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Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis for Potohar Region

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Pakistan Journal of Meteorology Vol. 6, Issue 11

Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis

for Potohar Region
Dildar Hussain Kazmi1, Dr. Ghulam Rasul1
Abstract
The farmers of rainfed areas get low yields as rich as compared to the ones from the irrigated land, due to several
natural constraints among which water availability is the major one. It is considered reasonable that yield forecast
should be made as early as possible before harvesting. For rainfed areas yield assessment (of wheat crop) can be
made based on Tillering to reproductive stage in late February or early March. Although the growth of any crop is
not only dependant on weather parameters yet they have a great impact on final yield produced. This study revealed
that at a particular time some meteorological parameters act as the main actor for the physical growth of wheat
crop and the final yield in the end. During the 1st & 2nd decade of January, the moderate amount of rainfall (up to
40 mm) is favourable for a better yield. Heavy rains at this stage may have adverse effects on the final yield.
Throughout the wheat grown season, if rainfall exceeds 120 mm then the final yield obtained may be good or above
average. Reproductive stage (heading to grain formation) is the most critical period in the life cycle of wheat crop.
A slight shortfall or excess of water produces drastic changes in the economic yield of the crop. Heat units during
the early age and particularly at the beginning of reproductive stage should be equal to or slightly above than the
normal to get optimum yield. Mean minimum temperature should be higher during first two decades of January and
lower in the 2nd decade of February to harvest good economic yield. Higher than normal temperatures in February
shorten the period for reproduction. Less number of grains per spike, smaller size and weight of grain are the
outcome. During the 3rd decade of January & 1st decade of March higher duration of bright sunshine is favourable
for a better yield.
Keywords: Rainfed areas, Potohar region, Yield forecast, weather parameters

Introduction
Pakistan Agricultural Research Council has distributed Pakistan into ten agro-ecological regions on the
bases of physiography, geology, climate, agricultural land use and water availability. The agro-ecological
zone-V (Rainfed areas) covers the Potohar plateau, Salt Range, and Himalayan Piedmont plains. The soils
of the Rainfed areas are classified as silt loam, silty clay loam, and clay loam. Areas that are always moist
or warm are not suitable for wheat crop. Well drained clay loams, loams and sandy loams are the best
soils for wheat. Wheat is commonly sown normally October to November under rainfed conditions and
around the middle of November under irrigated conditions. The Potohar plateau is bounded in the north
by the Kala-Chitta and the Margalla ranges, in the east by the Jehlum River, in the south by the Salt range
and in the west by the Indus River. (PARC, 1980).
Wheat is an important cereal and cash crop for any country especially for an agricultural-developing state
like Pakistan. Pakistan is one of the major wheat producers of the world (Dowswell, 1989). It is
essentially better from nutritional point of view than most cereals and other food staples. In Pakistan,
spring wheat is grown as a Rabi crop in the Sindh, Punjab, NWFP, and Baluchistan provinces. In the
northern parts of Baluchistan, some winter wheat is cultivated on a small scale It is grown on an area of
about 8.5 million hectares in Pakistan and nearly 70 % of this area is irrigated, which constitutes about 36
% of the total irrigated area in the country while 30 % is northern rain fed. Rainfed areas are concentrated
in Potohar plateau, northern mountains, and northeastern plains of the country forming the largest
contiguous block of dry land farming in Pakistan (GoP, 2006).
The Potohar area has great agricultural potential to lower down the import load of the country (Ijaz and
Ahmad, 2006).The land resources of Potohar are characterized with fragmented land holdings. The
agricultural activities in these areas contribute about 10 percent of total agricultural production. In the
context of crop production, barani lands have often been underestimated, however, more than 1200

1
Pakistan Meteorological Department

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 Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis…… Vol. 6

kg/acre of wheat have reportedly been produced in this area, which reveals a high potential for crop
production (Ashraf, 2004).
Since the beginning of agriculture, farmers have always been interested in assessing the size of their
future harvest in the relation to what they have sown (Rasul, 1993). With the passage of time food crises
has grown severely throughout the globe especially in the developing countries like ours. Consequently, it
has become increasingly necessary to forecast the size and quality of harvests, particularly for cereal
crops, which remain the best source of food in most parts of the world. Forecasts are very important to
help the wheat producing countries to know in advance the size of the harvest and the portion of which
can be exported or how much would be imported (FAO 73, 1986).
Climatically Potohar plateau lies in the semi-arid region, influenced mainly by summer monsoon (July-
September) and partly from winter precipitation as well. Early rains during winter are beneficial for
timely sowing of wheat crop in Potohar region. Also the early spring rains results into healthier final
growth and better yield of wheat crop in the area. (Rasul, 1993).
Higher rainfall variance seems to the main factor behind dry-land yield fluctuations. Amount and
distribution of Rainfall during crop season are important. Distribution of rainfall becomes more
significant for the lands with low water holding capability and also in the seasons with adequate soil
moisture available at planting (Pratley, 2003).
Increasing temperatures may have a positive impact on agriculture in the mountain areas, for instance
through shortening of growing period for the winter season crops. Winter crops (e.g. wheat) in the high
mountain areas, do not even reach to maturity in most cases and as such the crop is harvested premature
and used as fodder. The shortening of the growing season length due to rising temperature could be
beneficial in the mountain areas as it would help the winter crops in timely maturity and as such would
allow the crop to mature in the optimal period of time, with beneficial effects on crop area and yields
(Hussain and Mudasser, 2004).
The interaction between meteorological parameters and crop’s growth are more pronounced at some
particular phenological stages. And it is weather not climate which may be used as an input for the
purpose of yield prediction in crop modeling. Although the seasonal weather forecasting is a tough task
but it may be the best input for a crop model. After establishing a relation between the seasonal weather
pattern and final yield, a proper modeling track may be designed (Challinor et al, 2003).
There are a number of meteorological parameters considered significant for wheat crop, but some of them
are found to be much more important during some particuler stages in crop life cycle. Also the farmers of
arid or rainfed areas (like potohar) are more vulnerable to weather. Therefore, in this study it has been
tried to established some relationship between weather elements and the crop, in order to estimate the
final yield well before harvesting. For the purpose last 15 years real time meteorological data has been
utilized. And the approach being employed is purely statistical.
Phenological Stages
Phonological stages are very important icons as they portray the on going condition of the growing
crop. Wheat crop has mainly nine phonological stages (excluding germination).
On average the occurrence & duration of different phonological stages of wheat in Potohar is as
under;

