire map 1613-1914

IN ANY EVENT, UNDER PETER & HIS SUCCESSORS, RUSSIA EXPANDED INTO
BOTH EUROPE & ASIA … BY 1900 THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE STRETCHED FROM
POLAND IN THE WEST TO VERY EDGE OF ASIA IN THE EAST
FOR OVER 125 YEARS – BETWEEN 1741 & 1867 - THE RUSSIANS LAID
CLAIM TO ALASKA, UNTIL THEY UNWISELY SOLD IT TO THE UNITED
STATES
EVEN WITHOUT ALASKA, AT THE DAWN OF THE 20TH CENTURY, RUSSIA
WAS A POWER TO BE RECKONED WITH
IN 1900 RUSSIA WAS THE 4TH LARGEST INDUSTRIAL POWER IN THE WORLD
& WAS DETERMINED TO EXPAND EVEN FURTHER INTO ASIA, MAKING IT
AN IMPERIAL POWER
FROM THE RUSSIAN PERSPECTIVE, THIS WAS ONLY “NATURAL”

LIKE THOSE FROM OTHER IMPERIAL NATIONS, THEY BELIEVED THEY WERE
MEANT TO RULE THE WORLD … TO UNDERSTAND HOW THEY COULD HAVE
COME TO SUCH A CONCLUSION, IT’S NECESSARY TO DELVE INTO THE
19TH CENTURY WAY OF THINKING & TO DO THAT, IT’S NECESSARY TO
TALK ABOUT ONE OF THE MOST INFLUENTIAL FIGURES IN HISTORY
Charles Darwin portrait
III. Charles Darwin’s global impact
THE MAN I’M TALKING ABOUT WAS THIS MAN - CHARLES DARWIN
THIS IS NOT THE PLACE TO GET INTO A DETAILED DISCUSSION OF ISSUES
LIKE EVOLUTION & NATURAL SELECTION ... INSTEAD - LET ME
CONCENTRATE ON THE IMPACT OF THESE IDEAS
IN A BRIEF SUMMARY OF DARWIN’S CAREER ON p 596 OF THEIR BOOK,

DUIKER & SPIELVOGEL HINT AT DARWIN’S IMPACT ON THE WORLD
IT’S IMPORTANT TO BEAR IN MIND THAT DARWIN WAS NOT THE 1ST PERSON
WHO CHALLENGED THE CREATION STORY FOUND IN THE BIBLE ... NOR
WAS HE THE 1ST PERSON WHO CAME UP WITH THE THEORY OF
EVOLUTION ... THE IDEA THAT SPECIES HAD EVOLVED OVER
TIME HAD BEEN ADVANCED BY A NUMBER OF SCIENTISTS
DARWIN’S DISTINCT CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEBATE WAS HIS THEORY
NATURAL SELECTION
ACCORDING TO NATURAL SELECTION INDIVIDUALS WITHIN SPECIES
WHICH HAVE FAVORABLE CHARACTERISTICS WILL PREVAIL &
PROCREATE ... WHILE THOSE WITH CHARACTERISTICS THAT DO NOT
ENABLE IT TO ADAPT TO ITS ENVIRONMENT DIE OUT
DARWIN FINALLY PUBLISHED HIS FINDINGS IN 1859 IN A BOOK CALLED

ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION, OR
THE PRESERVATION OF FAVOURED RACES IN THE STRUGGLE FOR
LIFE ... HOW’S THAT FOR A LONG-WINDED TITLE ??? MOST PEOPLE
SIMPLY KNOW THE BOOK AS ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
GIVEN THAT DARWIN HAD NO KNOWLEDGE OF HOW INHERITANCE
WORKED - OR OF GENETICS & DNA - THIS WAS A REMARKABLE
ACHIEVEMENT - SOMETHING THAT SCIENTISTS MARVEL AT - TODAY
HOWEVER - IT’S WORTH NOTING ... THAT DARWIN AVOIDED ANY DIRECT
DISCUSSION OF THE ORIGINS OF HUMAN BEINGS IN THIS ORIGINAL WORK
HE WOULD ONLY DO THAT IN HIS LATER THE DESCENT OF MAN ...
WHICH LED TO A STORM OF ABUSE AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS CARTOON
Darwin & monkey cartoon
AS YOU LIKELY KNOW, DARWIN’S THEORY SET OFF A FIRESTORM
WHILE SOME ARGUED THAT TO ACCEPT DARWIN’S THEORY WAS TO REJECT
GOD - OTHERS WERE QUITE ABLE TO FIT EVOLUTION AS PART OF THEIR
RELIGIOUS WORLD VIEW ... THE ANSWER TO THIS QUANDARY DEPENDED
AS MUCH ON THE READER’S EXISTING BELIEFS & AGENDA AS ON
THEORY ITSELF
Woodrow Wilson photo
THE FUTURE AMERICAN PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON FOUND
NATURAL SELECTION TO BE PERFECTLY COMPATIBLE WITH HIS BELIEFS
AS A DEVOUT CHRISTIAN {Judis, Folly of Empire, 77}
DARWIN CONTINUES TO BE CONTROVERSIAL - NOT LEAST IN AMERICAN
SCHOOLS WHERE THE MERE MENTION OF HIS NAME AROUSES PASSIONS

IF YOU ASK MOST PEOPLE TO SUMMARIZE DARWIN’S THEORY OF NATURAL
SELECTION THEY WILL SUM IT UP AS SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
IN FACT, DARWIN NEVER USED THOSE WORDS …
WHY THE AUTHORS OF YOUR BOOK USE IT IN THEIR SUMMARY ABOUT
DARWIN’S WORK I CANNOT UNDERSTAND
Herbert Spencer photo
THE PHRASE WAS, INSTEAD, COINED BY ANOTHER ENGLISHMAN - THIS MAN
HERBERT SPENCER - & HIS IDEA KNOWN AS SOCIAL DARWINISM
AGAIN, WHY DUIKER & SPIELVOGEL FAIL TO MENTION SPENCER IS
PERPLEXING
IV. Social Darwinism
IT’S NOT THE LEAST OF IRONIES OF CHARLES DARWIN’S CAREER THAT HIS
HIS NAME CAME TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH A SOCIAL THEORY THAT HE
ABHORRED - SOCIAL DARWINISM ... A TOPIC COVERED BY YOUR BOOK
ON p 599 ... AS I SAY, THE FATHER OF SOCIAL DARWINISM -WAS
HERBERT SPENCER
SPENCER PROJECTED DARWINIAN EVOLUTION ONTO THE SOCIAL
PLANE ... OTHERS USED THIS IDEA TO JUSTIFY COMPETITION
BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS & COMPETITION BETWEEN NATIONS
AS WELL AS COINING THE PHRASE "SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST"
SPENCER ALSO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR PHRASES LIKE THE “LAW OF THE
JUNGLE” TO EXPLAIN THIS COMPETITION
SOCIAL DARWINISM WAS USED TO JUSTIFY LAISSEZ-FAIRE CAPITALISM
AT HOME ... & IMPERIALISM ABROAD ... RELATED TO BOTH OF THESE

POLICIES WAS THE SOCIAL DARWINIST NOTION OF “RACES” ...
IN THIS WORLD VIEW -EVEN WHITE EUROPEANS WERE DIFFERENTIATED
SO ... THE ENGLISH - & MANY AMERICANS - BEGAN TO CALL
THEMSELVES THE ANGLO-SAXON RACE
THE IRISH WERE THE GAELIC RACE
THE GERMANS - THE TEUTONIC RACE
THE RUSIANS - THE SLAVIC RACE
FROM THESE IDEAS IT WAS A SMALL STEP TO THE THEORY OF EUGENICS ...
THE NOTION THAT UNDESIRABLE TRAITS COULD BE BRED OUT OF THE
HUMAN RACE ... EUGENICS BECAME VERY POPULAR AMONG SOME UPPER-
CLASS EUROPEANS & AMERICANS WELL INTO THE 1920s & 30s
ULTIMATELY - THE LOGIC OF THESE PERNICIOUS IDEAS FOUND

EXPRESSION IN THE RACIAL THEORIES OF THE NAZIS & RESULTED IN
THE HOLOCAUST
SPENCER WAS INITIALLY OPTIMISTIC ABOUT THE SORT OF SOCIETY HE
SOUGHT TO IDENTIFY WITH THESE IDEAS ... OVER TIME, HOWEVER, HIS
OPTIMISM COLLAPSED & IN HIS LAST YEARS - HE BECAME PESSIMISTIC
ABOUT THE FUTURE OF MANKIND
BY THE TIME SPENCER DIED IN 1903 - DARWIN HAD BEEN DEAD FOR
OVER 2 DECADES - BUT BOTH LIVED LONG ENOUGH TO SEE SPENCER’S
INTERPRETATION OF DARWINISM USED TO JUSTIFY ONE OF THE MOST
CONTROVERSIAL LEGACIES OF THE WEST - IMPERIALISM
Rhodes Colossus cartoon
V. Imperialism
THERE ARE FEW SUBJECTS THAT CONJURE UP AS MUCH ANGER &

MISUNDERSTANDING IN EQUAL AMOUNTS AS IMPERIALISM ... THE
IMPERIAL LEGACY GOES A LONG WAY TOWARD EXPLAINING THE ANTI-
WESTERN &, NOW, ANTI-AMERICAN FEELING & HAS CAST A LONG
SHADOW ACROSS THE 20TH - NOW INTO THE 21ST CENTURY
DUIKER & SPIELVOGEL SPEND AN ENTIRE CHAPTER ON THIS SUBJECT
& YOU WOULD DO WELL TO READ IT
NOTHING BETTER ILLUSTRATES THIS PERIOD, OR THE ATTITUDES AT THE
ROOT OF IT, THAN THIS CARTOON … THE MAN IN IT IS CECIL RHODES
WHO MADE ONE OF THE LARGEST FORTUNES IN HISTORY IN THE GOLD &
DIAMOND MINES OF SOUTH AFRICA … THE RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS TO
BRITAIN’S OXFORD UNIVERSITY ARE A PRODUCT OF THIS FORTUNE
RHODES, AS YOU CAN ALSO SEE FROM THIS ILLUSTRATION, WAS AN ARDENT
IMPERIALIST … HE WANTED NOTHING LESS THAN FOR BRITAIN TO CONTROL

ALL OF AFRICA FROM CAIRO IN EGYPT TO CAPETOWN IN THE SOUTH
SO ... WHAT IS IMPERIALISM???
ACCORDING TO 1 DEFINITION - IMPERIALISM IS "THE EXTENSION OF THE
CONTROL, DOMINION, OR EMPIRE OF ONE NATION OVER ANOTHER
NATION OR REGION OF THE WORLD"
THAT MAY MEAN DIRECT CONTROL (p 628) - IN THE FORM OF COLONIES
GENERALLY SPEAKING, THE IMPERIAL POWER WOULD TAKE OVER A REGION
RUN UP ITS FLAG & CLAIM THE LAND, THE PEOPLE, & THE RESOURCES AS
THEIR OWN
BUT IT MIGHT ALSO MEAN INDIRECT CONTROL (pp 627-628)
THE IMPERIAL POWER MIGHT TEMPORARILY TAKE CONTROL OF A REGION
TO ETABLISH OR PROP UP A FRIENDLY GOVERNMENT ... OR - IT
MIGHT MEAN THAT THE IMPERIAL POWER DOMINATES THE WEAKER STATE
OR REGION ECONOMICALLY OR MILITARILY

DURING THE PERIOD THAT WE'RE TALKING ABOUT ... FROM 1871 TO 1914
THE MAJOR POWERS OF EUROPE -- & EVEN A FEW THAT WEREN'T – USUALLY
OPTED FOR THE 1ST METHOD - DIRECT CONTROL ... THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF COLONIAL EMPIRES
THE EUROPEANS COULD DO SO BECAUSE DURING THIS PERIOD THEY WERE
AT THE ZENITH OF THEIR POWER ... DURING THE LAST DECADES OF
OF THE 19TH CENTURY THERE WAS A MASSIVE NEW OUTBURST OF
EUROPEAN EXPANSION
BY THE END OF THIS ERA, ALMOST ALL OF AFRICA & MUCH THE FAR EAST
WERE STAKED OUT & ANNEXED BY THE Gt BRITAIN, FRANCE, GERMANY,
PORTUGAL, ITALY &, EVEN, BELGIUM
BEFORE THE END, THE UNITED STATES, RUSSIA, & JAPAN BECAME
INVOLVED IN THIS IMPERIAL EXPANSION IN ASIA
THESE NATIONS WERE ABLE TO DOMINATE THE REST OF THE WORLD
BECAUSE - BY THE LATE 19TH CENTURY - THEIR TECHNOLOGICAL
SUPERIORITY GAVE THEM A MILITARY ADVANTAGE THAT
TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES SIMPLY COULD NOT COMPETE WITH
Maxim Gun photo
THIS MILITARY ADVANTAGE WAS BEST SUMMED UP BY A LITTLE DITTY
ABOUT THE MAXIM GUN --- AN EARLY MACHINE GUN ... THE DITTY RAN
WHATEVER HAPPENS ... WE HAVE GOT
THE MAXIM GUN ... AND THEY HAVE NOT
THE QUESTION THAT HISTORIANS HAVE ASKED ... ARE STILL ASKING
IS WHY THIS SPURT OF IMPERIAL ACTIVITY HAPPENED WHEN IT DID

THERE ARE SEVERAL EXPLANATIONS
(1) SOME HISTORIANS STRESS ECONOMIC CAUSES ... ACCORDING TO THIS
VIEW, THE RAPID EXPANSION OF INDUSTRY IN EUROPE & THE U.S.
CREATED THE NEED FOR NEW MARKETS - & FOR RAW MATERIALS
AT THE SAME TIME, THESE HISTORIANS ARGUE, THE COLONIES PROVIDED A
PLACE FOR THE EUROPEANS & AMERICANS TO INVEST SURPLUS CAPITAL
AS WELL NEW LANDS FOR THEIR SURPLUS POPULATIONS TO SETTLE
(2) A 2ND EXPLANATION FOCUSES ON NATIONALISM
HISTORIANS WHO EMPHASIZE THIS FACTOR POINT OUT THAT MUCH OF THE
TERRITORY CONQUERED BY THE GREAT POWERS HAD LITTLE OBVIOUS
ECONOMIC VALUE ... HOWEVER ACQUIRING THESE NEW LANDS - THE
FLATTERED NATIONAL EGOS - ESPECIALLY ... IN THE NEWLY CREATED
STATES OF GERMANY & ITALY

AT THE SAME TIME, THESE NEW POSSESSIONS PROVIDED MILITARY &
NAVAL BASES - AS WELL AS SOLDIERS TO FIGHT FOR THE COLONIAL
POWERS - WHICH IS PRECISELY WHAT HAPPENED
DURING BOTH WORLD WARS

World War I soldiers photos
Senegal
Vietnam
(3) A 3RD EXPLANATION FOR IMPERIALISM IS A STRANGE MIX OF
HUMANITARIANISM - RELIGIOUS EVANGELISM - BUT ALSO RACISM
THERE WAS GENUINE DESIRE AMONG SOME EUROPEANS & AMERICANS TO
SPREAD - WHAT THEY FELT - WERE THE BENEFITS OF CIVILIZATION AS
WELL AS THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION TO OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD
BUT - AT THE BOTTOM OF THESE DESIRES WAS WHAT YOU CAN ONLY CALL
RACISM TOWARD THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA & ASIA ... & LATIN AMERICA,
FOR THAT MATTER -- IN THE CASE OF THE UNITED STATES
AT THE ROOT OF THESE ATTITUDES WAS THE BELIEF THAT THESE PEOPLE
WERE INFERIOR, THAT THEIR CULTURES & SOCIETIES WERE INFERIOR
& THAT THEY, THEREFORE NEEDED TO BE CONQUERED & RULED BY THE
SUPPOSEDLY SUPERIOR WEST
CENTRAL TO THIS LAST POINT IS SOCIAL DARWINISM
SOCIAL DARWINISM WAS 1ST APPLIED TO JUSTIFY LAISSEZ-FAIRE
CAPITALISM ... THEN, IT WSA USED TO JUSTIFY IMPERIALISM
IMPERIALISTS ARGUED THAT THEIR SUCCESS WAS NATURAL - THAT IT
PROVED THEY WERE FIT TO RULE ... & THAT THE PEOPLES THEY HAD
CONQUERED WERE NOT {Hayes, 90-92}
African imperialism map

VI. The “scramble” for Africa
AS A RESULT OF THE ALL THESE FACTORS - AFTER 1871 - EUROPE EXPLODED
IN A BURST OF IMPERIAL EXPANSION ... TARGETING, AMONG OTHER
PLACES - AFRICA
THERE, A MAD "SCRAMBLE" AS IT WAS CALLED TOOK PLACE – THE MAIN
PLAYERS IN THIS SO-CALLED “SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA" – DISCUSSED IN
YOUR BOOK ON pp 625-627 - WERE Gt BRITAIN, FRANCE, & GERMANY
THEY WERE SO SUCCESSFUL THAT BY 1914 - ONLY 2 INDEPENDENT STATES
WERE LEFT IN THE ENTIRE AFRICAN CONTINENT ETHIOPIA & LIBERIA
ON SEVERAL OCCASIONS - THIS SCRAMBLE ALMOST LED TO WARS
BETWEEN THE CONTENDING EUROPEAN POWERS - WHICH, IN TURN -
INCREASED TENSIONS - & WOULD, EVENTUALLY, HELP TO BRING
ABOUT THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Belgian Congo forced laborers

