ESL Students' Reverse Linguistic Stereotyping of English Teachers

ESL students’ reverse linguistic
stereotyping of English teachers

Romy Ghanem and Okim Kang
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/article/75/3/330/6237143 by guest on 16 May 2022

Reverse linguistic stereotyping (RLS) has been shown to affect students’
attitudes towards non-native teachers as well as their performance and
retention of information. This study investigates ESL students’ preconceived
ideas about non-native English teachers. Seventy-one students enrolled in an
intensive English programme at a southwestern university in the United States
listened to two speech samples produced by an advanced non-native speaker.
Using a matched guise technique, students were led to believe that there were
two speakers: a Caucasian teacher and an East Asian one. Students showed
proclivity to RLS as measured by their speech evaluations, their comprehension
scores, and their teaching competence ratings. These findings help better
understand learners’ perceptions of language proficiency and teaching
competence of a non-native teacher in the context of globalization.
Introduction The spread of the English language on a global scale has now led to a
greater number of non-native English speakers (NNSs) than that of native
speakers (NSs). In fact, while an estimated 300–400 million individuals
are NSs of English worldwide, over two billion people use English as
a method of communication in their daily lives (Jenkins 2012). The
perception of NS versus NNS teachers has been a subject of interest,
particularly as studies have shown that NS teachers are viewed to be more
competent instructors. This pattern has been revealed with NS students
(Rubin 1992), NNS students (Lindemann, Litzenberg, and Subtierlu
2014), and even NNS teachers themselves (Moyer 2013).
A good number of studies (e.g. Rubin 1992; Lev-Ari and Keysar 2010)
have demonstrated that non-standard linguistic features negatively affect
listeners’ perceptions of the speaker. This phenomenon is referred to
as linguistic stereotyping, and has been proven to apply to both NS and
NNS listeners. NS listeners often expect the standard variety of their
region to be spoken; as a result, they exhibit negative attitudes toward
the speaker if they hear a different variety. NNSs also exhibit the same
(or sometimes more) negative perceptions towards non-native speech;
they may exhibit negative judgements toward the speaker especially
when they perceive unfamiliar non-native norms (Hu and Lindemann
2009).
330 ELT Journal Volume 75/3 July 2021; doi:10.1093/elt/ccab011

© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
Advance Access publication 19 April 2021
The purpose of this current study is to determine whether NNS learners
hold similar preconceptions of non-native speech as NS listeners vis-à-vis
NNS teachers in an ESL setting. The focus is primarily on ESL students’
perceptions of their NNS teachers in a classroom environment. This
setting is especially important because such perceptions can determine
English learners’ understanding of instructional materials in the
classroom as well as their attitudes towards their NS teachers.
Literature review Reverse linguistic stereotyping (RLS) is identified when non-linguistic

Reverse linguistic cues (e.g. pictures or knowledge about the speaker) affect listeners’
stereotyping perceptions of both NSs and NNSs. Research has generally examined
the manner in which RLS affects listeners’ judgements (Rubin 1992;

Kang, Rubin, and Lindemann 2015). Using a matched guide technique,
Lambert, Hodgson, Gardner, and Fillenbaum (1960) were among the
first to conduct a study that specifically investigated RLS. They elicited
NSs’ perceptual judgements of NNSs’ productions according to a speech
evaluation instrument that they developed. Their pioneering study
showed that NSs tend to pass negative judgement in relation to intellect,
superiority, and friendliness when they hear accented speech.
Rubin (1992) used the same technique to investigate students’ perception
towards NNSs. The guises (a picture of an Asian ITA (international
teaching assistant) and that of an American TA (teaching assistant) were
used to colour participants’ perceptions of the speech files. Listeners
believed they heard accented speech when presented with a NNS picture,
even though his/her actual identity was that of a NS. Hu and Lindemann
(2009) also explored Chinese participants’ attitudes towards accented
English. Participants generally exhibited negative attitudes towards
Cantonese English and perceived accented speech when there was none.
Results showed that even NNSs were aware of the phonological features
that characterized their speech and idealized the NS model but viewed
NNS speech as less than perfect.
Learners’ views In the field of TESOL, the effect of the NS model on non-native English
towards non- teachers has been a growing topic of interest. One of the important
native English issues is students’ attitudes toward EFL and ESL teachers. Studies
teachers have demonstrated that non-native students generally prefer NS
English teachers and this perception is sometimes internalized by NNS
teachers themselves (Kelch and Santana-Williamson 2002). Admittedly,
there have been attempts to eradicate such preconceptions from the
classroom especially in the inner-circle countries. Medgyes (1992)
compared native teachers to non-native ones, showing that NS–NNS
status does not influence the teaching competence of that teacher. He
maintained that despite using different ways to achieve their goals, both
NSs and NNSs should have equal chances of being successful teachers.
Similarly, Murphy (2014) has called for the introduction of NNS
speech in the pronunciation classroom. However, this issue of equality
between NS and NNS teachers has still not been resolved, particularly
in the context of ESL. TESOL educators and students themselves
may still admit the NS ownership albeit in a subtler manner than in
previous years.
ESL students’ reverse linguistic stereotyping of English teachers 331