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Issue 11 Dildar Hussain Kazmi, Dr. Ghulam Rasul

Table 1: Occurrence & duration for phonological stages of wheat in Potohar

(Based upon 15 years phenological data collected at RAMC Rawalpindi).
Sr. No. PHASE PERIOD
1 EMERGENCE 15 NOV-30 NOV
2 THIRD LEAF 01 DEC-20 DEC
3 TILLERING 21 DEC-15 JAN
4 SHOOTING 16 JAN-25 FEB
5 HEADING 26 FEB-05 MAR
6 FLOWERING 06 MAR-20 MAR
7 MILK MATURITY 21 MAR-18 APR
8 WAX MATURITY 19 APR-25 APR
9 FULL MATURITY 26 APR-28 APR

Data Used and Methodology

Observed meteorological data recorded at RAMC (Regional Agromet Centre of PMD), Rawalpindi is
used in this study. At an RAMC the meteorological data is recorded thrice a day i.e, 0800, 1400 & 1700
PST. Yield data recorded at NARC (National Agricultural Research Centre) and RAMC, Rawalpindi has
been used in this study.
It is evident from the research conducted so far, that there are a number of meteorological/climatic factors
which affect the growth and ultimately the final yield of the crops, like wheat. But among all these the
importance of rain is more pronounced, rainfall occurring time, amount and also its intensity play a vital
role in final yield obtained.
Besides rainfall other meteorological factors like minimum, maximum & mean temperature, wind speed,
relative humidity, evapotranspiration and heating degree days or heat units are also considered important
in early assessment of a crop’s yield. Considering all the said facts, data of all these parameters is
analyzed on decadal (10 days), phonological stage wise and on seasonal basis as well. The approach being
used is mainly statistical, including applications like regression, correlation and mean deviation etc.
Because of having a variety of data sets, each of the parameters is discussed separately with its overall
impacts on wheat crop at different time/ stage. The average or normal values used for each parameter is
based on the last 15 years data.
Some parameters like reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) and heat units etc which cannot be
measured directly and some specific methods are used for their calculation. ETo is defined as the rate of
evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8 – 15 cm tall green grass cover of uniform height,
actively growing, completely shading the ground, free from disease and not short of water.
The heat units or growing degree days for a particular crop on any day is the difference between the daily
mean temperature (T) and the base temperature (Tb) of the crop. For example, the base temperature for
wheat is 5°C, so on a day with mean temperature 10.5°C, the number of heat units will be 5.5. Starting
from the early growth, the daily heat units are added. If 1800 heat units are needed for a crop (wheat) to
mature then the crop should be ready for harvesting when the accumulation reaches 1800. The period of
negative value is termed as “dormant” because no growth of crop takes place under such situation.
Calculation of Heat Units:
There are mainly two methods being used for calculation of heat units i.e. active method, in which
directly mean temperature is added and effective method, in which the threshold temperature along
with the mean temperature is used.
In this study, the effective method has been used for determining heat units, which is represented by
the following equation.

75
 Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis…… Vol. 6

∑ (T − T ) = K
b if T > Tb

&

(T − T ) = 0
b if T < Tb

where
T = Mean daily temperature, Tb = Biological zero, K = Heat Units

Calculation of ETo:
There are a number of methods being used for ETo calculation but Blaney-Criddle is one for which
very limited meteorological data is required. Also the method is suitable for stations at high latitudes
and monsoon climates as well (FAO 24, 1992). This is being used in Pakistan over decades.
Blaney-Criddle Method:
This method is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data only.
The original Blaney Criddle equation (1950) involves the calculation of the consumptive use
factor (f) from mean temperature (T) and percentage (p) of total annual daylight hours occurring
during the period being considered.
The relationship recommended, representing mean value over the given month, is expressed as:
ETo = c ⎡⎣ p ( 0.46T + 8.13) ⎤⎦ mm / day

where
ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the month considered
T = mean daily temperature in °C over the month considered.
p = mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours obtained
c = adjustment factor, which depends on minimum relative humidity, sunshine hours and daytime
wind estimates.