THE DRIVE FOR PROFITS IN THESE EMPIRES WAS RUTHLESS …
ESPECIALLY IN PLACES LIKE THE CONGO, WHERE BELGIUM – A
COUNTRY OFTEN OVERLOOKED IN DISCUSSIONS ABOUT IMPERIALISM
ESTABLISHED RUBBER PLANTATIONS & WHERE THE LOCAL
POPULATION WAS FORCED TO WORK AS VIRTUAL SLAVES, AS YOU CAN
SEE FROM THIS PHOTOGRAPH

Map – Capetown to Cairo
IT MAY BE TEMPTING TO THINK THAT BRUTALITY OF ANY SORT WAS
RESERVED ONLY FOR AFRICANS OR ASIANS … BUT THE TRUTH IS, THE
IMPERIAL POWERS WERE JUST AS RUTHLESS WHEN WHITE POPULATIONS
STOOD IN THEIR WAY
I STARTED OFF THIS SECTION ABOUT IMPERIALISM BY MENTIONING CECIL
RHODES & HIS DREAM OF A BRITISH CONTROLLED AFRICA … A GOAL

ILLUSTRATED BY THIS MAP
THERE WAS, HOWEVER, A GROUP OF PEOPLE STANDING IN THEIR WAY
THESE AFRIKANERS – AS THEY WERE KNOWN – WERE THE
DESCENDANTS OF DUTCH SETTLERS & HAD MOVED INLAND TO CREATE
2 REPUBLICS – THE TRANSVAAL & THE ORANGE FREE STATE
BECAUSE SO MANY OF THESE AFRIKANERS WERE FARMERS, THEY WERE
KNOWN BY THE AFRIKAANS NAME FOR FARMER – THE BOERS
Boer republics map
IN 1899, THE BRITISH PROVOKED A WAR WITH THE BOERS WHICH
DESCENDED INTO A VICIOUS GUERRILLA CONFLICT WAGED BY THE BRITISH
ARMY ON ONE SIDE & BOER COMMANDOS – AS THEY WERE KNOWN – ON
THE OTHER
THE BRITISH SOON DISCOVERED THEY COULDN’T DEFEAT THESE HIT-&-RUN
FIGHTER BECAUSE THEY COULD DEPEND ON OTHER BOER FARMERS FOR
FOOD, HORSES, & INFORMATION ABOUT THE BRITISH ARMY
SO, IT WAS DECIDED TO ROUND UP ALL BOER FARM FAMILIES &
“CONCENTRATE” THEM IN CAMPS TO STOP THEM FROM AIDING THE BOER
COMMANDOS … HENCE, THE TERM CONCENTRATION CAMP
Boer concentration camp
THE AIM OF THESE CAMPS WAS NOT TO MURDER THE BOERS, AS WOULD BE
THE CASE WITH THE NAZI CONCENTRATION CAMPS OF THE WORLD WAR II
BUT, AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THE CHILD IN THIS PHOTO – THIS WAS A
TRAGEDY WAITING TO HAPPEN
QUITE SIMPLY, THE BRITISH MILITARY WEREN’T EQUIPPED FOR THE JOB
OF CARING FOR SO MANY CIVILIANS … DISEASE & HUNGER SWEPT THROUGH

THESE CAMPS & THE RESULTS, AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS PHOTO, WERE
HORRIFIIC
Boer concentration camp victim
IN THE END, THE BRITH WON THEIR WAR AGAINST THE BOERS &, WITHIN
A MATTER OF YEARS ESTABLISHED A SELF-GOVERNING DOMINION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
South Africa map
BUT THE POINT IS THAT WHEN IT CAME TO IMPERIAL CONQUEST, IT DID
NOT MATTER WHO STOOD IN THE WAY – THE TREATMENT WOULD BE
BRUTAL, ALL THE SAME … THAT INCLUDED BLACK SOUTH AFRICANS
EVEN THOUGH MOST SIDED WITH THE BRITISH AGAINST THE BOERS
THEY WERE FROZEN OUT OF THE FINAL PEACE SETTLEMENT & DENIED
THE RIGHT TO VOTE IN SOUTH AFRICA, SETTING UP YEARS OF
STRUGGLE & FURTHER CONFLICT IN THAT PART OF THE WORLD

Asian imperialism map
VII. Imperialism in Asia
THE OTHER MAJOR THEATER OF THE NEW IMPERIALISM WAS ASIA
THERE, THE MAJOR POWERS INCLUDING NOT ONLY THE BRITISH, THE
FRENCH, & THE GERMANS ... BUT ALSO, AS I SAID EARLIER, THE RUSSIANS,
& THE UNITED STATES ... & JAPAN
Carving up China – French cartoon
THE MAIN OBJECT OF ALL THESE IMPERIAL NATIONS WAS CONTROL OF
CHINA – AS ILLUSTRATED BY THIS FRENCH CARTOON … THIS IS A
LEGACY THAT THE WEST & JAPAN IS STILL DEALING WITH BECAUSE THE
CHINESE HAVE NOT FORGOTTEN NOR FORGIVEN THESE NATIONS
FOR THIS HUMILIATING PERIOD IN THEIR HISTORY
WHILE THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA LED TO SEVERAL CONFRONTATIONS
THERE WERE NO WARS BETWEEN THE IMPERIAL POWERS IN AFRICA
Russo-Japanese War map
THIS WAS NOT TRUE IN ASIA – WHERE RIVALRY BETWEEN JAPAN &
TSARIST RUSSIA OVER KOREA & MANCHURIA LED TO THE
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR - 1904-05
AS YOUR TEXT TELLS YOU, BEGINNING ON p 657 - UNLIKE OTHER ASIAN
NATIONS, THE JAPANESE HAD THEMSEVLES BECOME AN IMPERIAL POWER
HERE - SUFFICE TO SAY THAT JAPAN WISHED TO CONQUER KOREA &

MANCHURIA - THIS PUT IT IN DIRECT CONFLICT WITH THE AMBITIONS OF
THE TSAR’S REGIME ... WHICH ALSO WISHED TO TAKE OVER THESE SAME
TERRITORIES & THE RIVALRY LED TO THE WAR OF 1904-05
Russian soldiers, Russo-Japanese War
THE RUSSIANS CONFIDENTLY MARCHED OFF TO VICTORY ... BECAUSE – AS
WHITE EUROPEANS – THEY ASSUMED THEMSELVES TO BE FAR, FAR
SUPERIOR TO THE ASIAN JAPANESE
IT DIDN’T QUITE WORK OUT THAT WAY
INSTEAD THE JAPANESE HANDED THE RUSSIANS A STUNNING
DEFEAT - 1ST THE JAPANESE SURPRISED THE RUSSIAN PACIFIC FLEET
& SANK MOST OF IT - A LITTLE TRICK THEY WOULD REPEAT ON THE
UNITED STATES LESS THAN 40 YEARS LATER

Painting – Russian warship sunk by Japanese navy
WHEN THE RUSSIANS SENT THEIR EUROPEAN - OR BALTIC FLEET -
LITERALLY AROUND THE WORLD TO DO BATTLE THE JAPANESE
SANK THE SHIPS IN THAT FLEET, TOO
RUSSIA’S DEFEAT EXPOSED THE WEAKNESS & CORRUPTION OF
THE RUSSIAN STATE THAT WOULD LEAD TO REVOLUTION
BUT – EVEN MORE THAN THAT – JAPAN’S SUPRSISE VICTORY IN THIS WAR
TURNED WESTERN, WHITE RACISM ON ITS HEAD
THE JAPANESE - THEMSELVES BEING ASIANS - WEREN'T SUPPOSED TO BEAT
THE RUSSIANS -- FOR THE 1st TIME A NATION FROM ASIA OR AFRICA HAD
SHOWN THAT IT COULD COMPETE WITH THE EUROPEANS & THE
AMERICANS - & THAT IT COULD DO SO ON THEIR OWN TERMS
US empire map, 1900

THE UNITED STATES – AS A MATTER OF FACT - WAS ALSO ACQUIRING AN
OVERSEAS EMPIRE TO FULFILL WHAT WAS CALLED THE NEW MANIFEST
DESTINY AS AMERICANS EXPANDED BEYOND NORTH AMERICA
AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP, EVEN BEFORE THE 1890s, THE UNITED
STATES HAD ACQURIED ISLANDS IN THE PACIFIC, MAINLY AS COALING
STATIONS FOR ITS MILITARY & CIVILIAN FLEETS
BUT THE DECISION TO BECOME INVOLVED IN THE 1895 REBELLION OF THE
CUBAN PEOPLE AGAINST THE RULE OF SPAIN SET THE AMERICANS ON
AN ENTIRELY NEW COURSE AS AN IMPERIAL POWER
AS THE RESULT OF A WAR IN 1898 THAT LASTED ONLY 10 WEEKS,
AMERICAN FORCES DEFEATED THE SPANISH … CUBA WAS LIBERATED
ONLY TO BE GRANTED A FORM OF SEMI-INDEPENDENCE - NOT REAL

INDEPENDENCE & WOULD BE UNDER US DOMINATION UNTIL 1959
SUCH INDIRECT CONTROL BY THE UNITED STATES WOULD BECOME THE
NORM IN MUCH OF LATIN AMERICA FOR THE REST OF THE 20TH CENTURY
THE AMERICANS ALSO HELPED THEMSELVES TO - AMONG OTHER PLACES
PUERTO RICO ... TODAY, I HOPE YOU KNOW, PUERTO RICANS ARE
US CITIZENS - BUT, BECAUSE THE ISLAND IS NOT A STATE, THEY DO NOT
HAVE VOTING MEMBERS IN CONGRESS, NOR DO THEY HAVE THE RIGHT TO
VOTE FOR PRESIDENT - UNLESS THEY MOVE TO THE AMERICAN MAINLAND
Judge cartoon
THE UNITED STATES ALSO HELPED ITSELF TO ISLAND OF GUAM IN THE
PACIFIC, AS WELL AS THE PHILIPPINES - WHICH AMERICAN
IMPERIALISTS SAW AS THEIR SPRINGBOARD TO MARKETS IN CHINA

THE PHILIPPINES BECAME INDEPENDENT AFTER WORLD WAR II - IN 1946
BY THE EARLY 1900s THIS BURST OF IMPERIALISM BEGAN TO BURN OUT
FOR ONE THING ALL THE BEST TERRITORY - & A GOOD DEAL THAT WAS
NOT - HAD ALREADY BEEN TAKEN
ALSO - THERE WAS A GROWING REALIZATION THAT THE COMPETITION
GENERATED BY THESE IMPERIALIST ADVENTURES HAD INCREASED
TENSIONS WITHIN EUROPE ITSELF

Mark Twain photo
MEANWHILE THERE WERE SOME IN EUROPE & IN AMERICA WHO WERE
BECOMING VOCAL OPPONENTS OF IMPERIALISM ... PERHAPS THE BEST
KNOWN OF THE AMERICAN ANTI-IMPERIALISTS WAS MARK TWAIN
SOMEONE YOU DON'T NORMALLY ASSOCIATE WITH POLITICS

Roger Casement photo
OTHERS – SUCH AS THE IRISHMAN, ROGER CASEMENT – EXPOSED THE
TERRIBLE ABUSES TAKING PLACE IN THE BELGIAN CONGO
WHAT WAS EVEN MORE IMPORTANT WAS THE FACT THAT AFTER 1900
NON-WESTERN PEOPLE THROUGHOUT THE WORLD BECAME
ACTIVE OPPONENTS & REBELLED AGAINST THE IMPERIAL POWERS
EVENTUALLY, ESPECIALLY AFTER 1945, THE EUROPEANS WD LOSE MOST
OF THEIR OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
End of empire map
TO THIS DAY - IMPERIALISM IS STILL HIGHLY CONTROVERSIAL
TO EVEN SUGGEST ... AS SOME HISTORIANS ARGUE ... THAT IMPERIALISM
HAD GOOD AS WELL AS BAD EFFECTS CAUSES TROUBLE

AS SOME CRITICS RIGHTLY POINT OUT ... THE EXPERIENCE OF
IMPERIALISM WAS ONE OF OPPRESSION & EXPLOITATION FOR THE
PEOPLE AROUND THE WORLD WHO EXPERIENCED IT
BUT - IT IS TRUE THAT IMPERIALISM BROUGHT IN ITS WAKE WESTERN
EDUCATION, SANITATION, INDUSTRIALIZATION, & MODERN
MEDICINE ... IN A WORD IT BROUGHT THE MODERN WORLD TO PARTS OF
THE PLANET THAT HAD NOT YET EXPERIENCED MODERNITY
AND - IRONICALLY - IMPERIALISM MADE MANY DIFFERENT AREAS
OF THE WORLD -- MORE ALIKE
AS A RESULT OF THE IMPERIAL EXPERIENCE MOST OF THE WORLD
TODAY IS IN SOME SENSE EUROPEANIZED ... SINCE THE END OF
WORLD WAR II YOU MIGHT SAY AMERICANIZED ... & THIS IS TRUE
OF EVERYTHING FROM FROM IDEAS TO PRODUCTS

FROM COMMUNISM TO COCA-COLA
FROM CAPITALISM TO ROCK-N-ROLL
OPTIMISTS ARGUE THAT BY SHARING SO MANY THINGS IN COMMON,
WE WILL UNDERSTAND ONE OTHER ... BUT - THAT'S A POINT OF VIEW YOU
WILL SELDOM FIND IN REGIONS OF THE WORLD THAT EXPERIENCED -
SOME WOULD SAY ARE STILL EXPERIENCING -- IMPERIALISM
IN THOSE PARTS OF THE WORLD THE IMPERIAL EXPERIENCE CREATED AN
INTENSE SUSPICION & HATRED OF THE WEST IN GENERAL - & OF
THE UNITED STATES IN PARTICULAR THAT WE OVERLOOKED
German soldiers march to war with young woman, 1914
VIII. Staring into the abyss

IN 1910 A JOURNALIST NAMED NORMAN ANGELL - WROTE A BOOK
CALLED THE GREAT ILLUSION - IN WHICH HE DESCRIBED A WORLD
THAT WAS MORE INTERCONNECTED THAN AT ANY PREVIOUS TIME IN
HUMAN HISTORY
ANGELL WAS NOT PREDICTING THE WORLD YOU & I LIVE IN … HE WAS
TALKING ABOUT THE HIS OWN WORLD … & THE FACT IS THAT, WHILE THOSE
CONNECTIONS MAY SEEM PRIMITIVE BY OUR STANDARDS, BY THE EARLY
1900s WHAT WE CALL GLOBALIZATION WAS A FACT OF LIFE, ESPECIALLY
WHEN IT CAME TO INTERNATIONAL TRADE & FINANCE
ANGELL ARGUED THAT THIS ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE MADE ANY
FUTURE WAR BETWEEN THE WORLD’S LEADING POWERS UNLIKELY … SUCH
A WAR WOULD BE COUNTER-PRODUCTIVE SINCE IT WOULD DESTROY
THIS PROSPERITY ENJOYED BY SO MANY PEOPLE IN SO MANY PLACES

ANGELL’S BOOK WAS HUGELY POPULAR & BECAUSE MORE PEOPLE TALKED
ABOUT IT - THAN ACTUALLY READ IT - THE IDEA SPREAD THAT ANGELL
WAS PREDICTING THAT WAR ITSELF WAS NO LONGER POSSIBLE
THIS IS A GOOD LESSON ON WHAT IS CALLED THE HERD MENTALITY
WHICH HAPPENS ALL THE TIME
YOU MAY BE TOO YOUNG TO RECALL THAT IN 2006, FINANCIAL ANALYSTS &
PROPERTY DEVELOPERS CLAIMED THAT HOUSE PRICES CAN NEVER DROP
WELL, WE KNOW HOW THAT TURNED OUT … WITHIN A SHORT TIME, THAT’S
EXACTLY WHAT HAPPENED, & THE RESULT WAS ONE OF THE WORST
ECONOMIC COLLAPSES IN MODERN TIMES
WHENEVER YOU’RE TOLD SOMETHING CAN’T HAPPEN ...
IT USUALLY WILL
IN THE CASE OF ANGELL’S PREDICTION, JUST 4 YEARS AFTER HIS BOOK WAS
PUBLISHED THE MAJOR POWERS MARCHED OFF TO WAR- AS YOU SEE
WITH THESE YOUNG GERMANS WHO WERE YOUR AGE WHEN THIS PHOTO
WAS TAKEN IN 1914
IN FACT THAT INTER-CONNECTED WORLD DESCRIBED BY ANGELL WAS A
LOT SHAKIER THAN HE & OTHERS REALIZED … THERE WERE HUGE
FISSURES OR CRACKS, IF YOU PREFER - JUST BENEATH THE SURFACE
IN MANY SOCIETIES & WHILE THERE’S NO TIME TO TALK ABOUT ALL OF
THEM THERE ARE TWO THAT SHOULD BE MENTIONED HERE
Factory workers, circa 1900
THE 1ST OF THESE FISSURES REVOLVED AROUND THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION WHICH, OF COURSE, WAS STILL TAKING PLACE … ALTHOUGH
INDUSTRIALIZATION WAS STILL CONCENTRATED IN EUROPE, ITS
CENTER OF GRAVITY HAD ALREADY CROSSED THE ATLANTIC

