STRUT and TIE MODELS

1. One of the important assumptions in reinforced concrete beam design theory is

that strain varies linearly through the depth of the member and that as a result,
plane sections remain plane.

2. Relative to this, the Saint Venant’s Principle states that whenever strains are
induced by discontinuities in load or discontinuities due to change in the
member cross-section, said strains vary in a linear fashion at a distance equal to
or greater than the biggest member depth h measured from the point of
discontinuity.

3. Evidently, at regions located at distances less than h, Saint Venant’s principle

does not apply.

4. This means that in a reinforced concrete structure, there are regions where
beam theory is valid whereas in regions of discontinuities the theory does not
hold. Therefore the Strength Design expressions (including the Strain Limits),
and the old Working Stress Design expressions, do not apply.
5. The region where the basic beam theory applies is referred to as B-region,
whereas that in which the theory does not apply is identified as D-region, the
region where discontinuity exists.

6. Formally, a D-region is one which extends a distance h on both sides of a

discontinuity. If the discontinuity is due to a change in dimension, the distance h
on each side will not be equal.

7. Deep beams and column brackets are structural members with D-regions.

8. To design D-regions, the Code allows the use of strut-and-tie models. A strut-
and- tie model is a statically determinate truss, used to represent internal forces
within a D-region. The model is composed of struts of concrete, ties of steel, and
joints called nodal zones. Obviously, the model must fit within the envelope
defined by the D-region.
9. In the truss model, strut and tie selection is at the discretion of the designer.
However, the choice must be one that reflects the flow of stresses in the D-
region. The model must also satisfy equilibrium. An effective model is one in
which the forces follow the shortest load path.

10. A truss model where struts are provided in regions of high compression and ties
in regions of high tension will, in general, provide a load path that is efficient.

11. Struts are much stiffer than ties. Thus a model with a minimal number of ties is
preferred.

12. The width of each truss depends on the magnitude of the forces and the
dimensions of the adjoining elements such as bearing plates or columns. These
external elements can serve to define and locate nodal zones.

13. The sizes of the struts and nodes can be made intentionally large enough to keep
the compressive stresses low. As a result, only the ties will then need a detailed
design.

14. The angle between the struts and ties at a node should be greater than 25° to
reduce complications as a result of incompatibility in strut shortening and tie
elongation in the same plane. However, studies suggest that the angle should be
40° and up because the forces in the strut and tie change significantly even at
small angle changes when the angle is below 40°. If that happens, initial
computations based on a small angle may be significantly different from the final
computations.

15. The thickness of the strut, tie and nodal zone is typically equal to the thickness of
the member.
16. Strut
• A strut in the model represents a concrete compression field where the
compression stress acts parallel to the strut and acts through the axis of the
strut.

• It may consist of a single element, parallel elements, or a fan-shaped

compression field.

• It may be rectangular in cross-section along its length, being prismatic, or

bottle shaped.

• Noting that concrete is strong in compression, part of the concrete in the

structural member is thus treated as though following the shape of struts as
described in the foregoing to transmit the load of the structure towards the
support.

• Rectangular struts are stronger than bottle-shaped struts

• Bottle-shaped struts are wider at the center than at the ends

• As the compression field spreads along the length of a bottle-shaped strut,

tensile stresses perpendicular to the axis of the strut lead to longitudinal
cracking. Thus, even though the cross-section is larger at mid-length, the
weakness of bottle-shaped struts is due to longitudinal splitting.

• For simplicity in design, the ends are idealized as linearly tapered while the
center is uniform in section. A slope of 1:2, perpendicular to the axis and
along the axis, is used for the linear taper.

• A bottle-shaped strut is also designed by representing it a smaller strut-and-

tie model.

• For design purposes, a strut is idealized as a prismatic member between two

nodes.

• When two or more struts converge at the same face, the forces must be
resolved into a single force that is perpendicular to the face of the nodal zone

• Strut capacity is based on the strut itself and the strength of the nodal zone.
Capacity can be increased by adding compression reinforcement or
increasing the size of the nodal zone

• The nominal compressive strength of a strut is given by:

 Fns = fce Ac
Where: Fns= nominal compressive strength in a strut or nodal zone
fce= effective compressive strength of concrete

fce = 0.85 βs fc’