Results & Discussion

Significance of Rainfall
Rain has immense importance during the growth and development of wheat crop both in rainfed and
irrigated conditions. In rainfed areas the crop is totally dependant upon rain from the land preparation
to the time of maturity but in irrigated fields rain provides clean environmental conditions to support
optimum photoperiodic activity for better biomass and grain yield. As every crop requires water for
its life cycle to continue in an optimal manner, but in rainfed areas like Potohar the only source of
water is rain. Therefore, its importance is more pronounced in these areas for a prominent cereal crop
like wheat. Luckily, Potohar is situated in the track of summer monsoon currents from the east and
also in winter westerly currents approach this region. As a result generally optimum rains occur
throughout the year. In this area normally about 60% of the annual rain occurs during summer
monsoon while about 40 % rain occurred during winter when wheat is grown (Chaudhry, 1991).
In rainfed areas, it is highly desirable that density of rain measuring network should be reasonable.
Despite this known fact, the number of meteorological stations in rainfed area is few, developed a
simple method for estimation of rainfall in areas where raingauges are not installed. This method
proved to be much helpful for Potohar and Baluchistan plateau (Rasul, 2001). .Moisture through rain
is main factor for a crop to grow in rainfed areas, therefore it is discussed & analyzed on decadal,
phenological and seasonal basis to see how it affected the final yield obtained in different Rabi

76
Issue 11 Dildar Hussain Kazmi, Dr. Ghulam Rasul

seasons during the last 15 years. Decadal rain and yield correlations may have good relationship for
setting up prediction criteria.
Decadal Rainfall & Final Yield
This section covers the rainfall relation with the yield on decadal basis. Rainfall occurred during the
first decade of November is analyzed (Fig.1.a) as it is normally the sowing decade for wheat in
elevated agricultural plains of Potohar plateau. An optimum amount of precipitation results into good
germination and supports well the initial establishment of the crop. It may have a positive impact on
seedling growth, number of fertile tillers per plant and the final yield as well.
RAINY DAYS IN 1st DECADE OF NOVEMBER & YIELD OBTAINED RAINFALL IN 1st DECADE OF NOVEMBER & YIELD OBTAINED
(1993-2007) (1993-2007)
5500
6

25 5500
5000 5000
NO. OF DAYS

YIELD (kg/Ha)
20

YIELD (kg/Ha)
4500

RAIN (mm)
4500
4

4000 15 4000
3500
10 3500
2

3000
3000
2500 5
2000 2500
0

0 2000
1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007
YEARS
YEARS
a RAINY DAYS YIELD
b RAINFALL YIELD

Fig. 1(a) Rainfall and (b) rainy days during 1st decade of November verses yield final during 1993-2007.

Unfortunately meteorological statistics shows that rain seldom occurred in this decade during the last
fifteen years, if some time it occurred, a better yield had been produced except 1999 when yield
dropped despite a good rain during that decade. Like rainfall, the rainy days in November remained
very few, but their numbers impose a positive impact on the final yield.
As the months of January & February match the youth of wheat crop and are very critical for a Rabi
crop like wheat, therefore, the rain during different decades of these two months along with rainy
days has been analyzed relative to the final yield obtained. During February the rain has not shown
any significant correlation with final yield so, only the significant decades of January are presented
here.
The rainfall during 1st decade of January (Fig. 2.a) has generally a good relation to the final yield. It
has been seen that during the last 15 years the rainfall up to 35 mm has good impact on the wheat
yield. The regression has not indicated a rather good relation between rain & the final yield. The
higher amount of rainfall than threshold caused yield reductions.
The rainfall occurred during 2nd decade of January has shown very good relation with the final yield
obtained, in the last 15 years (Figure 2.b). It is very important result that if fewer rains occurred in the
first two decades of January then we may expect good yield in the end. The reason seems to be
related to the photosynthesis. Prevailing cloudiness hinders this activity and carbohydrates as well as
dry matter production remains low which results in lower yields.
RAINFALL VERSES YIELD IN 1st DECADE OF JANUARY (1994-2008) RAINFALL VERSES YIELD IN 2nd DECADE OF JANUARY (1994-2008)

y = -7.8581x + 4079 y = -19.008x + 4628.9

YIELD (Kg/Ha)

5000
YIELD (Kg/Ha)

5000 2 2
R = 0.1665 R = 0.5437
4000 4000

3000 3000

2000 2000
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 0 20 40 60 80 100
RAIN (mm)
RAIN (mm)
a YIELD REGRESSION
b YIELD REGRESSION

Fig 2 (a) Rainfall during 1st and (b) 2nd decade of January verses final yield during 1994-2008.

77
 Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis…… Vol. 6

Critical Rainfall
In this section the rainfall patterns during October-March & January-February, in the last 15 years are
discussed relative to the yield gain in the end.
It can be seen from the Figure 3.a, that when ever the rain occurred about 150 mm or more in the said
period, the final yield harvested was good. In Figure 3.b, it is further indicated that why in some years
with more rain low yield was obtained in the end.
RAINFALL DURING OCT-MAR & YIELD OBTAINED (1993-2008) RAINY DAYS DURING OCT-MAR & YIELD OBTAINED (1993-2008)

600.0 5500 70 5500

500.0 5000 60 5000

YIELD (Kg/Ha)

YIELD (kg/Ha)
4500 50 4500
RAIN (mm)

400.0
4000

DAYS
300.0 40 4000
3500 30 3500
200.0 3000
100.0 20 3000
2500
0.0 2000 10 2500
1993-94

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

1997-98

1998-99

1999-00

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08
0 2000

1993-94

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

1997-98

1998-99

1999-00

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08
a PERIODS b YEARS

RAIN (OCT-MAR) YIELD RAINY DAYS YIELD

Fig 3 (a) Rainfall and (b) rainy days during Oct-Mar and final yield during 1993-2008.