As can be seen from this review, most of the aforementioned studies have
investigated RLS primarily in regards to NS and NNS listener perceptions
of NNS productions. Not many studies have explored the issue of ESL
students’ perceptions of non-native English teachers in an intensive
English programme. More importantly, the effect of students’ attitudes on
their performance and learning outcomes has seldom been investigated.
For this purpose, the study explored the following research questions:
1. To what extent do ESL learners’ stereotypes of their NNS teacher affect
their listening comprehension scores of a grammatical lesson?
2. To what extent do ESL learners’ stereotypes of their NNS teacher affect
their speech evaluations of social attractiveness, dynamism, superiority,
and perceived teaching competence?

3. How do ESL learners’ cultural backgrounds affect their judgements
towards their NNS teacher?
Methodology Listeners
Participants The participants recruited for this study were seventy-one ESL students
(fifty-two male students and nineteen female students) who were enrolled
or placed at the highest two levels (level 5 and level 6) of an intensive
English programme (IEP) at a university in the southwestern United
States. Levels 5 and 6 correspond to low intermediate proficiency levels, or
an approximate B1 level using the CEFR classification. The students came
from different L1 backgrounds but were grouped according to three main
cultural backgrounds: Middle East (fourteen students), East Asia (twenty-
eight students), and South America (twenty-nine students).
Speakers
A non-native female speaker recorded the two texts used for the
matched guise technique. The speaker was a Korean doctoral student of
applied linguistics with highly advanced oral proficiency. The speaker’s
productions, however, did exhibit minor L1 influence as identified
by three phonologically trained individuals. These features related
to some segmental (e.g. the production of /w/) and suprasegmental
productions (e.g. falling intonation). Even though there was only one
speaker in this study, the speech files were presented with two different
pictures (guises): an East Asian picture and a Caucasian one. Another
NNS (a low intermediate Chinese speaker) participated in the study by
providing a distractor speech sample, which was played between the two
picture disguises. The second speaker had clearly perceptible L1 influence
(as identified by the phonologically trained experts).
Speech files Three recordings of mini-lectures related to conditionals were produced

by the two speakers. The advanced Korean speaker recorded the two
experimental recordings and the low intermediate Chinese speaker
recorded a distractor lesson. The materials chosen for the recordings
were three types of conditional constructions (if-clauses). The three
lectures included independent clauses and dependent clauses, which
usually started with ‘if’. The major difference among the three types was
changes in the tense/aspect of the verbs used in the independent and
dependent clauses. All except for two listeners claimed to have no previous
knowledge of conditional constructions.
332 Romy Ghanem and Okim Kang

The speech samples were similar in content and length (the number
of words ranged from 190 to 251). The organization of all three texts
produced by the speakers was almost identical, to ensure consistency.
These recordings were evaluated by five linguistically trained experts for
intelligibility and level of difficulty. All five experts confirmed intelligibility
of the recording and four out of five of the individuals agreed on the level
of difficulty for each sample. Revisions were made based on this feedback.
Instruments Listener background questionnaire

