Practical Research 1

Module 10: “Research Methodology”

Subject Teacher: Ms. Ana Rona V. Supapo

Lesson Description:
Determining the validity of your study is anchored on your
research paper’s methodology. A research paper’s methodology section
must shed light on how you were able to collect or generate your research
data and demonstrate how you analyze them.

The goal of this module is to guide the student researchers in

writing an effective research methodology by helping them gain a clear
understanding of a research methodology’s structure.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, learners should be able to:
• chooses appropriate qualitative research design CS_RS11- IVa-c-1
• describes sampling procedure and sample CS_RS11- IVa-c-2
• plans data collection, data gathering instrument, and analysis procedures CS_RS11- IVa-c-3
• presents written research methodology CS_RS11- IVa-c-4

Research
Methodology
Let's Get Started!
According to Goddard and Melville (2001, p.1), research goes beyond the process of gathering
information; rather, it is also about finding answers to unanswered questions as part of discovering and/or
creating new knowledge. And in order for this newly discovered or created knowledge to be recognized or
noticed, you have to prove that it is valid.
Determining the validity of your study is anchored on your research paper’s methodology. According to
Somekh and Lewin (2005), a research methodology is both “the collection of methods or rules” you apply to
your research, as well as the “principles, theories, and values” that support your research approach. Simply put,
a research paper’s methodology section must shed light on how you were able to collect or generate your
research data and demonstrate how you analyze them (SHU Library, 2020).
For novice researchers, writing the methodology of a
research paper can be an overwhelming process, especially
considering the intricate elements covered by this section (J.
Ellis & Levy, 2009, p. 323). The goal of this article is to guide
novice researchers in writing an effective research methodology
by helping them gain a clear understanding of a research
methodology’s structure.
To successfully conduct your qualitative research, it is
important to plan your data gathering. A qualitative researcher
may use observation, interview, and documentary analysis to
collect necessary data.

Interviews can verify and validate the data collected from the observation. The type of
question asked in the interview should be carefully chosen.
 • Interview Observation is usually coupled with interviews. An interview is done to validate
the information you have recorded in your observation. This is considered one of the most
important data collection strategies in qualitative research. There are four types of interviews:
structured, semi-structured, informal, and retrospective. data.

• Structured and semi-structured interviews are verbal questionnaires. In structured

interviews, the researcher has a specific set of questions designed to elicit responses from the
participants while in semi-structured interviews, the researcher prepares open-ended
questions in which the participants are free to write their responses.

• An informal interview is done to determine how the participants act in certain situations. This
is a casual conversation and conducted without a specific sequence of questions or form of
questioning. A retrospective interview is done to recall and reconstruct something that
happened in the past.

Types of Interview Questions

A crucial part of the interview process is the type of questions that you will ask. Patton (1990) identified six
types of questions that can be asked during interviews (cited in the book of Fraenkel and Wallen, 2010):

1. Background questions are routine questions about the background of the participants. These questions
include education, age, previous work, and the like.
2. Knowledge questions refer to participants' factual information. For example, asking the participants
about school information such as school rules or activities.
3. Experience questions are focused on what the participant is doing presently or in the past. For example,
"If I were attending your practices n the gym, what experiences would I will be likely to see you
having?"
4. Opinion questions are asked to elicit how the participants think on certain topics or issues. This aims to
get the participant's values, beliefs, and attitude. For example, "what do you think about the
implementation of the K-12 curriculum?"
5. Feeling questions pertain to the emotional responses of the participants on their experience(s For
example, "How do you feel when you solve a mathematics problem?"
6. Sensory questions focus on what the respondent has seen, tasted, heard, touched, or smelled For
example, "When you enter the room, what did you hear?"

Below are examples of interview questions.

1. What is your perception of chemistry?
2. What do you think is the use of chemistry? What is its purpose?
3. If you are going to rank chemistry as easy, average, and difficult, what would it be?
4. Why do you think chemistry is an easy, average, or difficult subject to study?
5. Does a chemistry teacher affect your perception of chemistry? Why or why not?