Reproductive stage (heading to grain formation) is the most critical period in the life cycle of crops.
A slight shortfall or excess of water produces drastic changes in the economic yield of the crop. The
pattern of rainfall during the reproductive stage (Jan-Feb) is almost same as during October-March.
Whenever rains occurred above 75 mm, the final yield produced was good. This is also shown in the
Figure 4.b, in which 12 or more rainy days during January-February have resulted into a better yield
in the end.
RAINFALL DURING REPRODUCTIVE STAGES & YIELD OBTAINED
RAINY DAYS DURING REPRODUCTIVE STAGES
(1994-2008) & YIELD OBTAINED (1994-2008)
300.0 5500 30 5500

250.0 5000 25 5000

YIELD (Kg/Ha)

4500 4500

YIELD (kg/Ha)
RAIN (mm)

200.0 20
4000
DAYS

4000
150.0 15
3500 3500
100.0 10
3000 3000
50.0 2500 5 2500
0.0 2000 0 2000
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008
YEARS YEARS

a b RAINY DAYS YIELD

RAIN (JAN-FEB) YIELD

Fig 4.(a). Rainfall and (b) rainy days during Jan-Feb and final yield during 1994-2008.

Heat Units
As heat units or degree days are widely known as a practical application of temperature data which is
used in agriculture to predict the approximate date for the crops to be ready for harvest. Heat units can
be used relative to different phonological phases to go for early assessment of the final yield of wheat.
First of all accumulated heat units have been analyzed for Rabi seasons with variable yield
production. The purpose was to investigate the heat units behaviour at different phenological stages
and the yield response in consequence. Sum of heat units is taken from first phase set in date to next
phase set in date. The phase is said to be set in when 10 % plants show that phase. Inter phase sum of
heat units differ from phase to phase in accordance with time taken.
It can be seen from the fig 5.a, that heat units (H.U) during Rabi 1993-94 were ahead of the normal
values right from the beginning of the emergence stage. The actual curve came closer to the normal
during reproductive stages (heading to grain formation) and also in the last two stages. The normal
values for H.U. in the stages tillering, shooting & heading are 571, 742 & 959 respectively but in this

78
Issue 11 Dildar Hussain Kazmi, Dr. Ghulam Rasul

season the actual values remained 626, 821 & 993 respectively. The warming at the reproductive
stage accelerate the growth of the plant, consequently less time is available for the grain to gain size
and weight. The increased values at these stages may produce some bad effects. However, during this
particular year environment returned to normal and best yield was harvested i.e. 5000 Kg/Ha.
During Rabi 2002-03 (Fig 5.b), also the actual heat units remained mostly higher than or equivalent to
the normal. The normal values for H.U. in the stages tillering, shooting & heading are 571, 742 & 959
respectively but in this year the actual values remain 607, 795 & 998 respectively. The increased
values at these stages may affect negatively but in the final stages of the crop it came closer to the
normal conditions and a better yield produced of 4000 Kg/Ha in the year 2002-03. If we compare
final stages of wax & full maturity of wheat during Rabi 2002-03 with Rabi 1993-94 (the best season
for yield production in last 15 years), it can be seen that the actual H.U. in Rabi 2002-03 were higher
than the normal values. While in Rabi 1993-94 actual & normal H.U were almost same. This might
have been the reason for 1000 Kg/Ha reduction in wheat yield during Rabi 2002-2003 from the best
yield season.
NORMAL HEAT UNITS & ACTUAL VALUES DURING RABI 1993-94 NORMAL HEAT UNITS & ACTUAL VALUES DURING RABI 2002-03

2000 2000
1800 1800
1600 1600
1400
HE A T U N IT S

1400

H E A T U N IT S
1200 1200
1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
3-L E A F

W. M AT
HEAD

M . M AT

F. M A T

3-L E A F

W. M AT
HEAD
F LO W E R

M . M AT

F. M A T
FLO W ER
EM ERG

SHO OT
T IL L E R

EM ERG

SHO OT
T IL L E R
PHENOLOGICAL STAGES PHENOLOGICAL STAGES

a NORMAL H.U ACTUAL H.U b NORMAL H.U ACTUAL H.U

Fig 5 (a).Normal and observed heat units for wheat crop during Rabi 1993-94 and (b) Rabi 2002-03.

During Rabi 2003-04 (Fig. 6.a), the H.U. were closer to normal in the initial stages but as the crop
entered into the reproductive mode, it abruptly increased and became 200 units ahead of normal in the
last stage. This might be the main reason for low yield during Rabi 2003-04, i.e. 3500 Kg/Ha.
During Rabi 1997-98 (Fig. 6.b), the H.U. of wheat remained lower than from the normal right from
the initial stages and in the last stage it was lagging behind the normal by about 150 units. Due to the
reduction in the H.U. in this fashion, the final yield produced lower i.e. 3800 Kg/Ha.
NORMAL HEAT UNITS & ACTUAL VALUES DURING RABI 2003-04 NORMAL HEAT UNITS & ACTUAL VALUES DURING RABI 1997-98

2200 2000
2000 1800
1800 1600
1600
H E A T U N IT S

1400
H E A T U N IT S

1400
1200
1200
1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
3-L E A F

W. MAT

3-L E A F

W. M AT
HEAD

M . M AT

F. M AT

HEAD

M. M AT

F. M A T
FLO W ER

FLO W ER
EM ERG

SHO O T

EM ERG

SHO O T
T IL L E R

T IL L E R

PHENOLOGICAL STAGES PHENOLOGICAL STAGES

a NORMAL H.U ACTUAL H.U b NORMAL H.U ACTUAL H.U

Fig 6.(a). Normal and observed heat units for wheat crop during Rabi 2003-04 and (b) 1997-98.