A personal background questionnaire was designed to elicit basic
information including age, gender, culture, native language, and time
spent in the United States. The questionnaire also asked for the number

of international English teachers the participants were exposed to and
their attitudes towards those teachers. While not separately analysed,
some of the qualitative data will be referred to in the discussion section to
provide possible explanations behind the quantitative results.
Comprehension testsThree listening comprehension tests (including the
distractor) were designed to measure the participants’ understanding of
the mini-lectures. Each comprehension test consisted of ten questions
divided into two tasks (fill in the blanks and multiple choice). All three
tests had the exact same format and number of questions, but each test
targeted a different type of conditional.
Speech evaluation instrument (SEI)

A survey was created to detect any form of RLS from the participants in
regard to the speaker. Originally developed by Zahn and Hopper (1985),
the speech evaluation instrument has been adopted in numerous studies
(Rubin 1992). The SEI utilized stereotype-related speech evaluation
which included a scale with three types of stereotyping constructs:
social attractiveness (e.g. friendly:::::::unfriendly), dynamism (e.g.
strong:::::::weak), and superiority (organized:::::::unorganized). Each
construct consisted of three to five semantic differential items, which
resulted in three composite variables for the final analysis in this study.
The internal consistency for item reliability for all three stereotype
measures yielded an acceptable rate (>0.86) for both guises (see Table 1).
Perceived teaching competence

This construct was developed as an extension to the SEI in order to
evaluate students’ perceptions about the teaching competence of the ESL
teacher in this study. Previous studies (Kang, Rubin, and Lindemann
2015) have used it in order to determine the effect of the guises on
students’ ratings of a teacher’s proficiency. It included three items
that related to teaching performance (such as effective:::::::ineffective).
The perceived teaching competence ratings also yielded an acceptable
reliability (>0.77) (see Table 1); accordingly, composite values were used
for the final analysis.
Procedure The speech samples were piloted to check for the intelligibility of all three
speech files and for the desired degree of accentedness as anticipated.
The experiment was conducted in nine different listening and speaking

classes in the IEP. The classes included students with various L1s, but the
statistical analyses grouped participants according to the different cultural
backgrounds investigated.
The order and guises used in the two experimental recordings were mixed
to eliminate content and order effects. That is, the East Asian guise and
the Caucasian guise did not always appear in the same order or with
the same sound files. However, the general procedure used for all nine
classes was essentially identical. Students were first introduced to the
overall experiment and asked to fill out a background questionnaire.
They were then told that they will be listening to three mini-lectures
on English grammar. They were informed that the teacher’s picture
would be projected on the screen. They were asked to complete a short

comprehension quiz immediately afterwards and then fill out a speech
evaluation survey regarding the teacher’s performance. The distractor
lecture, which contained a different type of conditional clause produced
by the intermediate NNS, was introduced between the two-guise
experiments. The guise projected while the sound file was being played
was that of a Middle Eastern individual. At the end of the experiment,
students were informally asked about the number of speakers they had
listened to and if they heard the same person twice. No participant directly
mentioned to the investigators that they heard the same person twice.
Results Table 2 provides descriptive statistics related to ESL students’

Comprehension comprehension scores for both Caucasian and Asian guises. Results of
scores of a paired-sample t-test (as seen in Table 3) showed that students received
grammatical lessons a significantly higher score with the perceived Caucasian (M = 63.52,
SD = 24.16) than the East Asian guise (M = 49.93, SD = 24.18);
t(70) = 4.178, P = 0.000, with a low positive effect size (η 2 = 0.2).
Consequently, the non-native status of the teacher exerted a significant
Reliability SEI Teaching competence

(Cronbach’s alpha)
(Social attractiveness) effective teacher/poor
attractive/unattractive teacher
friendly/unfriendly experienced/inexperienced
honest/dishonest qualified/unqualified
(Dynamism)
strong/weak
ta b l e  1 talkative/shy
Internal consistency (Superiority)
reliabilities of speech organized/disorganized
evaluation instrument educated/uneducated
(SEI) and teaching Caucasian guise 0.862 0.945
competence items East Asian guise 0.864 0.771
ta b l e  2 Dependent variable Guise Mean N SD

Descriptive statistics for
listening comprehension Comprehension scores Caucasian 63.52 71 24.16
scores in two disguises East Asian 49.93 71 24.17