Source: Avira, R. Student Images and Views of Chemistry: Its implications to student achievement. Master's
Thesis. PNU, Manila. 2009.

Reminders during the Interview

Fraenkel and Wallen (2010) listed a set of expectations

during interviews. Some of them are:

• Respect the culture of the group being studied.

• Respect the individual being interviewed. An
interview should start and end at the scheduled time. The
respondents agreed to be interviewed spend their time
with you so make the interview another learning
experience both for the interviewer and the interviewee.
• Act naturally.
• Develop a rapport with the participant. T
• Ask the same question in different ways. This is to ensure the understanding of the. interviewee on what
has been said.
• Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer when there is some doubt.
 • Vary who controls the flow of communication.
• Avoid leading questions like "You really want that?" instead ask, "What did you really want to do?
• Do not ask dichotomous questions or questions which are answerable by yes or no like "Did you really
aim to be a valedictorian?"
• Ask questions only one at a time.
• Do not interrupt when the interviewee is talking.

Focus Group Discussion

Aside from one-on-one interviews, you can also interview a small

group of people to elicit data on a certain topic. This technique is
called focus group discussion. In a focus group discussion, you ask a
small group of people what they think about a certain topic or issue.
They are seated together and can hear what the others have to say on
the issue. This kind of interview can provide multiple perspectives at
a time.

Documentary Analysis
The last technique that you can use to collect data in qualitative
research is documentary or content analysis. Fraenkel and Wallen (2010)
defined content analysis as a technique to study human behavior indirectly
by analyzing documents. These documents may include books, journals,
magazines, artworks, songs, pictures, and others. Through these, you can
analyze people's beliefs, attitudes, ideas, and values. In content analysis, you
need to code or categorize what you have gathered from the available
documents. This will help you obtain common themes or constructs for
analysis.

Planning the Actual Gathering of Data

Planning the actual data gathering ensures a more efficient and organized collection of data. This
involves preparing a schedule of activities. For this purpose, a Gantt chart may be used. A Gantt chart is a plan
of activities in the duration of your research. Below is an example of a Gantt chart

Activities Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4

Development of instruments
Data gathering through observation
Data gathering through interview
Documentary analysis

Big Idea
Planning data gathering ensures the success of the research. This schedules all the
activities in research.

Extend Your Knowledge For further readings, please visit the following links:
www.fao.org/docrep/w324le/w3241e05.htm
Vision2lead.com/wp-content/upload/2014/03/Worksheet-E-Interview-Research
www.richardcolby.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Chapter-par
(All Web sites were last accessed on 12 August 2015).

ESSENTIAL LEARNING
In this module, you have learned the common techniques in data collection: observation, interview, focus
group discussion, and document analysis. Moreover, you have learned that observation has different types:
participant, nonparticipant, naturalistic, and simulation. During an interview, the types of questions are
important in order to elicit the information you need.
 Types of Sampling:
Sampling Methods with Examples

Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical
inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population.
Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need
to research the entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective
method and hence forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can be used in a research survey
software for optimum derivation.

For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the country’s
population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this case, the
researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her
indicative feedback on the drug’s behavior.
Types of sampling: sampling methods
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let’s take a
closer look at these two methods of sampling.

Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a

selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have
an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.

Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for

research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This
makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a
sample.

Types of probability sampling with examples:

Probability sampling is a sampling

technique in which researchers choose samples
from a larger population using a method based
on the theory of probability. This sampling
method considers every member of the
population and forms samples based on a fixed
process.
For example, in a population of 1000
members, every member will have a 1/1000
chance of being selected to be a part of a
sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias in
the population and gives all members a fair
chance to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques: (for quantitative research)
• Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time
and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information
where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has
the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building
activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the
500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
• Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into
sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on
demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to
derive effective inference from the feedback.
For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the
Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida,
Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the
results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
• Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members
of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample and sample
size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and
hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000.
He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be
a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
• Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides
the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While
sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual
income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than
$20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher
concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze
which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful
results.