IN 1880 – GREAT BRITAIN WAS STILL THE WORLD’S LEADING
INDUSTRIAL POWER … BY 1900, THAT DISTINCTION BELONGED TO THE
UNITED STATES
BY 1913 - THE LAST FULL YEAR OF PEACE - THE AMERICANS HAD FAR
OUTSTRIPPED THE BRITISH & THEIR NEXT CLOSEST COMPETITOR, THE
GERMANS ... BRITAIN WAS STILL THE WORLD’S NUMBER 1 ECONOMIC
POWER ... IT WAS THE WORLD’S SHIPPER, THE WORLD’S INSURER, THE
WORLD’S BANKER ... IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY, THE CURRENCY OF
INTERNATIONAL TRADE WAS NOT THE US DOLLAR - IT WAS THE
BRITISH POUND
I TELL YOU ALL OF THIS TO HELP YOU UNDERSTAND LATER WHY THE FIRST
WORLD WAR WAS SUCH AN EARTH-SHATTERING EVENT
IN ALL OF THESE INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES, HOWEVER, THE BURDEN OF

THESE CHANGES FELL ON THE THOSE WHO WORKED IN THE FACTORIES …
MEN, WOMEN &, AS YOU CAN SEE IN THIS PHOTO – CHILDREN
AT THE START OF THE 20TH CENTURY, CHILDREN WORKED IN SOME OF THE
WORLD’S MOST DANGEROUS PLACES, NOT LEAST, IN COAL MINING
Child coal mine workers
ENDING CHILD LABOR WAS ONE OF THE CHIEF DEMANDS OF A GROWING
LABOR MOVEMENT THAT COULD BE FOUND THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
AS YOU MIGHT IMAGINE, THE DEMAND TO END CHILDL LABOR, & FOR
BETTER WORKING CONDITIONS GENERALLY, WAS MET WITH FIERCE
RESISTANCE BY BUSINESS OWNERS — & BY THEIR ALLIES IN GOVERNEMENTS
WHO, FOR MANY YEARS, OUTLAWED EVEN BELONGING TO A LABOR UNION

OR, AS THEY’RE ALSO CALLED, TRADES UNIONS – IT’S THE SAME THING
British Labour Party poster
AS A RESULT, IN SOME COUNTRIES WORKERS CREATED THEIR OWN
POLITICAL PARTIES, SOME THAT ARE STILL A MAJOR FORCE IN THEIR
NATIONS TO THIS DAY — SUCH AS GERMANY’S SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
PARTY (OR SPD, TO GIVE IT ITS GERMN ACRYONYM: Sozialdemokratische
Partei Deutschlands) ... & IN GREAT BRITAIN, THE LABOUR PARTY
EVEN SO, BY THE EVE OF WORLD WAR I THERE WAS A GROWING MILITANCY
IN MANY OF THESE MOVEMENTS AS THEIR DEMANDS WENT UNMET – & AS
VIOLENCE ON BOTH SIDES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN EMPLOYERS &
WORKERS INCREASED
Immigrants, Ellis Island
AT THE SAME TIME, IT SEEMED AS IF MUCH OF THE WORLD WAS ON THE

MOVE … THERE WAS A FLOOD OF EMIGRATION FROM MANY COUNTRIES
ESPECIALLY FROM EUROPE BETWEEN 1865 & 1914
AMERCIANS TEND TO THINK THAT THE IMMIGRATION STORY SOLELY
INVOLVES THE UNITED STATES — THAT’S NOT TRUE … LARGE NUMBERS OF
ITALIANS, FOR EXAMPLE, EMIGRATED TO ARGENTINA
AT THE SAME TIME, LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE FROM THE BRITISH ISLES
EMIGRATED TO AUSTALIA
Photo – family at Ellis Island
THIS PHOTO – TAKEN AT NEW YORK’S ELLIS ISLAND — IS THE IMAGE MOST
AMERICANS HAVE OF IMMIGRATION AT THAT TIME … i.e., IMMIGRANT
COMING TO THE UNITED STATES MAINLY FROM EUROPE … THAT’S TRUE
WHEN YOU’RE TALKING ABOUT ABSOLUTE NUMBERS … BUT IT’S ALSO
TRUE THAT IMMIGRANTS WERE COMING TO THE UNITED STATES FROM
AROUND WORLD EVEN THEN, AS THESE PHOTOS, ALSO TAKEN AT ELLIS

ISLAND DEMONSTRATE
Ellis Island – 4 immigrants photos
NOR WERE IMMIGRANTS — WHEREVER THEY CAME FROM — USUALLY
WELCOMED IN THEIR NEW HOMELANDS
Anti-immigrant cartoon
FAR FROM IT … WE TEND TO THINK THAT THE CONTROVERSY OVER
IMMIGRATION IS A NEW PHENOMENON … AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS
CARTOON, PUBLISHED IN 1896, THAT WAS FAR FROM THE CASE
“Little Italy”, New York City
STICKING WITH THE UNITED STATES FOR A MOMENT, SO MANY OF THESE
IMMIGRANTS CAME TO THE UNITED STATES THAT BY 1910 - FULLY 1/3RD
OF THE POPULATIONS OF AMERICA’S 8 LARGEST CITIES WERE

FOREIGN BORN ... MANY IMMIGRANTS SETTLED IN ETHNIC
NEIGHBORHOODS OR, AS THEY SOON BECAME KNOWN – GHETTOS
GHETTO IS AN ITALIAN WORD FOR ANY NEIGHBORHOOD WHERE
PEOPLE OF SAME BACKGROUND LIVE LIKE THIS ONE IN NEW YORK
ALL OF THESE NEW IMMIGRANTS - LIKE THOSE WHO CAME EARLIER –
SUFFERED THE SAME SORT OF DISCRIMINATION NOT LEAST BECAUSE OF
THEIR RELIGIOUS BELIEFS - & BECAUSE THEY CAME FROM DIFFERENT
CULTURES
IMMIGRANTS WERE TOLERATED - IF NOT ACCEPTED - FOR 1 SIMPLE
REASON - THE UNITED STATES NEEDED HUGE NUMBERS OF WORKERS
AS THE COUNTRY WENT THROUGH THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
THOUGH SOMETIMES EVEN THAT WASN’T ENOUGH … IMMIGRANT
COMMUNITIES IN MANY COUNTRIES WERE SUBJECTED TO SPASMS OF

VIOLENCE … THIS IS A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN IN NEW ORLEANS IN 1891
THE MOB SHOWN HERE IS ABOUT TO LYNCH – THAT IS HANG
11 ITALIAN IMMIGRANTS WHO WERE – FALSELY — ACCUSED OF
KILLING A LOCAL POLICE CHIEF

Lynching of Italians in New Orleans
EVEN THIS ISN’T THE WORST SUCH INCIDENT IN THE UNITED STATES 20
YEARS EARLIER – IN 1871 – BETWEEN 17 & 20 CHINESE MEN & BOYS
WERE LYNCHED IN LOS ANGELES
Chinese immigrant workers
ASIAN IMMIGRANTS WERE HORRIBLY TREATED IN MANY PARTS OF THE
WORLD … IN THE UNITED STATES, AS EARLY AS 1882 CALIFORNIA BECAME
THE FIRST STATE TO BAN CHINESE IMMIGRATION ENTIRELY
Suffragette magazine
IX. Suffragists & Suffragettes
THESE FAULT LINES — OVER WORKERS’ RIGHTS &, RELATED TO IT, THE ISSUE
OF IMMIGRATION — WERE ACCOMPANIED IN MANY PLACES BY A GROWING
DEMAND FROM A VERY DIFFERENT DIRECTION – NAMELY, THE DEMAND FOR
FOR EQUAL RIGHTS FOR WOMEN ... IN THE LONG HISTORY OF THE
HUMAN RACE, THE ACHIEVEMENT OF EQUALITY BETWEEN THE SEXES
IN THE 20TH & NOW THE 21ST CENTURY HAS BEEN REMARKABLE ... IF
STILL INCOMPLETE
SINCE WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES GAINED THE RIGHT TO VOTE ONLY
A HUNDRED YEARS AGO – IN 1920 – IT’S WORTH SAYING A FEW WORDS
IN PARTICULAR ABOUT THIS SUBJECT
IN ITS MODERN FORM - THE WOMEN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT - THAT IS,

THE DEMAND FOR EQUAL CITIZENSHIP - THE RIGHT TO VOTE - CAN BE
TRACED TO THE CAMPAIGNS OF THE NON-VIOLENT SUFFRAGISTS &
THEIR MORE RADICAL SISTERS THE SUFFRAGETTES
ALTHOUGH YOUR BOOK DOESN’T SAY SO, THE 1ST ATTEMPT TO WIN EQUAL
RIGHTS FOR WOMEN - SPECIFICALLY, THE RIGHT TO VOTE - OCCURRED IN
1867 - WHEN THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT DEBATED THE IDEA ... THOUGH
THE IDEA WAS REJECTED ... WOMEN WERE GRANTED THE RIGHT TO VOTE
FOR & SERVE ON LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS IN THE 1880s
MEANTIME, WHILE SEVERAL STATES IN THE AMERICAN WEST ALSO
EXTENDED THE FRANCHISE TO WOMEN IN THE LATE 1800s ... WYOMING
WAS THE 1ST TO DO SO IN 1869
ON A NATIONAL LEVEL - WOMEN IN NEW ZEALAND WON THE RIGHT TO
VOTE IN 1893 - AUSTRALIA FOLLOWED SUIT IN 1902

HOWEVER - THE FOCAL POINT FOR THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT CONTINUED
TO BE BRITAIN - IN PART, BECAUSE IT WAS STILL THE WORLD’S LEADING
POWER ... IN 1897 BOTH BRITISH MEN & WOMEN FORMED THE NATIONAL
UNION OF WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE SOCIETIES - THE SUFFRAGISTS
AS THEY WERE KNOWN - WHO USED LAW-ABIDING - & NON-VIOLENT -
TACTICS TO GAIN WOMEN THE RIGHT TO VOTE ... IN THE EYES OF THEIR
CRITICS THEY WERE ALSO TOTALLY INEFFECTIVE

Pankhurst photos
AND - SO TO THE PANKHURSTS - EMMELINE - & HER DAUGHTERS,
CHRISTABEL & SYLVIA ... THE PANKHURSTS THEY & THEIR FOLLOWERS -
KNOWN AS THE SUFFRAGETTES - ADOPTED A CONFRONTATIONAL
APPROACH - THAT IS VIOLENT PROTEST
THEIR TACTICS RANGED FROM HECKLING POLITICIANS AT PUBLIC

MEETINGS & IN PARLIAMENT - ONE OF THEIR FAVORITE TACTICS WAS
DUMPING FLOUR FROM THE GALLERY OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS
ONTO THE HEADS OF UNSUSPECTING MPs ...
TO WINDOW-SMASHING - TO ARSON - BURNING HOMES AS WELL AS
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
THESE TACTICS WERE TAKEN UP BY SUFFRAGETTES IN OTHER
COUNTRIES - INCLUDING HERE IN THE UNITED STATES
THE SUFFRAGETTES’ VIOLENCE ITSELF INSPIRED A BACKLASH ... MOBS
OF ANGRY MEN PELTED SUFFRAGETTES WITH EGGS & ROTTEN TOMATOES AT
RALLIES ... OTHER MOBS ATTACKED THEIR OFFICES - INCLUDING THE
OFFICES OF THE NON-VIOLENT SUFFRAGISTS ... SO FAR AS THEIR
OPPONENTS WERE CONCERNED THE WOMEN’S GROUPS WERE ALL TARRED
WITH THE SAME BRUSH - & THESE WERE THE UNOFFICIAL ASSAULTS
AS THE SUFFRAGETTES BECAME MORE EXTREME - SO DID THE RESPONSE
OF GOVERNMENT & OF LAW ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITIES - STARTING
WITH POLICE BRUTALITY AT SUFFRAGETTE DEMONSTRATIONS
THE SITUATION WAS WORSE, STILL, WHEN SUFFRAGETTES IN PRISON
DEMANDED - & WERE DENIED - POLITICAL PRISONER STATUS ... THE
WOMEN WENT ON HUNGER-STRIKE ... THE GOVERNMENT RESPONDED
WITH THE FORCED-FEEDING OF THE HUNGER-STRIKERS - WHICH ITSELF
BECAME A METHOD OF PUNISHMENT THE FEEDING TUBE BEING THE
INSTRUMENT TO INFLICT THE PAIN

Forced feeding poster
THIS SAME TREATMENT WAS ALSO BEING USED AGAINST AMERICAN WOMEN
IN THEIR CAMPAIGN FOR THE RIGHT TO VOTE

IN BRITAIN, THE GOVERNMENT’S REFUSAL TO TAKE THE WOMEN’S
MOVEMENT SERIOUSLY LED TO WHAT WAS PERHAPS THE MOST
DRAMATIC EPISODE OF PRE-WAR BRITAIN ... THE INCIDENT OCCURRED
ON THE 4TH OF JUNE 1913 ON DERBY DAY –THE NATION’S
PREMIERE HORSE RACE
LET ME SHOW YOU WHAT AUDIENCES AROUND BRITAIN - INDEED AROUND
THE WORLD SAW - IN THE WEEKS FOLLOWING THIS INCIDENT BECAUSE –
INCREDIBLY - IT WAS CAUGHT ON FILM
Watch segment from The Great War, Episode 1,

START: 17.36 minute mark – END: 21.12 minute mark
THE FILM OF A YOUNG MEMBER OF THE WSPU - EMILY DAVISON -

STEPPING IN FRONT OF THE KING’S HORSE AS IT CAME ROUND THE BEND
DURING THIS FAMOUS RACE - WAS UNLIKE ANYTHING CINEMA GOERS
HAD SEEN YET THANKS TO THIS NEW MEDIUM OF FILM ... AS YOU SAW,
DAVISON BROUGHT DOWN THE JOCKEY ... IN THE PROCESS, SHE KILLED
HERSELF &, ULTIMATELY, THE HORSE
I DON’T KNOW IF YOU NOTICED BUT, IN THE BRIEF CLIP OF DAVISON’S
FUNERAL, THE SUFFRAGETTE MOURNERS SALUTED HER COFFIN - AS IF
THEY WERE TAKING PART IN A MILITARY FUNERAL
1THAT’S THE LAST POINT I WANT TO MAKE HERE ... WHETHER IT WAS
WOMEN’S RIGHTS, OR WORKERS’ RIGHTS, OR A NUMBER OF OTHER CAUSES
AROUND THE WORLD - THERE WAS A GROWING MILITANCY - INDEED A
GROWN MILITARIZATION OF POLITICS

BY AUGUST 1914 OVER 1,000 BRITISH SUFFRAGETTES WERE IN PRISON...
WITH THEIR CAUSE SEEMINGLY NO CLOSER TO BEING WON
Women workers, Woolwich Arsenal
FAR MORE THAN ANY PROTEST - THE WAR ITSELF PROVED TO BE THE
TURNING POINT IN THE CAMPAIGN FOR WOMEN’S RIGHTS ... BETWEEN
1914 & 1918 WOMEN PLAYED A CRUCIAL ROLE IN THE WAR EFFORTS
OF ALL THE NATIONS INVOLVED IN THE CONFLICT
EVEN BEFORE THE WAR ENDED - WOMEN WON THE RIGHT TO VOTE IN
RUSSIA IN 1917 … WOMEN IN BRITAIN, GERMANY, AUSTRIA & THE
UNITED STATES WON THIS RIGHT ONLY AFTER THE WAR WAS OVER
& IN BRITAIN, THE VICTORY WAS A QUALIFIED ONE

EARLY IN 1918 - BRITAIN’S GOVERNMENT FINALLY CONCEDED TO WOMEN
THE RIGHT TO VOTE IN PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS ... & TO HOLD SEATS IN
THE COMMONS ... BUT - EVEN THEN - WOMEN WERE DENIED FULL
EQUALITY WITH MEN
WHILE THE 1918 REFORM FINALLY GAVE THE RIGHT TO VOTE TO ALL MEN
21 YEARS OF AGE & OLDER ... THE FRANCHISE WAS EXTENDED
ONLY TO WOMEN 30 YEARS OF AGE & OLDER ... & - AN ADDED CATCH -
THESE WOMEN EITHER HAD TO OWN PROPERTY THEMSELVES - OR BE
MARRIED TO A MAN WHO WAS A HOMEOWNER
ANOTHER DECADE WOULD ELAPSE BEFORE THESE RESTRICTIONS WERE
REMOVED & BRITISH WOMEN ACHIEVED FULL VOTING EQUALITY WITH
MEN IN 1928
OTHER COUNTRIES – NOTABLY FRANCE & ITALY – CONTINTUED TO