Paired differences
Mean SD SE Mean 95% confidence
interval Difference
Lower Upper t df Sigma (two-tailed)
Pair 1 Comprehension_C 13.59 27.42 3.25 7.10 20.08 4.18 70 0.000
Comprehension_EA
EA, East Asian; C, Caucasian.
ta b l e  3
t-test results for
comprehension scores

effect on the degree to which ESL students retained information from the
lecture they heard from their teacher.
Speech evaluation The means and standard deviations of the speech evaluation instrument
instrument ratings are provided in Table 4. The perceived East Asian guise received
a lower rating (M = 4.94, SD = 1.50) than the Caucasian guise (M = 5.51,
SD = 1.08). Results of a paired-sample t-test (Table 5) showed that the
difference between the two guises was in fact significant t(70) = 2.94,
P = 0.004, with a low positive effect size (η 2 = 0.11).
Perceived A similar pattern was found in the ratings of perceived teaching
teaching competence (which included the following variables: qualified,
competence experienced, organized, and effective teacher). As seen in Table 4, the
East Asian guise received a noticeably lower rating (M = 4.65, SD = 1.73)
in perceived teaching competence than the Caucasian guise (M = 5.48,
SD = 1.35). A paired-sample t-test (Table 5) confirmed that the difference
was in fact significant t(70) = 3.62, P = 0.01, with a low positive effect size
(η 2 = 0.16). Therefore, participants seemed to consider the assumed
Caucasian guise as a more competent teacher.
Cultural The effects of listeners’ cultural backgrounds were examined through 3
background (cultural background) × 2 (guise) mixed-factorial analyses of variance for
each of the dependent variables: i.e. listening comprehension scores, SEI,
and perceived teaching competence. The students’ cultural background
did exert a significant main effect on the comprehension scores
(F(2,68) = 3.40, P = 0.039). The comprehension scores of the three L1
groups were shown to be significantly different. The East Asian group had
the smallest difference between the two guises (Caucasian guise, M = 60;
East Asian guise, M = 55.8), the Middle Eastern group had the second
highest difference (Caucasian guise, M = 52.3; East Asian guise, M = 37.9),
and the South American group had the largest difference (Caucasian
guise, M = 72.4; East Asian guise, M = 50.0).
Multivariate analyses revealed that a listener’s background did not
exert any significant main effect on SEI (F(2, 68) = 1.09, P = 0.341) or
perceived teaching competence (F(2, 68) = 0.57, P = 0.571) ratings. That
is, students’ perception of stereotypes or teaching ability of a teacher was
not necessarily affected by their cultural background. Tukey post hoc tests
indicated, however, that there was a significant difference between the way
Middle Eastern students and South American students rated the guises

Dependent variable Guise Mean N SD
ta b l e  4
SEI East Asian 4.94 71 1.50
Descriptive statistics for Caucasian 5.51 71 1.08
speech evaluation and Teaching competence East Asian 4.65 71 1.73
teaching competence results Caucasian 5.48 71 1.35
Paired differences
Mean SD SEM 95% confidence
interval
difference

Lower Upper t df Sigma (two-tailed)
Pair 1 SEI_C–SEI_EA 0.72 2.04 0.24 0.24 1.2 3.62 70 0.004
Pair 2 Teacher C_C–Teacher 0.83 1.93 0.23 0.37 1.3 2.94 70 0.001
C_EA
EA, East Asian; C, Caucasian; Teacher C, teacher competence.
ta b l e  5
t-test results for SEI and
teaching competence
on all three constructs: comprehension scores (P = 0.035); SEI (P = 0.05);
teaching competence (P = 0.025).
Listeners’ teacher preferences are outlined in Figure 1 according to their
cultural backgrounds. This information was gathered from the students’
responses from the open-ended questionnaires. More than half (52
percent) of the East Asian group preferred American teachers, whereas
over half of the Arabic speakers (62 percent) preferred international
teachers or both. South American students, on the other hand, expressed
a clear preference for American teachers; 79 percent of the participants
from that group indicated that they would prefer a teacher to be American
for various reasons.
Discussion and The current study aimed to measure the influence of a teacher’s perceived
implications ethnicity on ESL students’ comprehension scores, language attitudes,
and teacher evaluations. It is important to state that although the Korean
speaker guise was used to represent a NNS teacher, generalizations from
the results should be interpreted carefully, as these results may suggest
prejudice against teachers with presumed (East) Asian background, and
not necessarily against NNSs as a whole. Similarly, the ESL students only
represent a small sample of IEP learners, and our interpretations are
limited in scope.
Firstly, there was a significant difference found between the scores of the
comprehension tests of the perceived Caucasian guise (M = 63.52) and
those of the East Asian guise (M = 49.93). This finding is in line with
previous studies (e.g. Rubin 1992; Kang, Rubin, and Lindemann 2015),
which have shown that listeners may suffer from comprehension loss
when they have negative views towards the speaker’s teaching abilities.
The findings also corroborate previous research (Rubin 1992; Kelch