Ac= cross-sectional area at one end of the strut

= strut thickness x strut width

βs = factor that accounts for the effects of cracking and confining

reinforcement within a strut

Condition βs
Strut with uniform cross-section; area at midsection is the
1.0
same as the area at the nodes
Strut with width at midsection larger than the width at
the nodes (bottle-shaped struts) and with reinforcements
0.75
satisfying Code requirements for transverse
reinforcements
Strut with width at midsection larger than the width at 0.60λ
the nodes (bottle-shaped struts) and with reinforcements λ = 1.0 for normal weight
concrete
not satisfying transverse reinforcement requirement
λ = 0.85 for sand –
lightweight concrete
λ = 0.75 for all
lightweight concrete
Struts in tension members or in the tension flange of
0.40
members
All other cases 0.60

• The strength of the strut when compression steel is added is given by:
Fns = fce Ac+ As’ fs’
fs’ is based on the strain of concrete at peak stress.
For Grades 40 and 60 reinforcement fs’ = fy
Where: As’= area of compression steel

17. Tie
• The tie in the model is meant to control cracking in the D-region due to
tensile stresses.

• The tie in this case consists of the reinforcement with a portion of the
concrete that surrounds the reinforcement concentrically.

• However, it is assumed that the concrete surrounding the tie does not carry
tensile forces inasmuch as concrete is weak in tension.
• The geometry of the ties must be selected so that reinforcements can fit
within the tie dimension.

• The stress in the tie reinforcement must be below the yield stress at service
loads to control cracking in the D-region.

• If the available length for anchoring the tie reinforcement within the nodal
and extended nodal zones is insufficient, the tie can extend beyond the nodal
zone or a hook or mechanical anchorage must be provided to fully develop
the reinforcement. In deep beams, hooks must be 90-degree hooks and
should be confined by reinforcement extending into the beam from
supporting members to avoid splitting of the concrete within the anchorage
region.
• The nominal strength of a tie is given by:

Fnt = Ast fy for non-prestressed members

Fnt = Ast fy + Aps (fpe + Δfp) prestressed members

Where: Fnt= nominal tensile strength of tie

non-prestressed members
Ast= area of reinforcing steel, if any
fy= yield strength of steel

prestressed members
fpe= effective stress in pre-stressing steel
Aps= area of pre-stressing steel; zero for non-prestress members
Δfp = increase in pre-stressing steel stress due to factored load;
found by analysis OR without analysis, use 60,000 psi (414
MPa)for bonded tendons while 10,000 psi (68.94 MPa) for
unbonded tendons.

Note that fpe + Δfp must be less than fpy, the yield strength of pre-
stressing steel.

The effective width of a tie, wt, depends on the distribution of the tie
reinforcement:
• If the tie is placed in a single layer
wt = diameter of largest bar + 2 times the cover to the surface of bars
wt = db + 2(cover)
 • If the tie has an anchor plate
wt = width of anchor plate

• The maximum tie width is:

wt, max = Fnt / b fcu

where: b = thickness of the strut

fcu = 0.85 βn fc’ (effective concrete strength in a nodal zone)

18. Nodes and Nodal Zone

• Nodes are points where the axes of the struts, ties and concentrated loads
intersect. This is based on the assumption that the principal stresses within
the intersecting struts and ties are parallel to the axes of these members.
• The nodal zone is the volume of concrete around the node within which the
transfer of force occurs

• At least three forces must be present in a node to satisfy equilibrium: one

from the strut, another from the tie and a reactive force or load.

• In terms of the forces present, the node can be classified as C-C-C, C-C-T, C-
T-T, or T-T-T where C is compression; T is tension.

• Tension forces are still treated as compression forces because it creates

compression as it passes through the node thus applying a compressive force
on the far side.

• Nodal zone dimensions are made proportional to the applied loads such that
stress on the faces of a nodal zone are equal. Such a nodal zone is called
hydrostatic nodal zone.

• To increase tie anchorage and thus make it sufficient, extended nodal zones
are used. An extended nodal zone is an overlap region between the strut and
tie but is not counted as part of the primary node.

• The nominal compressive strength of a nodal zone is given by:

Fnn = fcu An

Where: Fnn= nominal compressive strength of nodal zone

fcu= effective compressive strength of concrete at the nodal zone
 fcu = 0.85 βn fc’

An= area of the face of the nodal zone perpendicular to the line of
action of the force in the strut or tie, or the resolved forces

βn = factor that reflects the degree of disruption in nodal zones due

to the incompatibility of tensile strain in ties with compressive
strain in stuts.

βn Values
Nodal Zone Condition Classification Βn
Bounded by struts or bearing area C-C-C 1.0
Anchoring one tie C-C-T 0.80
Anchoring two or more ties C-T-T or T-T-T 0.60

19. A strength reduction factor ф = 0.75 is used for struts, ties, nodal zones, and
bearing areas.