HOLD OUT - WOMEN THERE DID NOT WIN THE RIGHT TO VOTE THE END
OF WORLD WAR II
ELSEWHERE, WOMEN DID NOT WIN THE RIGHT TO VOTE UNTIL 1947 IN
COUNTRIES SUCH AS MEXICO, JAPAN, ARGENTINA, & PAKISTON – INDIA
FOLLOWED IN 1950 ... CHINA EXTENDE THE RIGHT A YEAR EARLIER, IN 1949
IN YOUR OWN LIFETIMES, WOMEN IN KUWAIT (2005), THE UNITED ARAB
EMIRATES (2006) & SAUDI ARABIA (2015) GAINED THE RIGHT TO VOTE ONLY
IN THE PAST 15 YEARS … & IN OTHER PLACES, WHILE THE RIGHT EXISTS,
WOMEN ARE DISCOURAGED FROM VOTING - SO, THIS STRUGGLE IS FAR
FROM OVER
I. The Great War

II. “Mass consumption warfare”
III. “Home fronts”
IV. War around the world
V. The 11th hour, of the 11th day, of the 11th month ...
VI. Bitter harvest
VII. Return to the Hall of Mirrors
Illustrations, maps, photos
1. British slit trench - the Somme

2. German soldiers march to war
3. French North African soldiers
4. European alliance map -1914
5. Franz & Sophie Ferdinand photo
6. Maps of the Balkans
7. Woodrow Wilson photo
8. Wilhelm II photo
9. German soldiers march to war with young woman, 1914
10. Kitchener poster; Kitchener/Uncle Sam posters
11. Other recruiting posters (3) & Argonne 1918 photo
12. Somme trench photo
13. Western Front map
14. Map & Italian soldiers in the Alps; photo - Isonzo River valley
15. Ernest Hemingway photos (2)
16. Map of Europe - Eastern Front
17. Nicholas II as army commander; Russian soldiers (2)
18. Austria-Hungary map
19. Women munitions workers
20. Falkenhayn photo
21. Western Front map - Verdun
22. Pétain magazine photo
23. Pals Battalions posters
24. Australian soldiers, Western Front
25. Stretcher bearers knee-deep in mud
26. Vietnam Memorial - Thiepval Memorial photos
27. Gertrude Stein/Hemingway photos
28. Japanese soldiers
29. German East African soldiers
30. T E Lawrence photo; Lawrence Mideast map
31. AJ Balfour photo; post-WWI Mideast map
32. Armenian massacre photos; Hitler photo
33. Woodrow Wilson photo
34. 100 % Americanism poster - Dachshund
35. Robert Paul Prager & his murderers
36. British anti-German hysteria photos
37. U-boat photo
38. Zimmerman telegram map & cartoons
39. Great Migration map
40. Black American soldiers photo
41. 4 soldiers photo
42. H.G. Wells photo; book covers
43. Spanish flu photos
44. Lloyd George, Clemenceau, Wilson photos; together & individually
45. Ho Chi Minh (2 photos)
46. Versailles & China maps & photos
47. Franz Ferdinand & Sophie, 1914
48. Versailles photo & paintings
49. Post-World War I maps (2)
50. Warren Harding
51. Peace Treaty celebration photo
52 Peace Treaty illustration
Film clips
1. Great War, “Explosion”, part 1: Assassins - Begin 39.40 minute mark; end 43.14
minute mark; 3.37 minutes
2. Gwynne Dyer’s War, Episode 1, “The Road to Total War” - Begin 14.17 minute mark;
end 21.56 minute mark; 7.38 minutes https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=tPnppCelvk0&list=PLR8X5I0C1LF5kaxAE2z_pPy6RMSr89tBx
3. Gwynne Dyer’s War, Episode 1, “The Road to Total War” – Begin 21.56 minute mark;
British slit trench - the Somme
I. The Great War
BETWEEN 1914 & 1918 THE MAJOR POWERS OF THE WAGED A WAR UNLIKE
ANY EVER WITNESSED BEFORE IN HUMAN HISTORY
SOME HISTORIANS HAVE GONE SO FAR AS TO SAY THAT THE 20TH CENTURY
BEGAN WITH THIS CONFLICT - THE FIRST WORLD WAR
THIS WAR WAS THE SINGLE MOST IMPORTANT EVENT IN WESTERN
CIVILIZATION SINCE THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ... THE HISTORIAN
JOHN KEEGAN {The First World War, 8} PUTS IT THIS WAY - THE 1ST WORLD
WAR DELIVERED A BODY BLOW TO THE RATIONAL, LLIBERAL
CIVILIZATION BORN IN THE EUROPEAN ENLIGHTENMENT, WHICH -
FALL ITS FAULTS - WAS NOT AS VIOLENT, NEVER MIND AS CRUEL AS THE
TOTALITARIAN REGIMES THAT REPLACED IT IN THE 1920s & 30s
THE AMERICAN DIPLOMAT GEORGE KENNAN PUT IT THIS WAY ... THE 1ST
WORLD WAR - HE ONCE SAID - WAS THE “SEMINAL* CATASTROPHE
OF THE 20TH CENTURY” ... IN FACT, BECAUSE OF THIS WAR -FOR MUCH OF
THE 20TH CENTURY LIBERAL DEMOCRACY WAS ON THE DEFENSIVE - &
IT WAS ONLY MUCH LATER THAT THE MORE DYNAMIC IDEOLOGIES -
FASCISM & SOVIET-STYLE COMMUNISM - WENT INTO RETREAT
{*Seminal: original or formative}

HOWEVER YOU VIEW THE 1ST WORLD WAR - OR, INDEED, THE WHOLE
PERIOD FROM 1914 TO 1945 - THERE IS NO DENYING THAT THE MEN &
WOMEN WHO LIVED THROUGH THOSE 3 DECADES EXPERIENCED ONE OF
THE MOST DECISIVE PERIODS OF HUMAN HISTORY & THE 1ST WORLD
WAR ITSELF WAS THE FORMATIVE EXPERIENCE OF THE 20TH CENTURY
German mother & soldiers, 1914
ALTHOUGH IT COMES VERY CLOSE TO OVER-SIMPLIFYING, IT’S GENERALLY
AGREED THAT ROUGHLY 4 FACTORS BROUGHT ABOUT THE WAR IN 1914
1ST - NATIONALISM - i.e., PRIDE IN YOUR NATION-STATE & - CLOSELY
TIED TO THAT - THE DETERMINATION TO SEE THAT YOUR NATION’S
INTERESTS WERE PROTECTED - &, INDEED, RESPECTED BY OTHERS
IN THE LATE 1800s & EARLY 1900s - THIS RISE OF NATIONALISM WAS AIDED
BY MASS-CIRCULATION NEWSPAPERS SPECIALIZING IN LURID
STORIES THAT INFLAMED PUBLIC OPINION AGAINST PERCEIVED
ENEMIES - e.g. - INVASION SCARE STORIES OF EVIL GERMANS STORMING
BRITISH BEACHES BECAME A STAPLE OF THAT COUNTRY’S NEWSPAPERS
THE PROBLEM WITH INFLAMING PUBLIC OPINION IS THAT WHEN A REAL
CRISIS OCCURRED IN THE SUMMER OF 1914 - IT BECAME DIFFICULT FOR THE
LEADERS OF THESE EUROPEAN POWERS TO BACK DOWN ... EVEN WHEN
BACKING OFF WAS IN THE COUNTRY'S BEST INTEREST
French North African soldiers
A RELATED - 2ND CAUSE - WAS IMPERIALISM ... THE CONTEST FOR EMPIRE
HAD INCREASED FRICTION BETWEEN THE EUROPEAN POWERS ... IT ALSO
MEANT THEY COULD RELY ON THE MANPOWER OF THESE EMPIRES - AS YOU
CAN SEE FROM THIS PHOTO OF SOLDIERS FROM FRENCH NORTH AFRICA
A 3RD CAUSE OF THE WAR WAS MILITARISM – THAT IS, THE BUILD UP
OF ARMIES - & IN THE CASE OF BRITAIN & GERMANY - AN EARLIER
NAVAL ARMS RACE - THAT ALSO INCREASED TENSIONS
European alliance map -1914
FINALLY, RELATED TO MILITARISM WAS THE 4TH CAUSE OF THE WAR - AN
AN ALLIANCE SYSTEM THAT HAD DIVIDED EUROPE INTO 2 ARMED
CAMPS - WITH RUSSIA, FRANCE & Gt. BRITAIN ON ONE SIDE ... & ON
THE OTHER GERMANY AUSTRIA-HUNGARY & ITALY ... ALTHOUGH
WHEN THE CRUNCH CAME IN 1914 ITALY STAYED NEUTRAL
THE ITALIANS EVENTUALLY JOINED THE WAR IN 1915 - BUT ON THE
SIDE OF THE BRITISH, FRENCH, & THE RUSSIANS ... BEFORE THAT
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE JOINED THE GERMANS & THE AUSTRIANS

BECAUSE THIS 2ND COALITION WAS AT THE CENTER OF EUROPE, THEY
BECAME KNOWN AS THE CENTRAL POWERS ... WHILE THEIR OPPONENTS -
THE BRITISH, FRENCH, RUSSIANS, ITALIANS, & OTHERS INCLUDING - LATER -
THE UNITED STATES - BECAME KNOWN AS THE ALLIES

IT’S BECOME A CLICHE - BUT IT IS NONETHELESS TRUE THAT BY THE EARLY
1900s EUROPE WAS A POWDERKEG - JUST WAITING TO GO OFF ... & IT WAS
SET OFF - IN THE SUMMER OF 1914
Franz & Sophie Ferdinand photo
THE 20TH CENTURY - THE CENTURY IN WHICH SOME OF YOU WERE
BORN - BEGAN WITH A MURDER
IN JUNE OF 1914 THE HEIR TO THE CROWN OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY - THE
ARCHDUKE, FRANZ FERDINAND & HIS WIFE, SOPHIE, VISITED
OF SARAJEVO - A CITY IN THE BALKANS - SPECIFICALLY IN A
PROVINCE THAT WAS CLAIMED BY MORE THAN ONE NATION - BOSNIA

Maps of the Balkans (2)
IN 1914 - BOSNIA WAS CLAIMED BY BOTH SERBIA & AUSTRIA HUNGARY
THIS PART OF EUROPE IS AN EXTRAORDINARILY COMPLEX MIX OF
DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS & ETHNIC GROUPS ... MOST SERBS, FOR INSTANCE
SLAVS ... MOST RUSSIANS ARE ALSO SLAVS - & RUSSIA HAD
PROCLAIMED ITSELF THE PROTECTOR OF ALL SLAVIC PEOPLES - & THAT
WAS A PROBLEM BECAUSE IT PUT RUSSIA & AUSTRIA ON A COLLUSION
COURSE IF A CRISIS ERUPTED OVER BOSNIA
RATHER THAN SAY ANYMORE LET ME SHOW YOU THIS VERY BRIEF CLIP
View Great War, “Explosion”, part 1: Assassins - Begin 39.40 minute mark; end 43.14
minute mark; 3.37 minutes
I SHOWED THAT CLIP MAINLY FOR THE MAP AT THE VERY END BECAUSE IT
DEMONSTRATES - I THINK - HOW QUICKLY EUROPE - & EVENTUALLY THE
ENTIRE WORLD SLID INTO WAR

THE CRISIS THAT WAS SET OFF BY THE MURDER OF FRANZ FERDINAND
& HIS WIFE MIGHT NOT HAVE LED TO A WORLD WAR BUT FOR THE
ALLIANCE SYSTEM ... AS THAT PROGRAM GRAPHICALLY SHOWED
ONCE AUSTRIA ATTACKED SERBIA
RUSSIA WAS DRAWN INTO THE WAR ...
IF RUSSIA WAS DRAWN INTO THE WAR ...
GERMANY WOULD BE DRAWN INTO THE WAR ... &
IF GERMANY WAS DRAWN INTO THE WAR ... THEN FRANCE
WOULD BE PULLED INTO THE WAR ...
& IF FRANCE WAS PULLED INTO THE WAR ...
THAT MEANT Gt. BRITAIN WOULD BE PULLED INTO THE WAR, TOO
AND THAT'S EXACTLY WHAT HAPPENED

IN A MATTER OF WEEKS - MOST OF EUROPE WAS AT WAR
SO MUCH FOR BEST LAID PLANS & ALL THAT ... I TELL YOU ALL OF THIS
TO SHOW HOW WARS CAN EASILY GET OUT OF HAND ... BEYOND
THAT - BECAUSE THESE EUROPEAN POWERS WERE ALSO IMPERIAL
POWERS - THIS EUROPEAN WAR WAS BOUND TO BE A WORLD WAR
THERE WAS - HOWEVER - AN EXCEPTION ... THE UNITED STATES -
AS YOU CAN READILY SEE - WAS ON NEITHER SIDE
AS SOON AS THE WAR BROKE OUT, THE PRESIDENT - WOODROW
WILSON - DECLARED THAT HIS COUNTRY WOULD BE NEUTRAL - &
MOST AMERICANS WANTED IT TO STAY THAT WAY
THAT MIGHT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE HAD THE WAR GONE AS EVERYONE
EXPECTED ... THIS WAS SUPPOSED TO BE A BRIEF WAR - A QUICK WAR
A WAR OF GRAND, SWEEPING CAMPAIGNS & A FEW DECISIVE BATTLES
TOPPED OFF BY DRAMATIC CAVALRY CHARGES ... OR SO PEOPLE WERE
LED TO BELIEVE ... POLITICIANS & GENERALS ALIKE PROMISED THAT
THE WAR - WHICH BEGAN IN LATE JULY 1914 WOULD BE OVER BY
CHRISTMAS
Wilhelm II photo
THE GERMAN EMPEROR - THE KAISER - REMEMBER HIM? - FAMOUSLY
TOLD HIS SOLDIERS AS THEY MARCHED OFF TO BATTLE THAT THEY WOULD
BE HOME BEFORE THE LEAVES FELL
German soldiers march to war with young woman
AND WILHELM II WAS RIGHT ... THE WAR DID END IN THE AUTUMN ... BUT IT
DID SO 4 YEARS LATER - & BEFORE THE LAST SHOT WAS FIRED, OVER 8
MILLION YOUNG MEN WHO MARCHED OFF TO WAR WOULD BE DEAD

II. “Mass consumption warfare”
AS JAY WYNTER - ONE OF THE COMMENTATORS IN THAT FILM CLIP
POINTED OUT - BOTH SIDES WERE PREPARED FOR A SHORT, SHARP WAR
WHAT NO ONE WAS PREPARED FOR WAS THE 20TH CENTURY ...
SPECIFICALLY - THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE 20TH CENTURY ... THE
MACHINE GUN - BARBED WIRE - &, LATER, POISON GAS - AIRPLANES
SUBMARINES - THOSE WERE JUST SOME OF THE WEAPONS THAT WERE
DEVELOPED OR INVENTED BETWEEN 1914 & 1918
AS ANOTHER HISTORIAN HAS POINTED OUT ... MASS CONSUMPTION,
INDUSTRIALIZED SOCIETIES PRODUCE MASS-CONSUMPTION,
INDUSTRIALIZED WARS - & WHAT WARS CONSUME ARE PEOPLE
{Source: Gwynne Dyer, War: A Commentary}
Kitchener poster
EVEN BEFORE 1914 - MOST OF THE MAJOR POWERS HAD SOME FORM OF
MILITARY CONSCRIPTION - i.e., THE DRAFT
EVEN SO - ALL OF THEM LAUNCHED CAMPAIGNS TO INDUCE YOUNG MEN
TO JOIN THE MILITARY BEFORE THEY WERE CALLED UP - ESPECIALLY IN
GREAT BRITAIN - THE ONE MAJOR EUROPEAN POWER THAT BEGAN THE
WAR WITHOUT THE MILITARY DRAFT ... THE SAME WAS TRUE OF THE
UNITED STATES WHEN IT JOINED THE WAR IN 1917
THESE RECRUITING DRIVES LED TO THE CREATION OF SEVERAL ICONIC
IMAGES OF THE 20TH CENTURY - THIS BEING ONE OF THEM
IF THE STYLE - IF NOT THE FACE - LOOKS FAMILIAR - IT SHOULD ... 3 YEARS
AFTER THE KITCHENER POSTER 1ST APPEARED - JAMES MONTGOMERY
FLAGG APPROPRIATED THE IDEA FOR HIS FAMOUS POSTER OF UNCLE SAM
Kitchener/Uncle Sam posters
IF KITCHENER WASN’T ENOUGH TO MAKE YOU WANT TO FIGHT FOR KING &
COUNTRY ... PERHAPS AN APPEAL FROM THE WOMEN OF BRITAIN
WOULD WORK ...