f i g u r e  1
Student preference by
different cultural background and Santana-Williamson 2002; Kang, Rubin, and Lindemann 2015),
in which many participants believe that accented speech usually equals
poor teaching abilities of the speaker. The findings thus suggest that the
language background or the ethnicity of the English teacher may directly
influence the performance or progress of an ESL student in the language
classroom.
Moreover, the status of the speaker negatively affected students’ responses
on the SEI (i.e. social attractiveness, superiority, and dynamism) along
with their perception of the teacher’s teaching competence. The listeners
in the present study were English learners in an ESL context, who came
to the United States to ‘learn real English from real American’ as one
student stated in the background questionnaire. At least 30 percent of
the participants made similar comments. Additionally, ESL students’
stereotypes of their NNS teacher made a significant difference in their
evaluation of the teacher’s teaching competence (the perceived East Asian
guise receiving lower scores). This result confirms previous research
that students, whether NSs or NNSs, tend to avoid NNS teachers or
ITAs, holding negative preconceived ideas towards them (Rubin 1992;
Kelch and Santana-Williamson 2002). ESL students’ somewhat negative
perceptions, which influences the perceived teaching ability of their NNS
teachers, draws our attention in particular. This finding suggests that ESL
students’ acquisition and performance in the language classroom may be
determined by the East Asian background of the English teacher. Whether
this result extends to other cultural or linguistic backgrounds is beyond
the scope of this paper. The results also revealed that the students seemed
to have suffered from some comprehension loss when they thought that
their teacher was East Asian. It can be assumed that English learners may
be more biased when they actually have to evaluate a NNS teacher or when

they have to learn English from a NNS teacher in the classroom, rather
than when they are asked about a concept of a NNS in general.
The NS ideology, as this study and many before it have shown, is certainly
a pervasive one in the English language community, and while it is very
difficult to completely eradicate it, it is not impossible to alleviate some
of its effects in academic and professional environments. The scope of
this study is limited in terms of investigating solutions; however, we offer
teachers and administrators some practical techniques to implement.
The communicative burden should be shared by the listener and the
speaker, and therefore the manner to address this issue should also target
both parties. From the ITA perspective, pronunciation tests are usually
administered but teaching demonstrations are not always required. On

a phonological level, departments may need to administer their own
customized speaking tests or teaching demonstrations to make sure that
the ITAs are in fact intelligible. If ITAs’ scores are low, administrators can
provide individuals with enough pronunciation training to enable them
to convey information in a meaningful manner (Zhang 2012). Several
courses and tutoring programmes have already been created in various
universities to address this matter. These courses are usually administered
in coordination among the applied linguistics, intensive English, and
sometimes speech science departments.
However, and as this study and many others have demonstrated, the
intelligibility of ITAs is most often quite high and the lack of students’
exposure to accented speech is the main hindrance. Two main methods of
approaching this issue from the students’ perspective have been adopted:
the first method is through extracurricular activities (Smith, Strom,
and Muthuswamy 2005; Kang and Moran 2015). Most of these studies
have shown that even minimal contact with ITAs or other international
students has led to an improved perception of accented speech.
Activities included problem-solving tasks, puzzles, or other interactive
undertakings between international and American undergraduates. The
general consensus seems to be that the experimental group showed
significant improvement in their attitudes towards accented speech or
L2 speakers in general. Other studies adopted a more direct approach
where undergraduate students (both ESL and mainstream) and ITAs
would discuss the issue at hand, that is, the negative preconceptions
towards ITAs and the detrimental effects these perceptions have on the
international individual’s academic and personal life (Kang and Moran
2015).
Another method which has been equally effective is the use of in-class
activities (Kang, Rubin, and Lindemann 2015). Students who would
otherwise not interact with international individuals participate in
an in-class task with NNSs. This type of activity would require some
coordination between the teachers, administrators, and students
themselves. Studies that have employed this method most often ask
students from the IEP to join an anthropology or cultural studies class.
The activities usually take place two or three times a semester with
a pre- and post-survey to measure task effect. And finally, a method
recently being piloted is the implementation of materials representing

