INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PROJECT AND

SAFETY MANAGEMENT (IIPSM)

PROJECT TOPIC
CONFINED SPACE

BY

OGHANREMA ORITSEMATOSAN

MARCH, 2022
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Abstract
Introduction
Statement of Problem
Objectives of the Study
Research Questions
Literature Review
(a) Confined Space
(b) Key Characteristics of Confined Space
(c) Examples of Potential Confined Spaces
(d) Hazards Associated with Confined Spaces
(e) Safety Equipment and Confined Spaces
(f) Observation and Communication when Working in Confined Spaces
(g) Legal Requirements in Regards to Confined Space Entry
(h) Legal Requirements in Relation to Emergency Arrangement for
Confined Space
(i) Confined Space Risk Assessment
(j) Key Elements of a Safe System of Work for a Confined Space.
Theoretical Framework
Methodology
Discussion of Findings
Conclusion
Recommendations
References
 ABSTRACT

This project work is focused on confined space - with the view to identified and ascertain the
health and safety environmental issues in confined spaces; and determine the health and
safety measures employed in confined spaces. Despite all the regulatory and standard-setting
efforts that have been made in Nigeria, judging from the most recent statistics, many fatal
incidents related to work in confined spaces still occur. In Nigeria, fatal incidents in most
industries reveal failures in and absence of the identification and preparation of work
situations in confined spaces and in risk management. In this study, we performed a literature
review on existing hazards and risk assessment for confined spaces. Descriptive research
design is being employed for this study. This study thus, concluded that, Health and safety
issues on the confined spaces identified in this study are; challenges in handling materials,
difficulty in providing temporary facilities on site congestion, ergonomic challenges, close
proximity of individuals to operation of large plant and machineries, poor housekeeping and
lack of adequate storage space. Hence, it is recommended amongst others that, easy access
to medical treatment and emergency services be made available.
INTRODUCTION

Generally speaking, a confined space is a fully or partially enclosed space that (Ajayi

and Thwala, 2015):

• is not primarily designed or intended for continuous human occupancy.

• has limited or restricted entrance or exit, or a configuration that can

complicate first aid, rescue, evacuation, or other emergency response

activities.

Confined space can represent a risk for the for the health and safety of anyone who

enters, due to one or more of the following factors (Akinci, Fischen, Levitt and Carlson,

2012):

• its design, construction, location or atmosphere.

• the materials or substances in it.

• work activities being carried out in it, or the mechanical, process and safety

hazards present

Abdul-Hafeez et al., (2017) further states that, confined spaces can be below or above

ground. Confined spaces can be found in almost any workplace. A confined space, despite its

name, is not necessarily small. Examples of confined spaces include silos, vats, hoppers,

utility vaults, tanks, water supply towers, sewers, pipes, access shafts, truck or rail tank cars,

aircraft wings, boilers, manholes, pump stations, digesters, manure pits and storage bins.

Ditches, wells, and trenches may also be a confined space when access or egress is limited

(but they still have “blue sky” above). Barges, shipping containers and fish holds are also

considered as possible confined spaces.

Confined spaces are entered for various reasons, including maintenance (e.g., repair,

inspection, cleaning, unjamming), manufacturing (e.g., transportation equipment

manufacturing) or to perform other work (e.g., construction industry). Examples of

occupational health and safety hazards are atmospheric (e.g., poisoning, asphyxiation,

explosion), biological (e.g., allergenic animals, insects and plants, moulds and other

microorganisms), physical (e.g., mechanical, electrical, engulfment, falling) or failure to

respect the principles of ergonomics (e.g., awkward posture, limited workspace).

Occupational risks in confined spaces are often high because of the confinement, inadequate

natural ventilation, need to work in isolation, and access, rescue and communication

problems (HSE, 2015).

Every year, confined space work causes fatal accidents and injuries, despite the in

force regulatory and standards on such activity. Confined spaces are defined as limited or

restricted areas not designed for continuous occupancy where employees enter and perform

a specific task. Examples of confined spaces include, but are not limited to tanks, vessels,

silos and pipelines. The high risk of confined space work can lead to extremely dangerous

situations. Several publications, reports and recent news describe the great impact of such

risks on the occupational safety level, showing high accident rates and multiple-fatality

incidents. Common causes of accident in confined spaces are fire, explosion, spontaneous

combustion and contact with high temperature extremes (HSE, 2015).