Uses of probability sampling

There are multiple uses of probability sampling:
Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from a
population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the understanding and the
inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample
appropriately represents the population.
Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square would like to
understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of people
across the US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.
Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an accurate
sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Types of non-probability sampling with examples

(for qualitative research)

The non-probability method is a sampling method that

involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher or
statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a
fixed selection process. In most situations, the output of a
survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to
skewed results, which may not represent the desired target
population. But, there are situations such as the
preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will
be much more useful than the other type.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:

• Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the

ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall
or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience
sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and
getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no
authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done
based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-
probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost
limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are
resource limitations such as the initial stages of research,
convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience
sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or
promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall
entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.

• Judgmental or purposive sampling:

Judgemental or purposive samples are
formed by the discretion of the
researcher. Researchers purely consider
the purpose of the study, along with the
understanding of the target audience.
For instance, when researchers want to
understand the thought process of
people interested in studying for their
master’s degree. The selection criteria
will be: “Are you interested in doing
your masters in …?” and those who
respond with a “No” are excluded from
the sample.

▪ Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is

a sampling method that researchers apply
when the subjects are difficult to trace. For
example, it will be extremely challenging to
survey shelterless people or illegal
immigrants. In such cases, using the
snowball theory, researchers can track a few
categories to interview and derive results.
Researchers also implement this sampling
method in situations where the topic is
highly sensitive and not openly discussed
for example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the
questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get
in touch with the victims and collect information.

• Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the

selection of members in this sampling
technique happens based on a pre-set
standard. In this case, as a sample is formed
based on specific attributes, the created
sample will have the same qualities found in
the total population. It is a rapid method of
collecting samples.
Uses of non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is used for the following:

Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an

assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the
immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.
Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting
qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and
time constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is
not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or
questionnaire.

How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?

For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The
effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert researchers follow to decide
the best sampling method.

• Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or
accuracy.
• Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.
• Test each of these methods and examine whether they help in achieving your goal.
• Select the method that works best for the research.

Difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling

methods:
To encapsulate the whole discussion, though, the significant differences between probability sampling
methods and non-probability sampling methods are as below:

Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling
technique in which samples from a larger
Definition
population are chosen using a method based
on the theory of probability.
Alternatively
Random sampling method.
Known as
Population
The population is selected randomly.
selection
Nature The research is conclusive.
Since there is a method for deciding the
Sample sample, the population demographics are
conclusively represented.
Takes longer to conduct since the research
Time Taken design defines the selection parameters
before the market research study begins.
This type of sampling is entirely unbiased
Results and hence the results are unbiased too and
conclusive.
In probability sampling, there is an
underlying hypothesis before the study
Hypothesis
begins and the objective of this method is to
prove the hypothesis.
Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique in which the researcher selects
samples based on the researcher’s subjective
judgment rather than random selection.
Non-random sampling method
The population is selected arbitrarily.
The research is exploratory.
Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the
population demographics representation is
almost always skewed.
This type of sampling method is quick since
neither the sample or selection criteria of the
sample are undefined.
This type of sampling is entirely biased and
hence the results are biased too, rendering the
research speculative.
In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis is
derived after conducting the research study.
 The methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to
evaluate the reliability and validity of the research. It should include:
• The type of research you did
• How you collected your data
• How you analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• Your rationale for choosing these methods
• The methodology section should generally be written in the past tense.

Academic style guides in your field may also provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types
of studies. For example, there are specific guidelines for writing an APA methods section.

Step 1: Explain your methodological approach

Begin by introducing your overall approach to the research.

What research problem or question did you investigate? For
example, did you aim to systematically describe the
characteristics of something, to explore an under-researched
topic, or to establish a cause-and-effect relationship? And
what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?
• Did you need quantitative data (expressed in numbers) or
qualitative data (expressed in words)?
• Did you need to collect primary data yourself, or did you
use secondary data that was collected by someone else?
• Did you gather experimental data by controlling and
manipulating variables, or descriptive data by gathering
observations without intervening?

Depending on your discipline and approach, you might also begin with a discussion of the rationale and
assumptions underpinning your methodology.
• Why is this the most suitable approach to answering your research questions?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical or philosophical considerations?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research?