international professionals (e.g. professors, architects, bloggers) as part
of the English composition curriculum. Freshman writing classes are a
requirement for both ESL and American undergraduate students and this
method helps familiarize students with the idea of an intelligible, yet non-
native-like, professional. The technique is in response to Murphy’s (2014)
push to introduce NNS speech or pictures as part of the curriculum.
All the aforementioned methods have been proposed in an effort to
bridge the gap between NSs and NNSs and to highlight the prevalence
of international professionals, especially in academic settings. However,
we do acknowledge that they may not be applicable to all professional or
academic contexts.

Conclusion The current study has shown that ESL students tend to show similar
preconceptions or stereotypes of NNS teachers as seen among NS
listeners. These preconceptions not only affect the students’ perception
of the teacher’s experience and teaching competence, but also influence
students’ retention of information from a NNS. This study has several
implications that can relate to the ESL classroom. It is important to note
that some students (e.g. Arabic-speaking students in this study) may
not even be conscious of their preference for American ESL teachers.
Considering that the number of NNSs is much greater than that of NSs
(Jenkins 2012), undergraduate students will most likely encounter at
least one international teacher in their classroom. We provided a number
of recommended steps which have been already proven to be useful
across various institutions in the United States. Both ESL and American
undergraduates should be exposed to the idea of an international
professional or academic early on in their college career. Such exposure
would hopefully bridge the gap between NSs and NNSs and slowly change
the perception towards non-native like speech. This, in turn, could be
a step towards propagating the idea of World Englishes (rather than
the reliance on NS ideology) not simply as a communication tool in the
outer/expanding-circle countries but also a linguistic instrument to teach
English in the inner-circle countries. In fact, highly proficient speakers
of World Englishes would be an ecologically realistic model to which ESL
learners could aspire.
Final version received June 2020
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The authors
Moyer, A. 2013. Foreign Accent: The Phenomenon of Romy Ghanem is an Assistant Professor of Applied
Non-native Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Linguistics in the English Department at the
Press. University of Memphis, TN, USA. Her studies
Murphy, J. 2014. ‘Teacher Training Programs explore topics in speech perception and production,
Provide Adequate Preparation in How to Teach applied phonology, and L2 acquisition. Her research
Pronunciation.’ In Pronunciation Myths: Applying focuses mainly on L2 speech, interphonology, and
Second Language Research to Classroom Teaching, language attitudes.
edited by L. Grant. 188-224. Ann Arbor, MI: The Email: rmghanem@memphis.edu
University of Michigan Press.
Rubin, D. L. 1992. ‘Nonlanguage Factors Affecting Okim Kang is a Professor in the Applied Linguistics
Undergraduates’ Judgments of Nonnative English- Program at Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff,
speaking Teaching Assistants’. Research in Higher AZ, USA. Her research interests are speech
Education 33(4): 511–31. production and perception, L2 pronunciation and
Smith, R. A., R. E. Strom, and N. Muthuswamy. intelligibility, L2 oral assessment and testing,
2005. ‘Undergraduates’ Rating of Domestic and automated scoring and speech recognition, World
International Teaching Assistants: Timing of Data Englishes, and language attitude.
Collection and Communication Intervention.’ Journal Email: Okim.Kang@nau.edu

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330 ELT Journal Volume 75/3 July 2021; doi:10.1093/elt/ccab011

Literature review Reverse linguistic stereotyping (RLS) is identified when non-linguistic

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