Critical Heat Units

The behavior of heat units accumulated up to or at the beginning of some important phonological
stages and the final yield produced during different Rabi seasons is being discussed. We start from the
stage “Tillering”, which is very important as new tillers are produced during this period.

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 Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis…… Vol. 6

It can be seen from the Figure 7.a, that most of the time whenever heat units remained higher than the
normal, a better yield produced and vice versa. Although for a few years this idea does holds good as
heat unit are not the only driver of growth and development.
Shooting is very important stage in the life cycle of wheat cop. At shooting also (Fig. 7.b), the higher
heat units than normal resulted a better yield in the end and vice versa, except for a few seasons. This
rule holds well in the seasons with extra ordinary yield response and also for the seasons with poor
yield response.
NORMAL HEAT UNITS & ACTUAL VALUES NORMAL HEAT UNITS & ACTUAL VALUES
AT TILLERING (1993-2008) AT SHOOTING (1993-2008)
640 5500 830 5500

Y IELD (K g/H a)
620 5000 800 5000

YIELD (Kg/Ha)

HE AT UNITS
HEAT UNITS

600 4500 770 4500

580 4000 4000
740
560 3500 3500
710 3000
540 3000
680 2500
520 2500
650 2000
500 2000

1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-00
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-00
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08

PERIOD PERIOD
a7. YIELD NORMAL H.U. ACTUAL H.U. b YIELD NORMAL H.U. ACTUAL H.U.

Fig 7.a & b: Normal & actual H.U accumulated for wheat crop up to Tillering and Shooting respectively
and yield produced in the last 15 years.

It is well known fact that if favorable temperature conditions for wheat at heading gives rise to higher
number of spikes per plant, consequently good yield may be expected in the end. In the last 15 years
at heading also (Fig. 7.c), whenever the actual heat units remained higher than the normal values, the
yield harvested was good in the end, except for a few seasons. It is also very important stage for
wheat crop, as during this the spikes are produced. Favourable thermal regime enhances the number
of grains per spike as well as better size and weight of the grains resulting into better yield.
NORMAL HEAT UNITS & ACTUAL VALUES
AT HEADING (1993-2008)
1070 5500
1040 5000
7. C
1010
YIELD (Kg/Ha)
HEAT UNITS

4500
980
4000
950
3500
920
890 3000

860 2500
830 2000
1993-94

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

1997-98

1998-99

1999-00

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

PERIOD
c YIELD NORMAL H.U. ACTUAL H.U.

Fig 7.c: Normal & actual H.U accumulated for wheat crop when the Heading started
and yield produced in the last 15 years.

Minimum Temperature
There are many disadvantages of freezing temperatures like the decrease in photosynthesis, decrease
in the export of Carbon Dioxide from the leaves, slower intake of nutrients etc. Although, mild frosts
are not so dangerous for green plants but heavy frosts can cause leaf’s death. Also the cold is
considered more dangerous to the plants growth and in turn to the final yield at more advanced stages.
Dormancy period may be produced some time in the crop’s life cycle, if very low temperatures
sustained for several days.

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Issue 11 Dildar Hussain Kazmi, Dr. Ghulam Rasul

In Potohar region generally the frost phenomena is seen during the colder months. One of the best
indicators for cold, frosts etc is minimum air temperature. Therefore, minimum temperature is studied
on decadal basis as monthly value cannot show the whole picture of its impact on wheat growth. The
approaches being used here are general comparison and regression.
Correlation based analysis of mean minimum temperature (TN) the final yield in the1st decade of
January (Fig. 8.a) was carried out. It can be seen that in the years when it remained 2°C or above in
this decade, the final yield produced was good or above normal. Therefore, we may conclude, if
minimum temperature stays at 2°C or higher then good yield may be expected. But this theory may be
best explained by the regression method.
Regression analysis shows that with the increase in minimum temperature, the grain yield has also
increased in the last 15 years period. In the figure 8.b, mean minimum temperature during the first
decade of January is plotted against the respective yield obtained, the yield values are also shown at
each point. This approach also confirms the idea or assumption that the final yield will be higher if
minimum temperature in first decade of January remains higher.

MEAN MIN TEMPERATURE DURING 1st DECADE OF JANUARY MEAN MIN TEMPERATURE DURING 1st DECADE OF JANUARY
& YIELD OBTAINED (1994-2008)
& YIELD OBTAINED (1993-2007)
5500
7.0 5000 y = 145.81x + 3354
5000
Y IE L D (K g /H a )

5000 R2 = 0.1196
Y IE LD (K g/H a )
T E M P (°C )

5.0 4500 4500

41504100 4200 4200
4000 4000 4000 4000
3.0 3650
3800
3500 3500
1.0 3000
3000 3000 3000
2800
-1.0 2000 2500 2500
19 94
19 95
19 96
19 97
19 98
19 99
20 00
20 01
20 02
20 03
20 04
20 05
20 06
20 07
20 08

2000
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
YEAR TEMPERATURE (°C)
a TEMP YIELD b YIELD REGRESSION

Fig.8.(a.). Mean mininimum temp in 1st decade of January verses yield

during 1994-2008 (comparison) and (b) regression.