In a quantitative experimental study, you might aim to produce generalizable knowledge about the causes of
a phenomenon. Valid research requires a carefully designed study under controlled conditions that can be
replicated by other researchers.

In a qualitative ethnography, you might aim to produce contextual real-world knowledge about the behaviors,
social structures and shared beliefs of a specific group of people. As this methodology is less controlled and
more interpretive, you will need to reflect on your position as researcher, taking into account how your
participation and perception might have influenced the results.

Step 2: Describe your methods of data collection

Once you have introduced your overall

methodological approach, you should give full
details of your data collection methods.

In qualitative research, since methods are often

more flexible and subjective, it’s important to
reflect on the approach you took and explain the
choices you made.
Discuss the criteria you used to select participants
or sources, the context in which the research was
conducted, and the role you played in collecting the
data (e.g. were you an active participant or a
passive observer?)
Interviews or focus groups
Describe where, when and how the interviews were conducted.
• How did you find and select participants?
• How many people took part?
• What form did the interviews take (structured, semi-structured, unstructured)?
• How long were the interviews and how were they recorded?

Participant observation
Describe where, when and how you conducted the observation or ethnography.
• What group or community did you observe and how did you gain access to them?
• How long did you spend conducting the research and where was it located?
• What role did you play in the community?
• How did you record your data (e.g. audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data
Explain how you selected case study materials (such as texts or images) for the focus of your analysis.
• What type of materials did you analyze?
• How did you collect and select them?

Qualitative methods example

In order to gain a better insight into the possibilities for improvement of the product range, semi-structured
interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers from the main target group of Company X. A returning
customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from Company X. The
surveys were used to select participants who belonged to the target group (20-45 years old). Interviews were
conducted in a small office next to the cash register, and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were
recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to
be filmed.

Step 3: Describe your methods of analysis

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed the data. Avoid going into too much detail—you
should not start presenting or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images and observations (often involving
some form of textual analysis). Specific methods might include:
• Content analysis: categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis: coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis: studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Qualitative methods example

The interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis was conducted. This involved coding all the data before
identifying and reviewing six key themes. Each theme was examined to gain an understanding of participants’
perceptions and motivations.
Step 4: Evaluate and justify your methodological choices
Your methodology should make the case for why you chose these particular methods, especially if you
did not take the most standard approach to your topic. Discuss why other methods were not suitable for your
objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.
You can acknowledge limitations or weaknesses in the approach you chose, but justify why these were
outweighed by the strengths.

Example: Lab-based experiments can’t always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they
are effective for testing causal relationships between variables.

Example: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group,
but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations and emotions.

Tips for writing a strong methodology

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them
and to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader
that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions.
Throughout the section, relate your choices back to the central purpose of your dissertation.

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by reference to existing research in the field, either to:
• Confirm that you followed established practices for this type of research
• Discuss how you evaluated different methodologies and decided on your approach
• Show that you took a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and don’t go into unnecessary detail. If you are using
methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give lots of background or
justification. But if you take an approach that is less common in your field, you might need to explain and
justify your methodological choices.
In either case, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your
approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

4. Discuss obstacles
If you encountered difficulties in collecting or analyzing data, explain how you dealt with them. Show how
you minimized the impact of any unexpected obstacles. Pre-empt any major critiques of your approach and
demonstrate that you made the research as rigorous as possible.

Supplementary Videos:
https://youtu.be/pTuj57uXWlk Types of Sampling Methods (4.1) by Simple Learning Pro, Published on
November 26, 2015
https://youtu.be/KLAEwukvuZs Sampling: Sampling & its Types | Simple Random, Convenience, Systematic,
Cluster, Stratified by Digital E-Learning, Published on May 2, 2020
https://youtu.be/vifGBH-0Wns What is Research Methodology? (See link below for our video on "How to
Write a Thesis Proposal?") by PHILO-notes, Published on November 20, 2020
https://youtu.be/yplWZs3dqNQ How to Write a Research Methodology in 4 Steps | Scribbr , Published on
June 12, 2020
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