“Will you go, or must I?” & “Women of Britain” posters
OR, MAYBE THE IDEA OF BEING CONFRONTED WITH THIS QUESTION WOULD
BE ENOUGH TO SEND YOU OFF TO WAR
“Daddy, what did you do in the Gt War” poster
OF COURSE - IF DADDY DID GO OFF TO WAR, THERE WAS A GOOD CHANCE HE
MIGHT END UP LIKE THIS ALL TOO OFTEN THIS IS HOW DADDY ENDED UP
Argonne, 1918 skeleton photo
BECAUSE OF THE UNIMAGINABLE DEATH TOLL OF THESE BATTLES, BOTH

BOTH THE BRITISH & THE AMERICANS ABANDONED THEIR OPPOSITION &
INSTITUTED CONSCRIPTION - THE BRITISH IN 1916, THE AMERICANS
AS SOON AS THEY ENTERED THE WAR IN 1917
Somme trench photo
THIS HELPS EXPLAIN WHAT BECAME THE LASTING SYMBOL OF WORLD
WAR I - THE TRENCH ... NO ONE PLANNED FOR TRENCH WARFARE
IT DEVELOPED QUITE SIMPLY BECAUSE THE SOLDIERS ON BOTH SIDES
DUG INTO THE EARTH TO PROTECT THEMSELVES FROM THE BULLETS &
BOMBS RAINING DOWN ON THEM
CONDITIONS IN THESE TRENCHES WERE HORRIBLE ... THEY WERE
BLAZENLY HOT IN THE SUMMER & BITTERLY COLD IN WINTER
WHEN IT RAINED - SOLDIERS WOULD FIND THEMSELVES ANKLE- OR
EVEN KNEE-DEEP IN WATER & MUD

Western Front map
WITH THE COMBINATION OF UNBURIED BODIES LYING AROUND AS
WELL AS HUMAN EXCREMENT & ROTTEN FOOD - THE MEN WHO
EXPERIENCE LIFE IN THESE TRENCHES SAID THE SMELL - THE STENCH -
WAS UNBELIEVABLE
PERHAPS WORST OF ALL IN THE TRENCHES WAS THE CONSTANT PRESENCE
OF BOLD, WELL-FED RATS - WHICH WERE EVERYWHERE ... AS WELL AS
SMELLING THESE ROTTING, UNBURIED CORPSES SOLDIERS OFTEN SAW -
TO QUOTE ONE, OLD VETERAN - “RATS - GORGING ON HUMAN FLESH”
TRY TO IMAGINE THAT
Great War Europe map
EVEN AFTER THE TRENCH SYSTEM WAS IN PLACE ALONG WHAT WAS KNOWN
AS THE WESTERN FRONT IN FRANCE & BELGIUM ... THE GENERALS
ON BOTH SIDES - STILL PLANNED FOR A WAR OF MOVEMENT ... MAJOR
ATTACKS OFTEN CALLED THE BIG PUSH ... THE PROBLEM WAS THAT THE
GENERALS HAD BEEN TRAINED IN 19TH CENTURY TACTICS - BUT THEIR
SOLDIERS WERE USING 20TH CENTURY WEAPONS
Italian soldiers in the Alps
FOR THOSE ON THE ITALIAN FRONT - ALL OF THE PROBLEMS
EXPERIENCED BY THEIR FELLOW SOLDIERS IN FRANCE & BELGIUM WERE
COMPOUNDED BY THE FACT THAT MUCH OF THE FIGHTING TOOK PLACE
IN THE ALPS ... IN EFFECT, THESE SOLDIERS ENCOUNTERED TRENCH
WARFARE IN THE MOUNTAINS WHICH -AGAIN - FAVORED THE DEFENSE
Photo - Isonzo River valley
ONE OF THE FEW AREAS WHERE A BREAKTHROUGH WAS POSSIBLE WAS

ALONG THE RIVER ISONZO - WHICH ROUGHLY PARALLELED ITALY’S
BORDER WITH AUSTRIA ... SO, THERE THE ITALIANS ATTACKED
THERE WAS THE 1ST BATTLE OF THE ISONZO
THE 2ND BATTLE OF THE ISONZO ... THE 3RD BATTLE OF THE ISONZO
THE 4TH - THE 5TH - THE 6TH ... THERE WERE 11 BATTLES OF THE
ISONZO - EACH ONE AS POINTLESS AS THE ONE BEFORE
IN OCTOBER 1917 - THE AUSTRIANS - WITH GERMAN SUPPORT - STRUCK
BACK IN WHAT IS SOMETIMES CALLED THE 12TH BATTLE OF THE ISONZO
BUT IS BETTER KNOWN AS THE BATTLE OF CAPORETTO ...
Ernest Hemingway photos
A DISASTER IMMORTALIZED IN ERNEST HEMINGWAY’S NOVEL - A

FAREWELL TO ARMS ... {HEMINGWAY JOINED THE ITALIAN ARMY AS
AN AMBULANCE DRIVER & BASED HIS NOVEL ON THOSE EXPERIENCES}
THE AUSTRO-GERMAN FORCES ALMOST MADE IT TO VENICE BEFORE
THEY WERE STOPPED - & TO KEEP THE ITALIANS IN THE WAR, BRITISH,
FRENCH & LATER - AMERICAN TROOPS WERE SENT TO THE ITALIAN FRONT
WHEN THE WAR ENDED A YEAR LATER, THE ITALIANS HAD JUST ABOUT
MADE GOOD THEIR LOSSES FROM THE CAPORETTO DEBACLE
WHILE THE TRENCH HAS SYMBOLIZED THE 1ST WORLD WAR FOR THOSE
IN THE WEST - IT WOULD BE WRONG TO THINK THAT THERE WERE NO
GREAT SWEEPING MOVEMENTS OF ARMIES ... THERE WERE
BUT THESE MAINLY OCCURRED IN THE EAST - IN THE WAR BETWEEN
RUSSIA ON 1 SIDE & THE GERMANS & AUSTRIANS ON THE OTHER

Map of Europe - Eastern Front
THE SIMPLEST EXPLANATION FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE WAY
THE WAR WAS FOUGHT ON THE EASTERN FRONT IS THAT THE VAST
DISTANCES MADE IT IMPOSSIBLE TO ESTABLISH AN UNBROKEN LINE
OF TRENCHES AS WAS FOUND ON THE WESTERN FRONT
Nicholas II as army commander
THE GENERALS ON THE EASTERN FRONT CERTAINLY WERE NOT ANY
MORE BRILLIANT IN STRATEGY OR TACTICS ... JUST THE OPPOSITE
THE RUSSIAN ARMY WAS HORRIBLY LED & NEVER MORE SO THAN WHEN
THE EMPEROR- TSAR NICHOLAS - SHOWN HERE, IN THIS PHOTOGRAPH
TOOK PERSONAL COMMAND OF RUSSIA’S ARMIES IN 1915
WORSE - THE RUSSIAN OFFICERS WHO WERE COMPETENT - WERE FOR THE
MOST PART - KILLED IN THE 1ST YEARS OF THE WAR, A FACT THAT WAS TO
HAVE DIRE CONSEQUENCES WHEN THE REVOLUTIONS OCCURRED IN 1917
Russian soldiers
EQUIPMENT - OR THE LACK OF IT - WAS ANOTHER MAJOR PROBLEM
ON THE EASTERN FRONT & THIS WAS ESPECIALLY TRUE OF THE
RUSSIANS ... ALTHOUGH THEY COULD MOBILIZE LITERALLY MILLIONS
OF MEN FOR WAR - THE RUSSIANS COULD NOT ARM ALL OF THEM
Russian soldiers train without weapons
THEY SOLVED THIS THORNY LITTLE PROBLEM BY SENDING BOTH
ARMED & UNARMED MEN INTO BATTLE

THIS PHOTO OF SOLDIERS TRAINIGN FOR BATTLE … THOSE WITH WEAPONS
WERE IN THE FRONT, READY TO ATTACK 1ST ... THOSE WITHOUT WEAPONS
FOLLOWED BEHIND ... THE UNARMED SOLDIERS WERE TOLD TO ARM

THEMSELVES BY PICKING UP THE RIFLES OF THEIR DEAD
COMRADES - NOT EXACTLY A GOOD WAY OF INSPIRING CONFIDENCE
Austria-Hungary map
THE ONLY ARMY THAT WAS WORSE THAN THE RUSSIAN ARMY WAS
THE AUSTRIAN ARMY ... THE POOR LEADERSHIP OF THE HAPSBURG ARMY
WAS COUPLED WITH THE FACT THAT WHILE MOST OF ITS OFFICERS WERE
GERMAN- SPEAKING AUSTRIANS ... AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP,
THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE WAS FILLED WITH DIFFERENT
MULTINATIONAL GROUPS
THE RANK & FILE THE EMPIRE’S ARMIES CAME FROM THESE ETHNIC
GROUPS &, CONSEQUENTLY, THEY COULD NOT ALWAYS UNDERSTAND
THEIR OFFICERS’ ORDERS
THE RESULT WAS A SERIES OF SEE-SAW CAMPAIGNS IN WHICH THE

RUSSIANS WOULD PUNCH HUGE, GAPING HOLES IN THE AUSTRIAN LINES,
ADVANCING, SOMETIMES, HUNDREDS OF MILES ... ONLY TO BE FORCED
BACK WHEN BETTER-TRAINED, BETTER-EQUIPPED GERMAN
ARMIES ENTERED THE BATTLE, THROWING THE RUSSIANS BACK TO
THEIR OWN LINES & - OFTEN -FURTHER BACK INTO RUSSIAN TERRITORY
UNLIKE THE GERMANS & THE WESTERN ALLIES, THE RUSSIANS & TO A
LARGE EXTENT THE AUSTRIANS WERE SIMPLY UNPREPARED FOR THE
FACT THAT THE WORLD HAD EMBARKED ON A NEW STYLE OF WAR WHAT IS
CALLED TOTAL WAR - & - WITH IT - A NEW FIELD WHERE WAR IS WAGED
THE HOME FRONT
III. “Home Fronts”
THE TERM HOME FRONT HAS BECOME SUCH A COMMON PART OF OUR
LEXICON THAT WE SELDOM GIVE IT A 2ND THOUGHT ... BUT, ACCORDING TO

AT LEAST 2 SOURCES (MERRIAM-WEBSTER & OXFORD ENGLISH
DICTIONARIES) ... THE TERM WAS USED FOR THE 1ST TIME DURING THE
GREAT WAR {1st published source, 1919, Punch’s History of the Great War}
THE HOME FRONT GREW OUT OF TOTAL WAR & THE MOBILIZATION OF
SOCIETIES - THE NATION AT ARMS - THAT WENT MUCH FURTHER THAN
DURING THE NAPOLEONIC WARS ... TO SUPPLY THE MASSIVE ARMIES &
NAVIES DEPLOYED BETWEEN 1914 & 1918 - ALL OF THE WARRING POWERS -
INCLUDING, LATER, THE UNITED STATES - HAD TO CREATE
WAR ECONOMIES
Women munitions workers
BY THE END OF THE WAR, VIRTUALLY ALL OF THE WARRING NATIONS HAD
CREATED WHAT WERE CALLED GOVERNMENTS OF NATIONAL UNITY
IN THE CASE OF GERMANY, FROM 1917, THE NATION WAS GOVERNED BY A

MILITARY DICTATORSHIP
AT THE SAME TIME, THESE NATIONS WERE FORCED TO ABANDON THEIR
FREE MARKET ECONOMIES - AT LEAST FOR THE DURATION - & CREATE
PLANNED ECONOMIES ... GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION - NOT ONLY IN
THE FACTORIES, BUT IN SOCIETY AT LARGE OCCURRED ON A SCALE THAT
PRE-WAR SOCIALISTS COULD HAVE ONLY DREAMED ABOUT
LET ME TAKE ANOTHER BREAK HERE TO SHOW A CLIP - THIS ONE FROM A
CANADIAN DOCUMENTARY ABOUT THE WAR TO GIVE YOU A CLEARER
IDEA OF WHAT WE’RE TALKING ABOUT
{Show Gwynne Dyer’s War, end with “And what mass production wars consume is
lives” quote}
Gwynne Dyer’s War, Episode 1, “The Road to Total War” - Begin 14.17 minute mark;
WITH SO MANY MEN IN THE ARMED FORCES - THE ROLE OF WOMEN
CHANGED DRAMATICALLY ESPECIALLY IN THE WORKPLACE ... WE OFTEN

THINK THAT WOMEN WEREN’T MOBILIZED FOR WAR WORK UNTIL THE
2ND WORLD WAR - BUT, THAT WASN’T TRUE AT ALL
THIS SEA-CHANGE IN ATTITUDES TOWARDS WOMEN & WORK WAS
BOUND TO HAVE CONSEQUENCES FOR SOCIETY AFTER THE WAR - AS I’VE
SAID - IN MANY COUNTRIES AFTER THE WAR THE DEMAND BY WOMEN FOR
THE RIGHT TO VOTE NO LONGER COULD BE RESISTED
WAGING A GLOBAL WAR IS ALSO ENORMOUSLY EXPENSIVE ... RATHER
THAN TAX THEIR CITIZENS TO PAY FOR THE WAR AT THE TIME - BOTH SIDES
BORROWED HEAVILY TO PAY THE WAR’S EXPENSES {Stevenson, 179}
FOR THE CENTRAL POWERS - GERMANY VERY QUICKLY BECAME THE
BANKER OF LAST RESORT

FOR THE ALLIES THE NATION WITH THE DEEPEST POCKETS WAS GREAT
BRITAIN - THE BRITISH ALSO ACTED AS THE ALLIES’ PURCHASING AGENT
IN THE UNITED STATES ... ALTHOUGH OFFICIALLY NEUTRAL - AMERICAN
SUPPLIERS WERE HAPPY TO DO A BRISK BUSINESS WITH THE ALLIED
POWERS - WHICH, IN TURN, RAN UP ENORMOUS BILLS
BEFORE 1914 THE UNITED STATES WAS A DEBTOR NATION ... IT HAD
BORROWED HUGE SUMS FROM THE EUROPEANS TO FUND IT’S INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION ... BUT, BY 1917 - THOSE DEBTS HAD BEEN ERASED - SO THAT,
IN THOSE 3 SHORT YEARS - THE UNITED STATES WENT FROM BEING A
DEBTOR NATION TO A CREDITOR NATION - SUDDENLY, THE REST OF
THE WORLD OWED IT MONEY
IT’S IMPOSSIBLE TO OVER-ESTIMATE THE IMPORTANCE OF THIS SHIFT
IN EFFECT, THE WORLD’S CENTER OF ECONOMIC GRAVITY MOVED

ACROSS THE ATLANTIC FROM LONDON’S FINANCIAL DISTRICT - THE
CITY - TO NEW YORK - TO WALL STREET
BY THE WAY - CAN ANYONE TELL ME WHEN THE UNITED STATES BECAME A
DEBTOR NATION, AGAIN - IN 1986, DURING THE REAGAN PRESIDENCY
BACK TO THE 1ST WORLD WAR - THE LEGACY OF WHAT BECAME KNOWN AS
THE WAR DEBTS COLORED RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TWO SIDES OF THE
ATLANTIC FOR DECADES TO COME
THE MASS, INDUSTRIAL SLAUGHTER THAT IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
WESTERN FRONT - IN BELGIUM & FRANCE - IS EPITOMIZED BY THE
BATTLE OF VERDUN ... WHAT IS MOST GRUESOME ABOUT VERDUN
IS NOT THE ACTUAL FIGHTING ITSELF - BUT THE PLAN BEHIND IT - A
PLAN CONCEIVED BY GERMANY’S GENERAL ERICH VON FALKENHAYN

Falkenhayn photo
FALKENHAYN - QUITE LITERALLY - PLANNED TO BLEED THE FRENCH
NATION WHITE ... BECAUSE VERDUN WAS A CITY IMPORTANT IN FRENCH
HISTORY THE FRENCH ARMY WAS BOUND TO DEFEND IT - & - WITH
FRANCE’S SMALLER POPULATION - FALKENHAYN REASONED HE COULD
GRIND DOWN THE ENEMY ... THIS WAS INDUSTRIAL WARFARE AT ITS
MOST BRUTAL
Western Front map - Verdun
WHAT FALKENHAYN FAILED TO CONSIDER WAS THAT ONCE THE BATTLE
BEGAN THE GERMAN PEOPLE WOULD DEMAND VERDUN’S CAPTURE
THIS FORCED HIM TO POUR IN MORE OF HIS OWN SOLDIERS THAN HE HAD
PLANNED ... THE RESULT - IRONICALLY - WAS THAT BOTH THE FRENCH
& GERMANS SUFFERED AN EQUAL NUMBER OF CASUALTIES
ACCORDING TO ONE ESTIMATE, DURING THE 10-MONTH BATTLE THE
FRENCH SUFFERED ROUGHLY 378,000 CASUALTIES ...
THE GERMANS, MEANWHILE, SUSTAINED ROUGHLY 337,000
CASUALTIES ... THOSE ARE CONSERVATIVE FIGURES - BY THE WAY
THIS WAS A SEARING EXPERIENCE - & NOT JUST FOR THE SOLDIERS
WHO ACTUALLY FOUGHT IN THIS BATTLE ... IT ALSO AFFECTED THE
NATION’S LEADERS INCLUDING THE MAN WHO IS CREDITED WITH SAVING
VERDUN - GENERAL -LATER FIELD MARSHAL - PHILIPPE PÉTAIN
Pétain magazine photo
AS A RESULT OF THIS SEARING EXPERIENCE, PETAIN BECAME INFECTED -
THERE’S NO OTHER WORD, REALLY - WITH A SENSE OF PESSIMISM THAT