By using the regression approach for second decade of January it can be seen that with the increase in
minimum temperature, the grain yield also increased in the last 15 years period. In the Figure 9.A,
mean minimum temperature during the second decade of January is plotted against the respective
yield produced, the yield values are also shown at each point also. As the value for “R2“is “0.14” we
may say that the regression result is about 37 % which indicates a considerable relationship. Thus we
say that the final yield may be higher if minimum temperature in second decade of January remains
higher.
By using the regression approach for first decade of February it may be seen that now with the
decrease in minimum temperature, the grain yield has increased in the last 15 years period. In the
Figure 9.B, mean minimum temperature during the first decade of February is plotted against the
respective yield produced, the yield values are also shown at each point also. As the value for “R2“is
“0.22” we may say that the regression result is about 47 % which is sign of a good relationship. Thus
we say that the final yield may be higher if minimum temperature in first decade of February remains
lower.

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 Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis…… Vol. 6

MEAN MIN TEMPERATURE DURING 2nd DECADE OF JANUARY MEAN MINIMUM TEMPERATURE DURING 1st DECADE OF FEBRUARY
& YIELD OBTAINED (1994-2008) & YIELD OBTAINED (1994-2008)
5500 5500
y = 134.16x + 3346.3 y = -208.76x + 4709.2
5000 5000 5000 5000
Y IE LD (K g/H a)

R2 = 0.1362

Y IE L D (K g /H a )
R2 = 0.2213
4500 4500.0 4500 4500
4150 4100 4200.0 4200.0 4200 4200
4150
4000 4000.0 4000.0 4000 4000 4000 4100
3800.0 3800
3650 3650
3500 3500.0 3500 3500
3000 3000.0
2800.0
3000.0 3000 2800
3000 3000
2500 2500.0 2500 2500
2000 2000
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
TEMPERATURE (°C) TEMPERATURE (°C)
a YIELD REGRESSION b YIELD REGRESSION

Fig.9.(a). Mean minimum temp in 2nd decade of January and (b) 1st decade of February verses yield during 1994-2008.

Maximum Temperarure
Maximum temperatures are some times become responsible for limiting wheat yield, by giving rise to
mean daily temperatures. With the increase in mean daily temperatures, the heat units will be
increased earlier. Accordingly wheat will acquire the heat units required for maturity stage well
before time or much earlier than the requirement. In turn the crop will be ready to harvest earlier but
grain yield will remain definitely lower. Maximum temperatures actually accelerate the plant
development and affect the floral organ, processes of fruit formation & photosynthesis. Now we
discuss and analyze the mean maximum temperatures (TX) on decadal basis with respective yield
produced during the last 15 years.
In Figure 10, mean maximum temperature as observed during the 2nd decade of November is plotted
against the respective yield produced. It can be seen from the above Figure that maximum
temperature shows good result relative to the final yield. Value for R2 is shown as “0.15” and we may
say that the regression result is about 39 %. It means that with the increase in maximum temperature
during 2nd decade of December, the final yield is expected to be produced as good or above average.
MEAN MAX TEMP VERSES YIELD IN 2nd DECADE OF
NOVEMBER (1994-2008)
5500
y = 199.66x - 1379.9
5000 5000
YIELD (Kg/Ha)

R2 = 0.1541
4500 4500
4200
4150 4200
4000 40004100
4000
3800
3500 3650
3500
3000 3000 3000
2800
2500 2500
2000
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
TEMPERATURE (°C)
YIELD REGRESSION

Fig.10: Mean max temp in 2nd decade of November verses yield during 1994-2008.

On Comparing mean maximum temperature (TX) against the final yield in 2nd decade of December it
can be seen that when ever it remained up to 19 °C, the final yield produced good and vice versa.
Therefore, we may assume, if maximum temperature stays 19°C or lower then finally good yield may
be expected. But this theory may be better explained by the regression method.
In the Figure 11.A, mean maximum temperature as observed during the 2nd decade of December is
plotted against the respective yield produced. It can be seen from the above Figure that maximum
temperature shows good result relative to the final yield. Value for R2 is shown as “0.19” we may say
that the regression result is about 44 %. It means that with the decrease in maximum temperature
during 2nd decade of December, the final yield produced as good or above average.

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Issue 11 Dildar Hussain Kazmi, Dr. Ghulam Rasul

MEAN MAX TEMPERATURE DURING 2nd DECADE OF DECEMBER MEAN MAX TEMP VERSES YIELD IN 2nd DECADE OF
& YIELD OBTAINED (1993-2007) DECEMBER (1993-2007)

25 5500

YIELD (K g/H a)
5000 y = -174.34x + 7277.3
5000 5000

YIELD (Kg/Ha)
TEM P (°C )

R2 = 0.1893
20 4500 4500.0
4000 4100 4200.0
4200.0 4150
4000 3800.0 4000.0
4000.0
15 3500.0 3650
3000 3500
3000 3000.0 3000.0
2800.0
10 2000 2500 2500.0
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2000
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
YEAR TEMP (°C)
a11111 TEMP YIELD b YIELD REGRESSION

Fig. 11.(a). Mean maximum temp in 2nd decade of December verses yield
during 1993-2007 (comparison) and (b) regression.