Hence, this study aims to add better clarity to this research area by taking a cursory

look at “Confined Space”.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Despite the enormous efforts made toward healthy and safety environment, work-

related accidents remain a major concern. Occupational injuries contributed nearly 14% of

the 2.78 million work-related deaths in 2020 globally. Furthermore, about 374 million work-

related injuries with the consequence of more than 4 days of absence from work occur in a

year (Sass and Smallwood, 2015). Among the types of accidents, those related to confined

space activities have the highest ratio (1:2) of fatalities to lost-time injuries. Although
confined space hazards have been identified during the last decades (Michigan Institute of

Safety and Health Administration, 2015) and related safety regulations/standards have been

established [e.g., Occupational Safety and Health Administration, National Standards

Institute/American Society of Safety Professionals] fatal accidents related to confined spaces

still continue. In most industries – especially the oil and gas industry, a wide range of

activities are carried out in confined spaces. Hence, it is against this background that this

study will be taking a cursory look at “Confined Spaces”.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

i To identified and ascertain the health and safety environmental issues in confined

spaces.

ii To determine the health and safety measures employed in confined spaces.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

i What health and safety environmental issues occur in confined spaces?

ii What are the health and safety measures employed in confined spaces?

LITERATURE REVIEW

(a) Confined Space

A confined space is any enclosed or partially enclosed structure that is intended or

likely to be entered by any person, has limited or restricted entry or exit access and contains a

potentially harmful atmosphere. Examples include tanks, pits, chimneys, silos, underground

sewers, tunnels and wells (Biddy, 2009).

Confined Space refers to any place, including any vessel, tank, container, pit, bund,

chamber, cellar or any other similar space which, by virtue of its enclosed nature, creates

conditions that give rise to a likelihood of an accident, harm or injury of such a nature as to

require emergency action due to the presence or reasonable foreseeable presence of:

- flammable or explosive atmospheres

 - harmful gas, fume or vapour

- free flowing solid or an increasing level of liquid

- excess of oxygen

- excessively high temperature

- reasonably foreseeable lack of oxygen.

Confined spaces can create unsafe atmospheres and can cause serious injury or death.

In many instances, people killed in confined spaces die trying to rescue someone already

overcome by a harmful atmosphere. Rescues should never be attempted without proper

emergency management procedures and appropriate safety equipment such as air-supplied

respiratory protective equipment (Kumar and Cheng, 2015).

(b) Key Characteristics of Confined Space

According to HSE (2015), the key characteristics of a confined space are:

▪ the space must be substantially enclosed,

▪ there must be a risk of at least one of the hazards listed above occurring within

the space,

▪ the risk of serious injury from the hazard must be created by virtue of the

enclosed nature of the space,

▪ the potential injury must be serious and be such as to require emergency action

to rescue the person involved.

(c) Examples of Potential Confined Spaces

According to HSE (2015), example of potential confined spaces on fishing vessels for

example include:

• Tanks such as refrigerated salt water (RSW) tanks, fuel tanks, fresh water

tanks and sea or fresh water ballast tanks.

• Fish holds containing decaying fish, fish waste or offal.

 • Void spaces.

• Stores containing chemicals

All enclosed spaces must be treated with caution before opening or entering. In order

to enter such areas, safe systems of work must be in place which may include atmospheric

testing, use of appropriate breathing apparatus, safety harnesses and safety lines, appropriate

training, emergency response procedures and rescue arrangements (Loiselle and Werna,

2014). Never go into an enclosed space to assist someone in trouble without wearing the

appropriate safety equipment and having back up from other crew members.

(d) Hazards Associated with Confined Spaces

According to HSE (2015), confined spaces are particularly dangerous because the

hazards may not be immediately apparent. The dangers of confined spaces can include:

Toxic Atmosphere: A toxic atmosphere may cause various acute effects, including

impairment of judgement, unconsciousness and death. A toxic atmosphere may occur due to

the presence or ingress of hazardous substances. These substances may be present in the

Confined Space for various reasons such as:

▪ remaining from previous processing or storage,

▪ arising from the disturbance of sludge and other deposits,

▪ the presence of a fire or flames within the space,

▪ seepage from improperly isolated adjoining plant,

▪ formation during the work processes carried out in the space,

▪ being released from under scale and in brickwork as a result of the work

process.

Oxygen Deficiency: Oxygen can be lacking a confined space for the following

reasons:

▪ displacement of air by another gas,

 ▪ various biological processes or chemical reactions (such as rotting of organic

matter, rusting of metals, burning, etc),

▪ absorption of air onto steel surfaces, especially where these are damp.

Oxygen Enrichment: An excess of oxygen, in the presence of combustible materials,

results in an increased risk of fire and explosion. Some materials, which do not burn in air,

may burn vigorously or even spontaneously in an enriched oxygen atmosphere.

Flammable or Explosive Atmospheres: A flammable atmosphere presents a risk of

fire or explosion. Such an atmosphere can arise from the presence in the confined space of

flammable liquids or gases or of a suspension of combustible dust in air. If a flammable

atmosphere inside a confined space ignites, an explosion may occur, resulting in the

expulsion of hot gases and the disintegration of the structure.