AMOUNTED TO DEFEATISM THAT WOULD COME TO FRUITION IN 1940
EVEN THOUGH THE LOSS OF LIFE AT VERDUN IS HARD TO CONCEIVE - IT
WAS NOT THE BLOODIEST BATTLE OF THE WAR ... THAT HONOR - SUCH
AS IT IS - BELONGS TO THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME ... A BATTLE THAT
EPITOMIZES THE TRAGEDY OF THE 1ST WORLD WAR
THE OFFENSIVE THAT BECAME KNOWN AS THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME
WAS LAUNCHED ON THE 1ST OF JULY 1916
BUT THE BACKGROUND OF THIS DISASTER IS FOUND IN BRITAIN, ITSELF
AS I SAID EARLIER, WHEN THE WAR BEGAN, BRITAIN DID NOT CONSCRIPT
ITS YOUNG MEN FOR MILITARY SERVICE BEFORE THE WAR
ONE METHOD USED TO ATTRACT RECRUITS THAT WAS IMMEDIATELY

POPULAR WAS TO ALLOW YOUNG MEN FROM WHOLE TOWNS &
VILLAGES OR BUSINESSES, OR FACTORIES, OR GROUPS OF
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS TO ENLIST TOGETHER ... AS YOU CAN SEE FROM
THESE POSTERS, THEY ALSO RELIED ON SPORTS TO ATTRACT RECRUITS
Pals Battalions posters
THE IDEA WAS THAT - BECAUSE THESE MEN KNEW ONE ANOTHER -
THEIR WOULD GREATER UNIT COHESION ... SO RECRUITERS TOLD
YOUNG MEN THEY COULD GO TO WAR WITH THEIR FRIENDS - OR PALS
IT’S FOR THIS REASON THAT THESE UNITS BECAME KNOWN AS THE
PALS BATTALIONS
WHAT NO ONE SEEMED TO HAVE THOUGHT OF IS THAT IF THESE
BATTALIONS SUSTAINED HEAVY CASUALTIES - THE RESULT WOULD
DEVASTATE ENTIRE TOWNS & VILLAGES & PLACES OF WORK

EVEN SO, THESE PALS BATTALIONS WERE SENT TO THE FRONT TO TAKE
PART IN THE BRITISH ARMY'S 1st TRULY LARGE-SCALE OFFENSIVE OF
THE WAR - WHICH BECAME THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME
BECAUSE THESE UNITS WERE NOT MADE UP OF PROFESSIONAL SOLDIERS
THE GENERALS WHO PLANNED THIS OFFENSIVE ORDERED THAT WHEN
THESE UNITS WENT OVER THE TOP ... THEY SHOULD FORM NICE, NEAT
LINES & WALK - NOT RUN - ACROSS NO MAN'S LAND
THE GENERALS WHO ISSUED THESE ORDERS WEREN'T CALLOUS MEN
THEY REALLY BELIEVED THAT THE GERMAN TRENCHES WOULD BE
DESTROYED BY THE ARTILLERY BOMBARDMENT BEFORE THE ATTACK
RATHER THAN TALK ABOUT WHAT HAPPENED - LET ME TAKE ANOTHER

BREAK TO SHOW A BIT MORE OF THAT PREVIOUS DOCUMENTARY MADE BY
THE CANADIAN MILITARY ANALYST GWYNNE DYER ...
Show Gwynne Dyer’s War, Episode 1, “The Road to Total War”; BEGIN with “And what
mass production wars consume is lives” TO Ulster soldier’s letter to his mother}
Gwynne Dyer’s War, Episode 1, “The Road to Total War” – Begin 21.56 minute mark;
AS YOU SAW - THE GERMAN TRENCHES WEREN'T DESTROYED --- OF
COURSE ... SO, BY THE TIME THAT THESE FRESH-FACED, NEW SOLDIERS
CLIMBED OUT OF THEIR TRENCHES ... THE GERMAN MACHINE GUNNERS
WERE ALREADY IN PLACE -- & THEY SIMPLY CUT THEM DOWN
ON THE 1ST DAY OF THE SOMME - THE BRITISH SUSTAINED 58,000
CASUALTIES OF WHOM NEARLY 20,000 WERE DEAD ... BY THE TIME THE
BATTLE FINALLY ENDED THAT NOVEMBER - THE BRITISH SUFFERED
NEARLY 420,000 CASUALTIES ... THE FRENCH - WHO ALSO TOOK PART -
200,000 CASUALTIES ... & THE GERMANS 650,000 CASUALTIES

Australian soldiers, Western Front
NOW, IMAGINE WHAT IT WAS LIKE WHEN THE CASUALTY LISTS FROM
THESE BATTLES REACHED THE HOME FRONT ... IN THE CASE OF THESE
BRITISH UNITS - THE PALS BATTALIONS - IT WAS NOT UNCOMMON FOR
A WHOLE COMMUNITY TO LOSE MOST OF ITS YOUNG MEN IN ONE BATTLE
THESE DISASTERS HAPPENED - AT LEAST IN PART - BECAUSE THE GENERALS
WHO COMMANDED THESE ARMIES - ON BOTH SIDES - SELDOM - IF EVER -
WENT TO THE FRONT ... INSTEAD - THEY REMAINED BEHIND THE
LINES ... SO, THEY HAD NO IDEA OF THE CONDITIONS THEY EXPECTED
THEIR TROOPS TO FIGHT IN

Stretcher bearers knee-deep in mud
CONSIDER THIS - SOLDIERS WERE OFTEN WEIGHED DOWN EQUIPMENT -

AMMUNITION, A WEAPON, FOOD - IT WAS NOT UNCOMMON FOR
THESE SOLDIERS TO FALL INTO SHELL HOLES FILLED WITH MUD &
WATER WHERE - BECAUSE OF THE WEIGHT THEY CARRIED THEY
DROWNED
THERE'S A FAMOUS INCIDENT OF 1 BRITISH GENERAL FINALLY GOING TO
THE FRONT IN 1918 - THE LAST YEAR OF THE WAR ... & SEEING FOR THE 1ST
TIME THE KNEE-DEEP MUD THAT SOLDIERS WERE WADING THROUGH
THIS GENERAL REMARKED: MY GOD - HAVE WE BEEN ASKING OUR
SOLDIERS TO FIGHT THROUGH THIS? HE REALLY HAD NO IDEA OF
WHAT THE FRONT WAS LIKE
LET ME ASK YOU SOMETHING ... HOW MANY NAMES ARE ON THE
VIETNAM WAR MEMORIAL OVER IN DC? .... JUST OVER 58,000
Vietnam Memorial photo

AT THE SOMME BATTLEFIELD IN NORTHERN FRANCE THERE IS A
MONUMENT NAMED AFTER THE VILLAGE THAT ONCE STOOD THERE CALLED
THE THIEPVAL MEMORIAL ...

Thiepval Memorial photos
AT 1ST GLANCE, IT WOULDN’T SEEM THESE MONUMENTS HAVE MUCH IN
COMMON ... BUT, LIKE THE VIETNAM MEMORIAL, THE THIEPVAL
MEMORIAL HAS NAMES ON IT - 73,000 NAMES ...THOSE NAMES ARE NOT
THE NAMES OF ALL THE BRITISH MEN WHO DIED IN THE WAR ... THEY
DON’T REPRESENT ALL OF THE BRITISH SOLDIERS WHO DIED AT THE
SOMME ... THOSE 73,000 NAMES - ARE THE NAMES OF THE BRITISH
SOLDIERS WHOSE BODIES WERE NEVER FOUND AFTER THIS 1 BATTLE
I DON'T WANT TO GIVE THE IMPRESSION HERE THAT THE EUROPEANS
WERE ESPECIALLY INCOMPETENT ... WHEN THE UNITED STATES

ENTERED THE WAR THE GENERALS LEADING THE US ARMY WERE NO
BETTER AT REALIZING THAT THEY WERE FIGHTING A NEW KIND OF WAR
THE LARGEST BATTLE FOUGHT BY AMERICANS IN WORLD WAR I - THE
BATTLE OF THE ARGONNE EQUALED OF 7 GETTYSBURGS
Gertrude Stein/Hemingway photos
THIS SORT OF SLAUGHTER WAS UNIMAGINABLE ... IT HAD NEVER
HAPPENED BEFORE IN HUMAN HISTORY ... THE LOSS WAS SUMMED UP BY
THE AMERICAN WRITER GERTRUDE STEIN WHEN SHE TOLD ANOTHER
AMERICAN WRITER & VETERAN OF THIS WAR - ERNEST HEMINGWAY -
THAT HE & OTHERS OF AGE WERE A LOST GENERATION
Japanese soldiers
IV. War around the world

IT’S EASY TO GET THE IMPRESSION THAT THE 1ST WORLD WAR WAS REALLY
JUST A EUROPEAN WAR ... THAT’S NOT TRUE
THE WAR BROKE OUT - ALBEIT BRIEFLY - IN ASIA - WHEN THE ALLIES -
INCLUDING JAPAN - SNAPPED UP GERMAN COLONIAL POSSESSIONS IN
CHINA & THE PACIFIC
German East African soldiers
ACCORDING TO THE HISTORIAN BRUCE VANDERVORT - THE 1ST WORLD
WAR OCCUPIES A LARGE - & A LARGELY OVERLOOKED - PLACE IN
MODERN AFRICAN HISTORY ... THE FIGHTING IN AFRICA DURING
WORLD WAR I WAS MORE WIDESPREAD THAN DURING THE 2ND WORLD
WAR - & MOST OF THOSE WHO FOUGHT IN WORLD WAR I WERE
THEMSELVES AFRICANS - LIKE THESE SOLDIERS IN GERMAN EAST
AFRICA - WHICH, AGAIN, WAS NOT TRUE WHEN WAR CAME TO THE
CONTINENT AFTER 1939
AT THE SAME TIME - MANY MORE AFRICANS FOUGHT IN EUROPE ITSELF
BETWEEN 1914 & 1918 THAN WOULD BETWEEN 1939 & 1945 ... & WHILE IT
TOOK A 2ND WORLD WAR TO COMPLETE THE JOB - THE SEEDS OF THE
LIBERATION MOVEMENTS THAT SWEPT AWAY THE EUROPEAN EMPIRES
IN AFRICA WERE PLANTED AS A RESULT OF WORLD WAR I
BUT - NOWHERE WAS THE IMPACT OF THIS WAR MORE PROFOUND THAN IN
THE MIDDLE EAST ... AS I SAID EARLIER - THE OTTOMAN TURKS SIDED
WITH GERMANY & THE CENTRAL POWERS IN 1914 - MAKING IT A TARGET
OF THE MAJOR ALLIED POWERS, NOT LEAST TO FOR ... WAIT FOR IT? OIL
T E Lawrence photo
AMONG OTHER THINGS, THE BRITISH ENCOURAGED ARABS - WHO WERE

RULED BY THE OTTOMANS TO REBEL ...
THE ARAB REVOLT - AS IT WAS SOON BEING CALLED - WAS INSPIRED IN
PART BY A BRITISH OFFICER NAMED T.E. LAWRENCE - BETTER KNOWN
AS??? LAWRENCE OF ARABIA
THE ARABS BELIEVED THE ALLIES WOULD GRANT THEM INDEPENDENCE
TO CREATE AN ARAB KINGDOM STRETCHING FROM PALESTINE - ON THE
SHORES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN TO THE PERSIAN GULF FOR THE
ROLE THEY PLAYED IN DEFEATING THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE - WHICH, AS YOU
SEE FROM THIS MAP THAT LAWRENCE SHOWED THEM, WAS THE CASE
Lawrence Mideast map
HOWEVER, THE BRITISH - & THE FRENCH - HAD NO INTENTION
WHATSOEVER OF GIVING UP THE MIDDLE EAST IF THEY COULD EVER GET

THEIR HANDS ON THE REGION ... &, AS EARLY AS 1915, THEY AGREED WITH
THE RUSSIANS TO DIVIDE THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE BETWEEN THEM ...
Sykes-Picot Agreement map
WHICH YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP - WHICH LAID OUT WHAT BECAME
KNOWN AS THE SYKES-PICOT AGREEMENT
THEN - JUST TO MAKE THINGS REALLY INTERESTING, THEY PROMISED AT
LEAST A PORTION OF THESE LANDS A 3RD TIME
AJ Balfour photo
IN 1917 - THE WAR WAS GOING VERY BADLY FOR THE ALLIES, & THEY WERE
LOOKING FOR SUPPORT FROM ANY QUARTER ... TO GAIN THE BACKING OF
THE SMALL, BUT INFLUENTIAL ZIONIST MOVEMENT - BRITAIN’S FOREIGN
SECRETARY ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR ISSUED THE BALFOUR

DECLARATION PROMISING A JEWISH HOMELAND IN PALESTINE TO
OBTAIN JEWISH SUPPORT FOR THE ALLIED WAR EFFORT
Post-WWI Mideast map
FURTHER EAST - BRITISH EMPIRE FORCES TOOK CONTROL OF OTTOMAN
TERRITORY IN THE PERSIAN GULF AREA - & ITS OIL FIELDS
AFTER THE WAR, THE BRITISH TOOK 3 OF THESE OTTOMAN PROVINCES
TO CREATE THE NATION OF IRAQ ... WHILE THE FRENCH HELPED
THEMSELVES TO SYRIA & LEBANON - AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP
IT DOESN’T TAKE TOO MUCH IMAGINATION TO SEE THAT ALL OF THESE
CONFLICTING PROMISES WERE BOUND TO CLASH ... & THEY HAVE -
EVER SINCE ... IF YOU WANT TO UNDERSTAND THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST
YOUR STARTING POINT IS WORLD WAR I
THERE IS ONE OTHER EPISODE FROM THIS THEATER OF THE WAR THAT
MUST BE MENTIONED - THAT DESERVES MORE THAN A MENTION
AMONG THE MANY NATIONAL & ETHNIC GROUPS LIVING IN THE OTTOMAN
EMPIRE WERE AS MANY AS 2 MILLION ARMENIANS ...
Armenian massacre photos
FOR A NUMBER OF REASONS - INCLUDING A FALSE CLAIM THAT THE
ARMENIANS WERE DISLOYAL & COLLABORATING WITH RUSSIA -
THE OTTOMAN GOVERNMENT ORDERED THE MASS DEPORTATION OF
THE ARMENIANS FROM THEIR HOMELAND ... THE RESULT WERE MASS
KILLINGS OF AS MANY AS 1.5 MILLION MEN, WOMEN, & CHILDREN
WHICH MOST HISTORIANS AGREE AMOUNTED TO A GENOCIDE OF THE
ARMENIAN PEOPLE {Stevenson, 94-95}
Adolf Hitler photo
TO THIS DAY - THE GOVERNMENT OF MODERN TURKEY FURIOUSLY

DENIES THAT THESE MASSACRES TOOK PLACE &, EVEN AT THE TIME, THE
THE WORLD WAS LARGELY INDIFFERENT TO THE ARMENIAN MASSACRES
THIS INDIFFERENCE WAS NOT LOST ON ONE FUTURE LEADER ... ON THE
EVE OF WORLD WAR II - WHEN HE WAS QUESTIONED ABOUT HIS ATTACKS
ON EUROPEAN JEWS, ADOLF HITLER TOLD HIS INNER CIRCLE NOT TO
WORRY ... AFTER ALL - HE TOLD THEM, “WHO REMEMBERS THE
ARMENIAN MASSACRES, TODAY?”
V. The 11th hour, of the 11th day, of the 11th month ...
THE FIRST WORLD WAR ENDED SUDDENLY AT THE END OF 1918 ... TO
EXPLAIN WHY - YOU HAVE TO CROSS THE ATLANTIC & PICK UP THIS STORY
WITH THE UNITED STATES
AS I SAID EARLIER - WHEN THE WAR BEGAN IN 1914, WOODROW WILSON

CALLED ON AMERICANS TO BE NEUTRAL - BUT THAT WAS EASIER SAID
THAN DONE ... FOR ONE THING - MANY AMERICANS WERE - IN FACT -
NEWLY ARRIVED IMMIGRANTS FROM THE VERY COUNTRIES NOW
FIGHTING ONE ANOTHER IN EUROPE
TO COUNTER THAT - THE HYPHENATED AMERICAN BECAME VERY
UNFASHIONABLE IN THE UNITED STATES ... THAT’S HARD TO BELIEVE
TODAY - WHEN EVERYONE SEEMS TO QUALIFY THEIR CITIZENSHIP ... YOU’LL
HEAR PEOPLE REFER TO THEMSELVES AS MEXICAN-AMERICAN OR
CHINESE-AMERICAN - OR AFRICAN-AMERICAN
IN MUCH THE SAME WAY IT WAS NOT UNCOMMON TO HEAR PEOPLE REFER
TO THEMSELVES AS ITALIAN-AMERICANS OR IRISH-AMERICANS
OR GERMAN-AMERICANS A CENTURY AGO

AS I SAY - AS A RESULT OF WORLD WAR I - THAT SORT OF THING BECAME
SUSPECT ... IN ITS PLACE - A DEMAND AROSE FOR WHAT BECAME KNOWN AS
“100 PERCENT AMERICANISM”

100 % Americanism poster
WHEN AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR IN APRIL 1917 - THE CAMPAIGN FOR
100% AMERICANISM TURNED INTO FULL-FLEDGED ANTI-GERMAN
HYSTERIA & CAUSED SOME PEOPLE TO DO SOME REALLY STUPID THINGS
ANYTHING GERMAN WAS ATTACKED ... TEACHING THE GERMAN
LANGUAGE IN SCHOOLS - FOR INSTANCE - WAS BANNED ... CONCERT
ORCHESTRAS WERE FORBIDDEN FROM PLAYING MUSIC WRITTEN BY
GERMAN COMPOSERS ... SO, NO BACH, NO BEETHOVEN, NO WAGNER
PEOPLE WITH GERMAN NAMES WERE HARASSED - EVEN IF THEY HAD
LIVED IN THE US FOR GENERATIONS ... A FAMILY NAMED FUCHS - VERY