As it is recommended that the yield forecast for wheat crop should be made at least after six weeks of
the sowing or before two month to harvest, therefore we are discussing all the parameters till the end
of February, for each Rabi season. And it is seen that besides these two decades (2nd decade of
November & December), maximum temperature does not show any out standing results relative to
final yield. Although temperature has its by products in the form of degree days or heat units which
have already been discussed.
Sunshine Hours
Duration of bright sunshine hours (or generally sunshine hours) is also very important factor relative
to the final yield, as they affect greenery or water contents directly. These play a major role in driving
temperature and consequently ETo in a particular area. And it is a well known fact that temperature
and ETo are very important factors for the growth of any crop, especially in rainfed areas. Also
photosynthesis process (a key player for healthy growth of a crop) is mainly dependant on good
sunshine and less cloudiness. That is why sunshine hours are included in the discussion and being
examined on decadal basis against the final yield produced during last 15 years. For better elaboration
the dependency of the final crop on sunshine hours, regression method is once again being employed.
It can be seen from the Figures 12 & 13.A, that during the 3rd decade of January and 1st decade of
February we got a good yield with higher sunshine hours. The value for R2 is “0.52”, for decade-III of
January which is a rather out standing result.
SUNSHINE VERSES YIELD DURING 3rd DECADE OF
JANUARY (1994-2008)
5500
y = 27.415x + 1921.7
5000
R2 = 0.5203
YIELD (Kg/Ha)

4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
SUNSHINE (Hours)

YIELD REGRESSION

Fig.12: Total sunshine hours during 3rd decade of January verses yield during 1994-2008.

Therefore, on the 15 years data base we can say that for a better final yield of wheat crop sunshine for
long durations is required during the 3rd decade of January & 1st decade of February. Therefore on
the basis of the statistics of last 15 years, for a better yield of wheat crop the sunshine duration should
be longer during these decades.
The correlation abruptly changed in the 3rd decade of February (Fig.13.b) in which with the lowering
of sunshine the final yield obtained has increased in the last 15 years.

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 Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis…… Vol. 6

SUNSHINE VERSES YIELD DURING 1st DECADE OF SUNSHINE VERSES YIELD DURING 3rd DECADE OF
FEBRUARY (1994-2008) FEBRUARY (1994-2008)

5500 5500
y = 12.806x + 3019.3 y = -17.075x + 4749.8
5000 5000

YIELD (Kg/Ha)
R2 = 0.1148
YIELD (Kg/Ha)

R2 = 0.1368
4500 4500
4000 4000
3500 3500
3000 3000
2500 2500
2000 2000
15 35 55 75 95 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SUNSHINE (Hours) SUNSHINE (Hours)

a A
13. YIELD REGRESSION b YIELD REGRESSION

Fig.13.(a). Total sunshine hours during 1st decade and (b) 3rd decade of February verses yield during 1994-2008

And again in 1st decade of March, the final yield gain has been increased with the increase in
sunshine hours (Fig. 14.a). The value for R2 is above 0.31 which is indication of a good relationship.
Also it is seen that the theory of increasing yield with sunshine, has supported by the Figure for
relative humidity verses yield (Fig. 14.b) for 2nd decade of March, in the last 15 years As the
sunshine & relative humidity are reciprocal to each other, increase in sunshine generally cause
decrease in relative humidity and vice versa.
SUNSHINE VERSES YIELD DURING 1st DECADE OF MARCH REL HUMIDITY VERSES YIELD DURING 2nd DECADE OF
(1994-2008) MARCH (1994-2008)
5500 5500
y = 23.794x + 2166.4 y = -25.017x + 5258.5
5000 5000
YIELD (Kg/Ha)

R2 = 0.3145
YIELD (Kg/Ha)

4500 R2 = 0.1581
4500
4000 4000
3500 3500
3000
3000
2500
2500
2000
2000
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
35 45 55 65 75 85
SUNSHINE (Hours) R. H (%)
a14. A YIELD REGRESSION b YIELD REGRESSION

Fig.14.(a). Total sunshine hours during 1st decade and (b) 2nd decade of March verses yield during 1994-2008

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

As reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) is calculated on the basis of some basic meteorological
elements like mean daily temperature, relative humidity, bright sunshine hours and wind speed
(Blaney-Criddle method), therefore any of its impact on the final yield may be due to combined effect
generated by all these elements or individual effects of any of the elements. The pattern of ETo in the
first four months on decadal basis for some important seasons is being analyzed along with the
average ETo in the last 15 years.
In the Figure 15.A, it can be seen that during the early stages and 2nd decade of December ETo was
higher than the normal, but it become a bit lower in 2nd decade of January and continues till the end
of February. In this season the final yield was 5000 Kg/Ha, which is the highest in the last 15 years.
In Rabi 2001-02 (Figure 15.B) also the ETo was a little higher than the normal pattern, but then
decreased and marched almost along the normal during last 4 decades till the end of February. The
final yield in this season was also very good i.e. 4500 Kg/Ha.