Flowing Liquid or Free Flowing Solids: Liquids or solids can flow into the confined

space causing drowning, suffocation, burns and other injuries. Solids in powder form may

also be disturbed in a confined space resulting in an asphyxiating atmosphere.

Excessive Heat: The enclosed nature of a confined space can increase the risk of heat

stroke or collapse from heat stress, if conditions are excessively hot. The risk may be

exacerbated by the wearing of personal protective equipment or by lack of ventilation.

(e) Safety Equipment and Confined Spaces

If a safe atmosphere can’t be guaranteed, appropriate safety equipment such as air-

supplied respiratory protective equipment must be used.

If the confined space contains chemicals or dangerous substances, other protective

equipment required may include gloves, goggles and overalls.

Harnesses and winches, when attached to the person entering the confined space, are

an excellent backup, but they must be properly tested and appropriate training in their use

must be provided to those using them.

(f) Observation and Communication When Working in Confined Spaces

Make sure the people inside the confined space are monitored from the outside. There

should be a person trained in initiating emergency procedures observing those inside the

confined space from a safe vantage point outside the space. Practical communication methods

include:

• mobile telephones

• two-way radios

• closed circuit television

• hand signals

• rope signals.

(g) Legal Requirements in Regard to Confined Space Entry

The Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (Confined Spaces) Regulations cover all

work in relation to confined spaces.

This legal requirement includes that:

▪ A person shall not carry out work in Confined Spaces if it is reasonably

practical that it could be avoided.

▪ If the work must be carried out Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment

must be carried out prior to the work commencing.

▪ A person shall not enter a confined space unless there is a system of work in

place that has been planned, organized, performed and maintained so as to

render that work safe and without risk to health.

▪ Anyone entering a confined space must be provided with appropriate

information, training and instruction appropriate to the particular

characteristics of the proposed work activities.

(h) Legal Requirements in Relation to Emergency Arrangements for Confined

Spaces

This legal requirement includes that:

▪ A person shall not enter a confined space unless there is a suitable emergency

arrangement have been made which are appropriate to the confined space in

question.

The emergency arrangements shall include:

▪ all practical measures necessary to ensure the health and safety of those taking

part in the rescue.

▪ the provision of a suitable and reliable means of raising the alarm in the event

of an emergency.

▪ having all necessary rescue equipment nearby and in a well maintained, good

condition.

▪ the provision of information, instruction and training to all involved in rescue

procedures.

▪ the provision of equipment and training for resuscitation procedures if there is

a foreseeable risk that they will be needed.

(i) Confined Space Risk Assessment

When carrying out a risk assessment it is important to ensure that all risks associated

with the hazards above are evaluated and controlled. When carrying out a risk assessment the

following questions should be asked:

What could be inside the space that would pose a risk?

▪ Contents?

▪ Oxygen Deficiency?

▪ Previous Contents?
 ▪ Oxygen Enrichment?

▪ Residues?

▪ Structure and Layout?

▪ Contamination?

What will be created due to the work carried out in the space?

▪ Sources of Ignition?

▪ Flammable Substances?

What is outside the space that might pose a risk during the proposed work?

• Inadequate Isolation?

• Inadvertent Operation of Plant?

• Nearby Work Activities?

(j) Key Elements of a Safe System of Work for a Confined Space

The key elements to be considered when drawing up a safe system of work are:

• Competence, training, supervision and suitability.

• Permit-to-work procedure.

• Gas purging and ventilation.

• Dangerous residues.

• Testing and monitoring of the atmosphere.

• Mechanical, electrical and process isolation.

• Respiratory protective equipment.

• Other personal protective equipment.

• Safe use of work equipment.

• Communications.

• Access and egress.

• Flammable or explosive atmospheres.

 • Combustible materials.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Confined space work is a high-risk activity, posing a serious life-threatening hazard to

the workers who perform it. Despite the worldwide regulation and standard-setting efforts in

outlining procedures and recommendations for safe confined space work, the recent statistics

show that several fatal incidents still occur (Bragadina and Kähkönen, 2015).

Confined space work procedures are not internationally standardized. Industrialized

countries adopt different approaches to addressing this issue. The local legislation in force

reflects the local strategy for addressing the risk of confined space work. The US legislation

explores the risk of confined space work from multiple perspectives, to help employers and

employees in recognizing such hazardous workplaces. American standards and regulations

define the confined space geometric characteristics, together with the guidelines for job

hazard analysis, hazard elimination, and the procedures for safe confined space work. The 29

CFR 1910.146 standard of the American Occupational Health and Safety Administration

(OSHA) for confined spaces contains the requirements for practices and procedures to protect

employees from the hazards of permit-required confined spaces. Such standard defines the

specific features of a confined space, in a geometric perspective.