GERMAN MIGHT CHANGE THEIR NAME TO FOX ... VERY ENGLISH
GERMAN STREET NAMES WERE CHANGED GERMAN ... AS WERE SOME
FOODS ... SAUERKRAUT FOR A TIME BECAME - LIBERTY CABBAGE
&, EVEN, PETS - DACHSHUNDS BECAME LIBERTY DOGS
{Ellis, Echoes of Distant Thunder, 428}

Dachshund dog photo
BUT - AS THIS HYSTERIA WENT UNCHECKED IT TURNED VERY UGLY ... IN
APRIL 1918 IN THE TOWN OF COLLINSVILLE, ILLINOIS - A MOB ATTACKED
THIS MAN - ROBERT PAUL PRAGER - BECAUSE THEY DECIDED - &
THIS IS A DIRECT QUOTE - “HE LOOKED LIKE A SPY”
Prager photo
PRAGER WAS A GERMAN IMMIGRANT - BUT, HE WAS NOT A SPY ... WHILE
THE POLICE STOOD BY, THE MOB DRAPED AN AMERICAN FLAG AROUND
PRAGER & THEN THEY LYNCHED HIM ... 11 RINGLEADERS OF THE MOB
WERE PUT ON TRIAL FOR HANGING PRAGER - THESE MEN ...
Prager murderers
BUT THE JURY ACQUITTED PRAGER’S KILLERS ... THEY SAID THE MOB HAD
COMMITTED “PATRIOTIC MURDER”
British anti-German hysteria photos
THIS HYSTERIA WASN’T CONFINED TO THE UNITED STATES ... IN
AUSTRALIA THE RIGHTS OF GERMAN IMMIGRANTS WERE RESTRICTED
&, AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THESE PHOTOS - IN BRITAIN THERE WERE
ATTACKS ON GERMAN-OWNED BUSINESSES & HOMES - &, OFTEN, THE
POLICE DID NOTHING TO STOP THE MOBS
BACK TO THE UNITED STATES ... WHILE PEOPLE CONTINUED TO TAKE PRIDE
IN THEIR ETHNIC HERITAGE - THE HYPHENATED AMERICAN HAD
LARGELY DISAPPEARED BY THE END OF THE 1st WORLD WAR ... IT
WOULDN’T BE UNTIL THE 1970s - REALLY - THAT THE HYPHENATED-
AMERICAN WAS ACCEPTED AGAIN IN AMERICAN CULTURE ... SO MUCH SO
THAT - TODAY, IT SEEMS THAT AMERICANS HAVE TO PREFACE THEIR
AMERICAN NATIONALITY WITH SOME ETHNIC GROUP REFERENCE
SO FAR AS THE WAR ITSELF WAS CONCERNED - DESPITE WOODROW
WILSON’S DESIRE TO STAY OUT OF THE WAR - THE AMERICAN ECONOMY
SOON BECAME DEEPLY INVOLVED IN SELLING GOODS TO THE ALLIES ... TO
STOP THE SHIPMENT OF THESE SUPPLIES THE GERMANS ENGAGED
SUBMARINE WARFARE
WITHOUT WARNING - SHIPS ON THE ATLANTIC OCEAN WERE SUNK BY
GERMANY SUBMARINES CALLED U-BOATS - LIKE THIS ONE
U-boat photo
THIS STRATEGY VERY NEARLY BROUGHT THE UNITED STATES INTO THE
WAR AS EARLY AS 1915 ... WAR WAS AVERTED THEN ... BUT IN 1917 - THE
GERMANS RESORTED TO IT - AGAIN - THEY GAMBLED THAT U-BOATS
COULD LITERALLY STARVE Gt BRITAIN INTO SURRENDERING BY
CUTTING OFF FOOD SUPPLIES FROM NORTH AMERICA - WITH BRITAIN
OUT - THE GERMANS COULD THEN DEFEAT FRANCE
AT THE SAME TIME, THE AMERICAN PEOPLE LEARNED OF THE
ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM - A GERMAN PROMISE TO MEXICO THAT
IF THE MEXICO DECLARED WAR ON THE UNITED STATES - GERMANY
WOULD GUARANTEE THAT MEXICO WOULD BE GRANTED THE STATES OF
TEXAS, NEW MEXICO & ARIZONA ... (WHY NOT CALIFORNIA???)
PROVIDED THE CENTRAL POWERS WON - OF COURSE
Zimmerman telegram map & cartoons

COMBINED WITH THE INCREASING NUMBER OF SINKINGS OF AMERICAN
SHIPS - THE AMERICAN PEOPLE WERE ENRAGED ... SO THAT, IN
APRIL 1917 THE UNITED STATES DECLARED WAR ON GERMANY
THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN WORLD WAR I WENT
FAR BEYOND THE BATTLEFIELD
AS OCCURRED IN EUROPE - AS YOUNG MEN ENTERED THE MILITARY, WOMEN
TOOK TRADITIONALLY MALE JOBS IN HUGE NUMBERS & THIS WAS CRUCIAL
FOR THEM SECURING THE RIGHT TO VOTE IN 1920
Great Migration map
ANOTHER GROUP THAT WAS GREATLY AFFECTED BY THE WAR WAS BLACK
AMERICANS ... WHEN I TALKED ABOUT THE WAVE OF IMMIGRANTS WHO
CAME TO THIS COUNTRY BETWEEN THE CIVIL WAR & WORLD WAR I, I
POINTED OUT THAT WHILE THEY WERE TOLERATED BECAUSE THIS

COUNTRY NEEDED WORKERS ... ONCE THE WAR BEGAN IN 1914, HOWEVER,
THAT SOURCE OF WORKERS WAS CUT OFF - QUITE SIMPLY GERMANY, &
BRITAIN, & RUSSIA & ALL OF THE OTHER COMBATANT COUNTRIES
NEEDED THEIR YOUNG MEN & WOMEN TO SERVE IN THEIR ARMIES OR
WORK IN THEIR OWN FACTORIES
IN THIS COUNTRY - FACTORY OWNERS STILL NEEDED WORKERS - & ALL
THE MORE ONCE THIS COUNTRY DECLARED WAR ... SO, THEY TURNED TO
BLACK WORKERS IN THE SOUTH ... BEGINNING WHAT IS KNOWN AS THE
GREAT MIGRATION ... AS BLACK MEN, WOMEN, & THEIR FAMILIES
MOVED NORTH TO WORK IN THE FACTORIES OF CHICAGO, DETROIT,
PITTSBURGH, & OTHER AMERICAN CITIES
AS WELL AS BRINGING THEIR LABOR - THESE MEN & WOMEN BROUGHT
TWO FORMS OF MUSIC WITH THEM …

RHYTHM & BLUES, OR THE BLUES, FOR SHORT - & WHAT PROVED TO
BE MORE IMMEDIATELY POPULAR — JAZZ
Black American soldiers
AS HAPPENED DURING THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, BLACK AMERICAN MEN
SERVED IN THE US MILITARY IN LARGE NUMBERS THOUGH — AGAIN — IN
SEGREGATED UNITS
EVEN SO, THEY & OTHERS PROVED A POINT
WHEN THE KAISER & HIS GENERALS RENEWED UNRESTRICTED
SUBMARINE WARFARE THEY GAMBLED THAT THE AMERICANS WOULD
NOT BE ABLE TO FIELD AN ARMY FAST ENOUGH TO MAKE ANY DIFFERENCE
ON THE BATTLEFIELD ... THEY COULD NOT HAVE BEEN MORE WRONG
BY THE AUTUMN OF 1918 MORE THAN 4 MILLION AMERICANS - OF

ALL RACES - WERE SERVING IN THE US MILITARY ... OF THAT NUMBER
2 MILLION WERE SERVING OVERSEAS & 1 MILLION WERE IN
COMBAT - LIKE THESE 4 YOUNG MEN

4 American soldiers photo
THE AMERICANS WERE NOT DECISIVE ON THE BATTLEFIELD - THEY
WEREN’T IN THE WAR LONG ENOUGH ... WHAT WAS DECISIVE WAS THE
KNOWLEDGE THAT AMERICAN MANPOWER WAS NOW ON THE ALLIED SIDE
THIS GAVE A HUGE PSYCHOLOGICAL BOOST TO THE BRITISH &
FRENCH - IT HAD THE OPPOSITE EFFECT ON GERMAN TROOPS
IN OTHER WORDS, THE DECISION TO LAUNCH ITS U-BOAT CAMPAIGN WAS A
CATASTROPHE ... FAR FROM BRINGING VICTORY - IT INSURED
GERMANY'S DEFEAT ... WHEN THE ALLIED ARMIES WHICH NOW
INCLUDED AMERICAN SOLDIERS - ATTACKED IN THE AUTUMN OF 1918,
THE GERMANS HAD NO CHOICE BUT TO SUE FOR PEACE

AND THAT IS WHAT HAPPENED ON THE
11th HOUR OF THE 11th DAY OF THE 11th MONTH OF 1918
HG Wells photos & novels
VI. Bitter harvest
YOU MAY HAVE HEARD OF THIS MAN — H.G. WELLS ... HE IS FAMOUS FOR
HIS NOVELS OF SCIENCE FICTION ... e.g. - THE WAR OF THE WORLDS
WELLS ALSO PUT INTO WORDS THE WIDESPREAD HOPE
THAT THE 1ST WORLD WAR WOULD BE THE WAR TO END WAR
IT WASN’T LONG BEFORE POLITICIANS - AT LEAST AMONG THE ALLIES
BEGAN TO TAKE UP THIS SLOGAN - & MADE IT 1 OF THEIR WAR AIMS ...
SPECIFICALLY - THAT IF THEY WON THE WAR - THEY WOULD DO ALL THAT
THEY COULD TO ENSURE THAT THERE WOULD BE NO MORE WAR

THE FAILURE TO MAKE GOOD ON THIS PROMISE WAS NOT THE
LEAST OF THE CONSEQUENCES - & TRAGEDIES OF THOSE
AWFUL 4 YEARS
ONCE IT BECAME OBVIOUS THAT THE WINNERS WOULD NOT - OR, WORSE,
COULD NOT MAKE GOOD ON THIS PLEDGE A DEEP DISILLUSION SET
IN AMONG VICTOR & VANQUISHED, ALIKE ... & IN THIS
DISILLUSIONMENT YOU FIND THE BEGINNINGS OF A 2ND WORLD WAR
IN PARTICULAR IT LED MANY TO QUESTION THE IDEA OF LIBERAL
DEMOCRACY … BECAUSE, AFTER ALL, THE VICTORIOUS NATIONS
IN THE MAIN, HERE, I’M TALKING ABOUT FRANCE, Gt. BRITAIN, & THE
UNITED STATES WERE LIBERAL DEMOCRACIES ... THEIR FAILURE TO
FASHION A REAL PEACE, A JUST PEACE WOULD BE SEEN BY MANY AS
A DEMONSTRATION THAT LIBERAL DEMOCRACY WAS ITSELF A FAILURE

WHAT MANY CONVENIENTLY FORGOT WAS THAT THE PEOPLE OF THESE
NATIONS OFTEN DEMANDED CONTRADICTORY THINGS
A JUST PEACE - YES … A WAR TO END WAR – YES
A WAR TO MAKE THE WORLD SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY – AS WOODROW WILSON
HAD PROMISED – YES, CERTAINLY
BUT - THESE SAME PEOPLES ALSO WANTED TO HANG THE KAISER &
MAKE GERMANY PAY FOR THE WAR
IN THE WAKE OF THE ARMISTICE - THE NATIONS OF BOTH SIDES
COUNTED UP THE COSTS OF THE PAST 4 YEARS ... COSTS THAT WERE
UNPRECEDENTED IN HUMAN HISTORY ... HERE ARE SOME OF THEM
BY THE END OF WORLD WAR I - OF THE 61.5 MILLION MEN WHO WERE
MOBILIZED BY BOTH SIDES TO FIGHT ... AN ESTIMATED 8.3 MILLION

COMBATANTS WERE DEAD ... ANOTHER 19 & A HALF MILLION HAD BEEN
WOUNDED ... & OF THAT NUMBER 7 MILLION WERE MAIMED FOR LIFE
AND - OF COURSE - BECAUSE THE 1st WORLD WAR WAS A TOTAL WAR
THERE WERE CIVILIAN CASUALTIES, TOO ... 8 MILLION BY 1 COUNT
BEFORE THE 1ST WORLD WAR THE MAJORITY OF THOSE KILLED IN ANY
MAJOR CONFLICT CAME FROM THE RANKS OF THOSE WHO ACTUALLY
FOUGHT IN THE WAR - THAT IS, THE COMBATANTS
BUT BETWEEN 1914 & 1918 - THE WORLD REACHED A TIPPING POINT ... AS
YOU THE MAJORITY OF DEATHS WAS STILL AMONG COMBATANTS - BUT THE
NUMBERS ARE VERY CLOSE ... WHEN YOU REACH WORLD WAR II, THE
FIGURES SHIFT DECISIVELY &, FOR THE 1ST TIME IN HUMAN HISTORY, THE
NUMBER OF CIVILIANS - OF NON-COMBATANTS - SURPASSED THE
NUMBER OF COMBATANTS WHO WERE KILLED ... & IT’S BEEN THAT WAY IN
EVERY MAJOR WAR EVER SINCE
AS HUGE AS THE NUMBERS WERE OF THOSE KILLED DURING THE WAR
THEY PALE IN COMPARISON WITH THE NUMBER OF DEATHS THAT
ARE ATTRIBUTED TO WHAT CAME TO BE CALLED THE SPANISH FLU ...
ONE OF THE WORST RESULTS OF THIS 4-YEAR CONFLICT {Stevenson, 405}
DURING 1918, A PARTICULARLY VIRULENT STRAIN OF INFLUENZA
SWEPT THE WORLD, KILLING AT LEAST 21.5 MILLION PEOPLE - & ...
Spanish flu photos
AS MANY AS 30 MILLION PEOPLE {Stevenson, 405} - INCLUDING FROM
500,000 TO 675,000 PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES
THIS PARTICULAR STRAIN OF FLU - EASILY THE WORST PLAGUE TO
HIT MANKIND IN THE MODERN AGE … & - IN FACT - IS 2nd ONLY TO THE
BLACK DEATH OF THE MIDDLE AGES (1347-51) AS A DISEASE
AFFLICTING HUMAN BEINGS ... (75 MILLION DIED IN BLACK DEATH)
THE SPANISH FLU DID NOT BEGIN IN SPAIN ... TWO LIKELY CANDIDATES
FOR THE PLACE WHERE THIS FLU JUMPED ANIMALS TO HUMANS ARE A US
ARMY CAMP IN KANSAS - OR, A BRITISH ARMY CAMP IN NORTHERN
FRANCE ... THE MASSIVE MOVEMENT OF SOLDIERS LITERALLY AROUND
THE GLOBE ... THIS EXPLAINS HOW A LOCAL EPIDEMIC QUICKLY BECAME
A WORLDWIDE EPIDEMIC - OR A PANDEMIC
AT ANY RATE, AFTER A WHILE FIGURES LIKE THESE MAKE THE MIND
GLAZE OVER ... A MILLION DEAD HERE ... A MILLION DEAD THERE -
IT'S DIFFICULT TO THINK OF THESE NUMBERS AS HUMAN BEINGS ... BUT,
WITH SO MANY LIVES LOST - ESPECIALLY THOSE KILLED IN THE WAR
IT WAS GOING TO BE VERY DIFFICULT TO FASHION A PEACE THAT

WOULD JUSTIFY THESE TERRIBLE LOSSES
THAT JOB FELL TO THE 3 LARGEST OF THE ALLIED POWERS -
TO FRANCE, TO THE UNITED KINGDOM, & TO THE UNITED STATES
Clemenceau, Lloyd George, Wilson
VII. Return to the Hall of Mirrors
MORE TO THE POINT, IT FELL TO THE LEADERS OF THESE 3 COUNTRIES
WHEN THEY GATHERED AT PARIS TO HAMMER OUT A SETTLEMENT
TO SAVE TIME - LET’S LOOK AT THIS TREATY THROUGH THE EYES OF THE
3 ALLIED LEADERS WHO WERE MOST RESPONSIBLE FOR HOW IT
CAME ABOUT {Show photograph}
1ST - GEORGES CLEMENCEAU, THE PREMIER OF FRANCE
CLEMENCEAU - WAS KNOWN AS THE "TIGER" ... ABOVE ALL ELSE, HE WAS
OBSESSED WITH THE SECURITY OF HIS COUNTRY -- &, IN A WORD, HE