84
Issue 11 Dildar Hussain Kazmi, Dr. Ghulam Rasul

AVERAGE ETo & ACTUAL VALUES DURING NOV-FEB FOR RABI 1993-94 AVERAGE ETo & ACTUAL VALUES DURING NOV-FEB FOR RABI 2001-02

3.0
3.0
2.5 2.5
ETo (mm/day)

ETo (mm/day)
2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0

JA N -I

JA N -II

JA N -III
N O V-I

N O V-II

N O V-III

D EC -I

D EC -II

D EC -III

FEB -I

FEB -II

FEB -III

JAN-I

JAN-II

JAN-III
NOV-III
NOV-I

NOV-II

DEC-I

DEC-II

DEC-III

FEB-I

FEB-II

FEB-III
DECADE DECADE
a ACTUAL ETo NORMAL ETo b ACTUAL ETo NORMAL ETo

Fig.15.(a). Average & actual values of decadal ETo during Nov-Feb for Rabi 1993-94 and (b) for Rabi 2001-02.

The seasons which are discussed in the above paragraphs were those in which very good amount of
yield was obtained, the following discussion is regarding some low or average yield seasons in the
last 15 years.
In Rabi 1997-98 (Figure 16.A), during early stages ETo was very lower than the normal and
continues with almost the same pattern till the end of December. From January, it became closer to
the normal and ends with a little lower value. At the end of this season an average amount of yield
obtained ie. 3650 Kg/Ha.
In Rabi 2005-06 (Figure 16.B), ETo started with the normal values and continues the same pattern till
the 1st decade of January, then it increased ends with a littler higher to the normal. At the end of this
season a very low yield produced that is 2500 Kg/Ha.
AVERAGE ETo & ACTUAL VALUES DURING NOV-FEB FOR RABI 1997-98 AVERAGE ETo & ACTUAL VALUES DURING NOV-FEB FOR RABI 2005-06

2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0
ETo (mm/day)

ETo (mm/day)

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
JAN-I

JAN-II

JAN-III
NOV-I

NOV-II

NOV-III
JAN-I

JAN-II

JAN-III

DEC-I

DEC-II

DEC-III

FEB-I

FEB-II

FEB-III
NOV-I

NOV-II

NOV-III

DEC-I

DEC-II

DEC-III

FEB-I

FEB-II

FEB-III

DECADE DECADE

a ACTUAL ETo NORMAL ETo b ACTUAL ETo NORMAL ETo

Fig.16.(a). Average & actual values of decadal ETo during Nov-Feb for Rabi 1997-98 and (b) for Rabi 2005-06.

From the above Figures it can be seen that when ever ETo remain closer or a bit lower than the
average or normal values during February, besides remaining higher in the early stages, the final yield
was good or above average. But if it became higher than the normal in some last decades of
January/February then a lower amount of yield produced.

Conclusion
There are a number of meteorological parameters significant for the growth and development of wheat
crop in rainfed areas of Potohar. But significance of some of these may become more pronounced at some
particular stage or period in the crop’s life cycle. In this study it has been observed that at a particular
time some meteorological parameters act as the main actor for the physical growth of wheat crop and the
final yield in the end. These parameters were studied individually against the final yield obtained and the
following conclusions were made.

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 Early Yield Assessment of Wheat on Meteorological Basis…… Vol. 6

• During the 1st & 2nd decade of January, the moderate amount of rainfall (approximately up to 40
mm) helps to get a better yield in the end. Heavy rains in these decades may have adverse effects
on the final yield.
• Throughout the wheat grown season, if rainfall exceeds 120 mm then the final yield obtained may
be good or above average.
• Reproductive stage (heading to grain formation) is the most critical period in the life cycle of
wheat crop. A slight shortfall or excess of water produces drastic changes in the economic yield
of the crop. Therefore, for optimum yield good rainfalls with higher and scattered rainy days at
this stage are favourable.
• Heat units during initial stages and particularly at the beginning of reproductive stages should be
equal to or a little bit higher than the normal values i.e. 960 & 1067 for Heading & Flowering
respectively. Also at the final stage the heat units should be within the range 1650 to 1950. If
these requirements are fulfilled simultaneously then a better yield may be expected.
• Mean minimum temperature should be higher during first two decades of January and lower in
the 2nd decade of February, for a better yield in the end. Higher than normal temperatures in
February cause significant reductions in wheat yield.
• During the 3rd decade of January & 1st decade of March higher duration of bright sunshine is
favourable for a better yield.
• When the value of ETo remain a little higher than the normal during some initial decades and in
the last decades of February equal or slightly lower than the normal, then a better yield may be
expected in the end.

References
1. Ashraf, M. (2004). Impact Evaluation of water resources development in the command area
of small dams, Pakistan Council of research in Water Resources (PCRWR), Islamabad.
2. Blaney, H.F. & Criddle, W.D. (1950). Determining water requirement in irrigated areas from
climatological and irrigation data USDA (SCS) TP-96.
3. Challinor, A. J., Slingo , J. M. , Wheeler, T. R., Craufurd, P. Q. and Grimes. D. I. F. (2003).
Toward a Combined Seasonal Weather and Crop Productivity Forecasting System: Determination
of the Working Spatial Scale, Journal of Applied Meteorology, Volume 42 Issue 2, February.
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5. Dowswell, C.(1989). Wheat Research and Development in Pakistan, Pakistan Agriculture
Research Council/ CIMMYT 1989, Collaboration Program.
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climate in mountain areas of Pakistan-An econometric analysis.

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10. Ijaz, S. S., Ahmad, S. (2006). New ideas for Potwar Agriculture, University of Arid Agriculture,
Rawalpindi, Agri Overview www.pakissan.com.
11. PARC (1980). Agro-Ecological Regions of Pakistan, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council,
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Sciences V.12 No.2, July-Dec.
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