Particularly, “Confined space” means a space that is large enough and configured that

an employee can enter and perform work, has limited openings of entry or exit and is not

designed for continuous occupancy (U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and

Health Administration 1993).

METHODOLOGY

Descriptive research design is being employed for this study. This study was

theoretical and based on the review of previous literature to develop research propositions

that culminated into a conceptual framework. Thus, being theoretical, this study did not
follow a rigorous methodology. Its arguments and conclusions are however drawn from

secondary sources of information through an extensive review of scholarly literature relating

to confined space – with reference to health and safety environment (HSE).

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The fundamental aim of this study has been focused on confined space.

From the studies carried by other scholars on same topic, it was found that the serious

occupational accidents caused by confined spaces have been occurring for many years.

Continuous and comprehensive reports and academic studies have been published and

discussed worldwide regarding confined spaces from the point of view of safety and disaster

prevention. Many confined space accidents occur because workers fail to be aware of the

dangers inside, and they may not consider the hazards inherent to their confined space work.

Hence, the most important concern of all is the careful identification of all possible

confined spaces. There are many potential hazards in confined spaces, primarily atmospheric

hazards (e.g., poisoning, suffocation, and explosion) and physical hazards (e.g., mechanical,

electrical, phagocytosis, and falling). Between 2008 and 2018 in Nigeria, an average of

nearly 8 people died each year due to poisoning or suffocation in confined spaces, and, on

average, 18% of occupational accidents resulted in the death of one or more people. In

particular, confined space disasters often also lead to rescue casualties; an average of one

person per two victims dies in attempting rescue of companions. Similarly, in other African

countries between 1992 and 2005, an average of nearly 38 people died every year due to

poisoning or suffocation in confined spaces; on average, 20% of occupational accidents

caused multiple deaths.

To prevent accidents occurring in confined spaces, a systematic inspection should be

carried out before anyone enters the confined spaces, including checking for damage of

protective equipment, relevant training, management, and supervision. In other words, an

employer should conduct an appropriate and adequate assessment of the risks involved in any

work activities to decide which safety measures are necessary.

According to the law in Nigeria, a confined space is defined as a space that “is not

intended inside for labor routine work, with restricted access, and inadequate natural

ventilation for keeping ample and clean air”. The US National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health (NIOSH) defines a confined space as “a space with limited entry/egress

and inadequate ventilation, and not suitable for labor continuous work”. Because confined

spaces may contain toxic, hypoxic, and/or explosive gases, and may contain particular

physical hazards, such as the possibility of collapse due to pipes and the contents of pipes,

confined space engineering is considered to be dangerous engineering, with a high frequency

of injury and lethality.

In previous accident investigations and relevant regulations in Nigeria, all accidents

occurring in workplaces were generally defined as “occupational injury”. However, the

Institute of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health in Nigeria suggests that such accidents

should be classified based on the characteristics of the accidents into process accident, traffic

accident, personal injury, occupational disease, or near miss. One of the important purposes

of occupational safety analysis of accidents is to clarify the critical causes that affected the

severity of the incident. In-depth safety analysis is the most important factor in ensuring safe

production. In addition, analyzing accidents based on business and injury characteristics is

crucial for identifying their critical causes and implementing preventive management plans. If

data analysis can be applied to identify risks in an organization, it can not only increase the

productivity of workers, but also reduce occupational injuries and diseases.

CONCLUSION

Confined spaces have shown to have more health and safety challenges despite all the

regulatory and standard-setting efforts that have been made in Nigeria. Hence, this study was
able to determine that health and safety measures (planning and prevention) employed on

confined spaces are inadequate and fail to meet the required standards, which could result in

illnesses, injuries and death.

Health and safety issues on the confined spaces identified in this study are; challenges

in handling materials, difficulty in providing temporary facilities on site congestion,

ergonomic challenges, close proximity of individuals to operation of large plant and

machineries, poor housekeeping and lack of adequate storage space. The study tries to bridge

the gap in knowledge on confined spaces with particular reference to health and safety

environment in developing countries – such as Nigeria where the risk of injuries, illness and

death are higher.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of this study, the researcher recommends the following:

• Implementing health and safety plan.

• Keep a suitable first aid kit in an accessible place.

• Provide rescue equipment – such as lifelines, lifting equipment, stretchers, and air-

supplied, escape-type or self-rescue respiratory protective equipment and train

employees in how to use them.

• Install emergency equipment, such as fire extinguishers.

• Ensure easy access to medical treatment and emergency services.

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