WANTED OLD-FASHIONED REVENGE - THE DEMILITARIZATION OF
GERMANY – &, HUGE REPARATIONS - SOUND FAMILIAR?
IT’S EASY TO CONDEMN CLEMENCEAU FOR HIS ATTITUDE
BUT - YOU HAVE TO REMEMBER THAT MUCH OF NORTHERN FRANCE HAD
BEEN DESTROYED BETWEEN 1914 & 1918
THERE WERE WHOLE AREAS THAT WERE SAID TO BE UNINHABITABLE ...
THERE WERE UNEXPLODED SHELLS, BARBED WIRE, UNBURIED
BODIES THE DEVASTATION WAS UNIMAGINABLE
WHILE PEOPLE DID - IN FACT - MOVE BACK INTO THESE AREAS TO RE-BUILD
THEIR TOWNS & VILLAGES & FARMS ... THOSE PROBLEMS DID NOT GO
AWAY ... & IN FACT, THEY STILL HAVEN'T GONE AWAY
TO THIS DAY, FARMERS STILL OCCASIONALLY UNEARTH UNEXPLODED
SHELLS & LAND-MINES WHILE PLOUGHING THE FIELDS - &, YES - SOME
STILL DIE {TELL ABOUT VISIT TO THE SOMME}
THE 2nd OF THESE 3 LEADERS WAS THE BRITISH PRIME MINISTER
DAVID LLOYD GEORGE
LLOYD GEORGE’S MAIN OBJECTIVE AT VERSAILLES WAS TO
PROTECT THE INTERESTS OF GREAT BRITAIN & ITS EMPIRE
AND - FINALLY - THE 3RD OF THESE LEADERS - THE AMERICAN PRESIDENT
WOODROW WILSON - WHO HAD HIS OWN AGENDA
IN 1917 - WILSON HAD DECLARED THAT THIS COUNTRY WAS GOING TO
WAR TO MAKE THE WORLD SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY - TO ACHIEVE
THAT GOAL ... A FEW MONTHS LATER ... HE LAID OUT HIS VISION OF
THE POST-WAR WORLD KNOWN AS THE 14 POINTS
I’M NOT GOING TO GO THROUGH EVERY ONE OF THESE POINTS ... BUT -
AMONG THE HIGHLIGHTS - WILSON CALLED FOR FREEDOM OF THE
SEAS - IN OTHER WORDS, NATIONS WOULD BE ALLOWED TO TRADE FREELY
WITHOUT FEAR OF ATTACK - AS HAD HAPPENED TO AMERICAN SHIPS WHEN
THEY WERE ATTACKED BY U-BOATS DURING THE WAR
WILSON ALSO CALLED FOR AN END TO SECRET TREATIES & FOR
NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION - THE RIGHT OF NATIONAL
GROUPS TO FORM THEIR OWN SOVEREIGN COUNTRIES
MOST IMPORTANTLY - WILSON CALLED FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A
LEAGUE OF NATIONS - AN INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF NATIONS
WHERE THEY WOULD SETTLE DISPUTES INSTEAD OF RESORTING TO WAR
THIS IDEA - THAT NATIONS SHOULD WORK TOGETHER TO RESOLVE
DISPUTES IS KNOWN AS COLLECTIVE SECURITY
IT’S AN AMERICAN IDEA ... WHICH A LOT OF AMERICANS DON’T CARE

TO REMEMBER NOWADAYS ... BUT, THAT’S ANOTHER SUBJECT
THE MODERN INCARNATION OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY ...
THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION THAT PROMOTES THIS IDEA IS
THE UNITED NATIONS
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS & THE UNITED NATIONS - HOWEVER - ARE
NOT THE SAME ORGANIZATION ... THE UN WAS TO BE CREATED
AFTER THE END OF A SECOND WORLD WAR
IN ANY CASE - WILSON’S 14 POINTS WERE TO BE THE BASIS FOR
AMERICA’S NEGOTIATING POSITION WHEN THE VICTORIOUS ALLIES
MET AT PARIS
WILSON’S INITIAL RECEPTION IN EUROPE WAS RAPTUROUS ... HUGE

THRONGS IN LONDON, PARIS, & ROME HAILED HIM AS THE SAVIOR OF
THE WORLD - THE MAN WHO WOULD GUARANTEE THAT THE GREAT WAR
AS IT WAS BEING CALLED - WOULD BE THE WAR TO END WAR ... BUT -
AGAIN - THESE SAME CHEERING THRONGS ALSO EXPECTED WILSON TO
GIVE THEIR NATIONS WHAT THEY WANTED ...
WHETHER IT WAS A SHARE OF GERMANY’S OVERSEAS COLONIES
OR - A GERMANY THAT WOULD NEVER THREATEN THEM, AGAIN
OR - A PIECE OF THE OLD AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE ...
MAYBE A PIECE OF THE OLD OTTOMAN EMPIRE, TOO
NOT LEAST - ONCE HE WAS AT VERSAILLES - WILSON WAS HORRIFIED TO
DISCOVER THAT HIS CALLS FOR NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION FOR
SOME NATIONAL GROUPS HAD BEEN TAKEN UP BY MANY OTHERS ... SO THAT
HE WAS BESIEGED REPRESENTATIVES OF NATIONAL & ETHNIC GROUPS,
MANY OF WHOM - HE LATER ADMITTED - HE’D NEVER HEARD OF

QUITE SIMPLY, WILSON HAD RAISED EXPECTATIONS AMONG THESE
GROUPS THAT COULDN'T POSSIBLE BY MET ... INCLUDING A YOUNG
MAN FROM VIETNAM LATER KNOWN AS HO CHI MINH {MacMillan, 59}
Ho Chin Minh (2 photos)
IN HIS NEGOTIATIONS WITH THE OTHER ALLIED POWERS - & NOT JUST
WITH CLEMENCEAU & LLOYD GEORGE - WILSON WAS FORCED TO
COMPROMISE ON ALL OF HIS 14 POINTS

FOR INSTANCE, TO WIN JAPANESE BACKING FOR THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
WILSON AGREED TO GIVE THAT COUNTRY EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF
CHINA’S SHANTUNG PROVINCE

Asia & Versailles Treaty map
WILSON HOPED THAT THE LEAGUE WOULD BE THE VEHICLE THAT WOULD
RIGHT THE WRONGS BEING CREATED BY THE TREATY ... BUT DEALS LIKE
THIS WERE USED BY SENATE REPUBLICANS TO KILL THE TREATY OF

VERSAILLES WHEN IT CAME UP FOR RATIFICATION
4th of May demonstrations photo
IN CHINA ITSELF - THIS AGREEMENT HAD HUGE RAMIFICATIONS
IT LED TO MASSIVE DEMONSTRATIONS ON THE 4TH OF MAY 1919 & TO A
REJECTION BY MANY CHINESE INTELLECTUALS OF THE WEST
Zhou & Mao photo & later poster
LARGE NUMBERS CHINESE MEN & WOMEN - ESPECIALLY STUDENTS -
TURNED TO THE NEW BOLSHEVIK GOVERNMENT IN RUSSIA FOR
INSPIRATION & A YEAR LATER THEY FORMED THE CHINESE COMMUNIST
PARTY ... AMONG THEM WERE MAO TSE-TUNG & CHOU EN-LAI -
BOTH OF WHOM TOOK PART IN THE 4TH OF MAY DEMONSTRATIONS
{Macmillan, Paris, 1919 p 338-341}

Franz & Sophie Ferdinand photo
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES THAT ENDED THE GREAT WAR WAS
SIGNED ON 28 JUNE 1919 - 5 YEARS TO THE
DAY OF THE ASSASSINATION OF FRANZ FERDINAND & HIS WIFE
Hall of Mirrors photo & painting
THE CEREMONY ITSELF TOOK PLACE AT THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES ON
THE OUTSKIRTS OF PARIS THAT HAD BEEN BUILT TO THE GLORY OF
LOUIS XIV IN THE LATE 1600s ... THAT MORE RECENTLY HAD BEEN THE
SITE OF BISMARCK’S TRIUMPH & NOW WAS TO BE THE SITE OF
GERMANY’S HUMILIATION
THE TREATY’S MAIN TERMS WERE THESE -

GERMANY WAS SINGLED OUT FOR PUNISHMENT
IT’S ONCE PROUD ARMY WAS LIMITED TO A SMALL FORCE
IT LOST TERRITORY - ESPECIALLY IN THE EAST TO THE NEW NATION
OF POLAND
Map of German territorial losses
GERMANY WAS ALSO FORCED TO MAKE HUGE CASH PAYMENTS CALLED
REPARATIONS TO SOME OF THE ALLIES ... JUST AS BISMARCK HAD IMPOSED
REPARATIONS ON FRANCE IN 1871 ... BUT - WHAT WAS WORST - WAS THAT
THE ALLIES FORCED GERMANY TO ACCEPT WAR GUILT
IN OTHER WORDS, THE GERMANS HAD TO AGREE THAT THEY - & THEY
ALONE - HAD BROUGHT THIS 4-YEAR CATASTROPHE ON THE WORLD ...
PROBABLY MORE THAN ANYTHING ELSE, THE WAR GUILT CLAUSE LAID
FOUNDATION FOR A 2ND WORLD WAR
MORE GENERALLY - THE VERSAILLES SETTLEMENT DRAMATICALLY
ALTERED THE FACE OF EUROPE - AS YOU CAN SEE FROM THIS MAP
Europe 1914 & 1922 maps
AS I SAID PREVIOUSLY, THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES ALSO RE-MADE THE
MIDDLE EAST & LAID THE FOUNDATIONS FOR 2 CONFLICTS ... THE
SEEDS OF THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT - & THE IRAQ WAR WERE
SOWN DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR
{EXPLAIN - BREAK-UP OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE}
UNFORTUNATELY FOR WILSON - WHO COUNTED ON THE LEAGUE OF
NATIONS TO RIGHT THESE WRONGS - THE LEAGUE’S SUCCESS
DEPENDED ON THE LEADERSHIP OF THE 3 MAJOR ALLIED POWERS - OF

BRITAIN, FRANCE - BUT - ESPECIALLY THE UNITED STATES
WHILE BRITAIN & FRANCE JOINED THE ORGANIZATION - THE US SENATE
WAS DOMINATED BY REPUBLICAN ISOLATIONISTS
WHO OPPOSED US PARTICIPATION IN THE LEAGUE
WILSON TOOK HIS CASE TO THE TO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE
DURING A CROSS-COUNTRY TOUR TO PROMOTE THE LEAGUE WILSON
SUFFERED A STROKE ... AFTER THAT, HE WAS, FOR ALL INTENTS &
PURPOSES -AN INVALID FOR THE REST OF HIS PRESIDENCY
SHORTLY AFTER WILSON’S STROKE - AS EXPECTED - THE SENATE
REJECTED THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES & THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
CRIPPLING ORGANIZATION AT THE OUTSET
Warren Harding photo

THAT MADE IT THE MAIN ISSUE OF THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF
1920 ... WHILE THE DEMOCRATS SUPPORTED THE LEAGUE - THE
REPUBLICANS NOMINATED AN OBSCURE OHIO SENATOR NAMED
WARREN G. HARDING - WHO PROMISED THE RETURN THE NATION TO -
AS HE CALLED IT - NORMALCY ... WHICH ISN’T A WORD, BUT NEVER MIND
THIS WOULDN’T BE THE LAST TIME THAT WE’VE HAD A MAN IN THE WHITE
HOUSE WHO’S DONE BATTLE WITH THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ... & THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE HAS LOST
ANYWAY - WHILE HARDING MIGHT NOT HAVE BEEN A MASTER OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE - HE DID APPEAL TO A CERTAIN WEARINESS
AMONG THE AMERICAN PEOPLE - MANY OF WHOM WANTED TO TURN THEIR
BACKS ON THE WORLD ... THEY COULDN’T - OF COURSE BU THEY WOULD
TRY MIGHTILY HARD OVER THE NEXT 2 DECADES

Peace celebration photo & illustration
WHEN THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES WAS SIGNED IN 1919 - THERE WERE, AS
YOU MIGHT IMAGINE - HUGE CELEBRATIONS ... ESPECIALLY IN PARIS
PEOPLE REALLY BELIEVED THEY HAD ENDED WAR FOR ALL TIME
ONE FRENCH GENERAL - WATCHING THE CELEBRATIONS - KNEW BETTER
AFTERWARD - HE WROTE - THEY THINK THEY HAVE GOT PEACE …
WHEN ALL THEY HAVE GOT IS A 20-YEAR TRUCE
AND - OF COURSE - HE WAS RIGHT
{Sebastian Faulks, ‘Heroes in hell’, The Guardian, 15 Sept 1993,

attributes this quote to Foch; see World War I file for copy.}
LOOKING BACK ON THIS TRAGEDY, THE AMERICAN WRITER EZRA POUND
BLAMED THE WAR ON A BOTCHED CIVILIZATION WHICH HAD BEGOTTEN
SCIENTIFIC BARBARISM ... BARBARISM BRED MORE BARBARISM ... & -
IN RUSSIA, THE BARBARISM OF WORLD WAR I TOOK THE FORM OF

BOLSHEVISM ... THAT IS THE SUBJECT WE’LL TURN TO

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1HIST 125 - Introduction to World History: Lecture 4

I. “It’s too soon to tell”: the Impact of the French Revolution

Film clips, illustrations, etc

1. Photo - Chou en-Lai & Kissinger

Photo - Chou en-Lai & Kissinger

I. “It’s too soon to tell”: the Impact of the French Revolution

1ST TIME WITH ONE OF THE LEADERS OF CHINA, ZHOU EN-LAI

I DON’T THINK I NEED TO SAY WHO IS WHO IN THIS PHOTO ...

TO BREAK THE ICE, KISSINGER ASKED ZHOU WHAT HE THOUGHT ABOUT

REPLY: "IT'S TOO SOON TO TELL"

LEADERS OF CHINA'S COMMUNIST REVOLUTION - A REVOLUTION THAT -

ITSELF - CAN BE TRACED BACKED TO THE UPHEAVAL THAT HAD TAKEN

PLACE HALF A WORLD AWAY & NEARLY 2 CENTURIES EARLIER

A WATERSHED - A MAJOR TURNING POINT - & MANY OTHER,

IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS CAME OUT OF IT ... THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION WAS THE 1ST GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN

NEARLY ALL OTHER REVOLUTIONS & REVOLUTIONARIES HAVE - SINCE

THEN - MODELED THEMSELVES ON IT

GENERALLY SPEAKING, THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS A DIRECT

CHALLENGE TO THE TRADITIONAL FORM OF GOVERNMENT - MONARCHY

CASE THE PEOPLE WERE OF A NEW, EMERGING CLASS IN SOCIETY ...

MERCHANTS, BUSINESSMEN, LAWYERS, & DOCTORS - A RECOGNIZABLE

CLASS IS BOURGEOIS ... ITS PLURAL FORM IS BOURGEOISIE - A

TERM YOU’LL HEAR MORE OF

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity painting

THE IDEALS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WERE SUMMED UP BY THE

MOTTO "LIBERTÉ, EGALITÉ, FRATERNITÉ"

COMES TO LIBERTY & EQUALITY ... BY FRATERNITÉ - THEY MEANT

BROTHERHOOD ... THAT ALL OF US - BY VIRTUE OF THE FACT THAT

WE ARE HUMAN BEINGS - ARE LINKED TOGETHER AS - WELL - AS

BROTHERS ARE LINKED TO ONE ANOTHER IN A SINGLE FAMILY ... IN THIS

CASE THE COMMON FAMILY OF ALL MANKIND

ALL 3 OF THESE IDEAS - LIBERTY, EQUALITY, & FRATERNITY - ARE

THE LEADERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION WERE INSPIRED BY

HAVING SAID THAT - THERE WERE SOME FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN THE REVOLUTIONS IN AMERICA & FRANCE ... THE AMERICAN

REVOLUTION WAS A POLITICAL & LEGAL REVOLUTION

IT FREED THE AMERICANS FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE & THEIR

ALLEGIANCE TO THE BRITISH CROWN & CREATED A REPUBLIC

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION - HOWEVER - DID NOT OVERTURN THE

EXISTING SOCIAL & ECONOMIC ORDER

WELL OVERTHROWING THE FRENCH MONARCHY - AN ENTIRE SOCIAL &

ECONOMIC CLASS - THE ARISTOCRACY - WAS OVERTHROWN AS WELL

THERE WAS A MASSIVE RE-DISTRIBUTION OF PROPERTY & WEALTH

AN ISSUE YOUR BOOK DISCUSSES BEGINNING ON p 527

IN FACT - NO REVOLUTION WOULD BE AS RADICAL AS THE ONE THAT

OCCURRED IN FRANCE UNTIL THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION IN

1 Ancien Régime Painting

II. The Ancien Régime

HIERARCHIES - OR CLASSES -WITH A VERY FEW PEOPLE BORN INTO A

WORLD OF WEALTH & PRIVILEGE WHILE THE OVERWHELMING

MAJORITY OF PEOPLE WERE PEASANTS - & PEASANTS THEY REMAINED

FOR THE REST OF THEIR LIVES

IN EUROPE, SPECIFICALLY, THIS WORLD BY THE EARLY early 1700s WAS

KNOWN AS THE ANCIEN REGIME - WHICH SIMPLY MEANS OLD, OR

WITH THE EXCEPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN - AFTER THE GLORIOUS

REVOLUTION ... MOST EUROPEANS LIVED UNDER SOME SORT OF

ABSOLUTIST RULE … BY THE LATE 18TH CENTURY- HOWEVER …