Theories of Population

Thomas Malthus' theory of population is based upon two propositions:

1. Unchecked population increases in a geometrical ration

2. Subsistence increases in an arithmetical ratio.

To Malthus, the 'natural law' principle operates to keep population growth in check. What does this mean? Natural law - is
taken to be a basic principle of how nature works. In the case of population, Malthusian arguments postulate that population
has the tendency to increase beyond nature's ability to support it (in terms of food & shelter).  Consequently, Malthus contends
that natural law in human population helps to keep it in check through two methods:

1. Fertility control (this may be involuntary due to fertility complications, or voluntary, through the use of moral restraint,
postponement of marriage, (or the contemporary use of family planning methods).
2. Positive checks - this refer to phenomena that would increase mortality, eg. natural disasters, high risk jobs, diseases
etc...

Altogether, Malthus believed that poverty, famine, disease are all elements of natural law attempting to bring balance between
population growth and subsistence levels.

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Marxian Theory of Population - 

Marx and Engels disagreed with Malthus' theory of population. Marx believed that:
1. Malthus’ theory was devised to justify and perpetuate inequality in society.
2. They also believed that the poor/disadvantaged groups were essentially the reserve army of labour, which helps to ensure
capital accumulation to the ruling class.

To Marx, the fact of poverty is in reality the result of exploitation of the owners of the technology to produce, who

simultaneously hold vast reserves of capital in the form of land, property all of which gives them political power.

Marx contends that the law of capital accumulation i.e. the accumulation of surplus value in the hands of the capitalist

class leads to the poverty of the population that constitutes the source of the surplus value. "Capital accumulation

unavoidably leads to the unemployment of a sector of the available labour force"(Gimenez).

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Demographic Transition Theory:

This refers to the changes in population over time. This theory emphasizes the stages in the development of population. The
transition in population varies from society to society.
The classical demographic transition theory identifies four stages:

Stage 1 : The High Stationary

In this stage birth and death rates are high.
Population growth is low
Life expectancy is low
Reasons for these changes - Lack of family planning, influence of religion on daily life

Stage 2 : Early Expanding

High birth and rapidly declining death rates.
Reasons for these changes - Lack of family planning, influence of religion on daily life
Modern day examples of countries in this stage includes - India, Kenya and Egypt

Stage 3 : Late Expanding

Continued decline in birth rates
Death rates continue at a constant low rate
Reasons for these changes - Improved medical/health care, lowering infant/child mortality rates, healthy diets
Modern day examples of countries in this stage includes - Brazil

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Stage 4 : Low Stationary
Both birth and death rates are low
Occasionally there may be fluctuations with one being slightly higher than the other
Reasons for these changes - Good health care, later marriages, improvement in women's status
Modern day examples of countries in this stage includes - Japan, France, UK

Stage 5: Declining
Birth rates are low
Death rates are very low
Slow decrease in population
There may also be the tendency for depopulation to occur.
Reasons for these changes - Good health care, later marriages, improvement in women's status

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UNIT 2 MODULE 2

CRIME AND DEVIANCE

Marxist Perspective on Crime

"The history of criminal legislation ... in many countries shows that an excessive prominence was given by law to the protection of
property". (Manheim, 1940)
"Such laws were largely unnecessary in feudal society were land, unmovable property, was the main source of wealth and
landowners were the undisputed masters of the economic resources of the country". (Chambliss)

The Marxist perspective analyzes crime and deviance in terms of capitalism and class struggle.
* Capitalism creates inequalities which lead to conflict.
* The accumulation of material wealth is the main objective of capitalism,
* One class have the means to accumulate wealth, the other lacks the means
* The contradiction of surplus and lack creates conflict
"THIS CONTRADICTION OF CAPITALISM [BETWEEN WORKERS AND CAPITALISTS] PRODUCES A WIDE RANGE OF DILEMMAS
AND CONFLICTS. THE ATTEMPT BY WORKERS TO ORGANIZE AND DEMAND HIGHER WAGES, BETTER WORKING CONDITIONS,
TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT, ETC., IS A RESULT OF THE BASIC CONTRADICTION."

* This conflict leads people to commit crime (to accumulate wealth); on the one hand those who hold surplus wealth   may
commit crime to ensure maintenance of their surplus wealth;   on the other those who lack wealth may commit crimes to
accumulate.
* Marxists also point out that some crimes are not motivated by the desire to accumulate wealth, but rather to express  
frustration about the socio-economic and political system. These are called non-utilitarian crimes.

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* Marxists assert that the capitalist system is characterized by a two law system. Upper class law; this applies to the   elites;
Mass Law; this applies to the non-elites.
* The state passes and reinforces laws that support ruling class interest.
* Thus for Marxists punishment for a crime may depend and vary according to the social class of the  offender.
* Crimes of the ruling class have economic consequences for society than the crimes of the ‘ordinary people’/working class.

Interactionist Perspective on Crime/Deviance

Interactionist Perspective on Crime

Howard Becker: Labeling Theory

* To Becker, there is no such thing as deviant behavior. An act only becomes deviant when it is so defined.
* An act may be interpreted and defined as deviant based on the actors involved.
    e.g. Becker noted that policemen would react differently to middle class youth brawl and a working class youth brawl.
The Middle class youths who may be engaging in drinking, driving and playing loud music on the streets may be viewed as
high spirited and simply warned by the police officers. The Working Class youths on the other hand, engaging in the exact
same
activities and behavior would be labeled as trouble makers perhaps search for illicit drugs, beaten and arrested for
disturbance of the peace.
* Thus to Becker certain groups are labeled as deviant whilst others are not.
* The continuous process of labeling leads to the 'self-fulfilling prophecy'. Where the labeled actor begin to act as the label

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prescribes.

Becker outlines the stages of self-fulfilling prophecy:

1.    Individual is publicly labeled as deviant – e.g. rejected/ostracized by social groups.
2.    Deviance is encouraged (loss of moral restraint) e.g. drug users will use crime to support their addiction.
3.    Official treatment of deviant  -  e.g. employers may refuse to employ them, forcing them back into deviance
4.    Development of a deviant career in an organized deviant group. Here deviants find support with people in the same
situation.
5.    Leads to the formation of a deviant sub-culture – where they find justification for their delinquent acts.

  Albert Cohen: Subculture of Delinquency

* Delinquency is a collective rather than individual response, to the pressures of society.
* To Cohen everyone holds the same goals however the lower classes do not have the opportunity to fulfill these goals
* Therefore the lower classes rejects the mainstream goals replace them with alternative means to achieve success
  (similar to Merton's Strain theory).
* Hence a subculture of delinquency emerges in society.

* The status deprivation experienced by these lower class youths, pushes them into the subculture of delinquency.
 

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Cloward and Ohlin: Differential Opportunity Structure

highlighted two opportunity structures. The Legitimate and Illegitimate Opportunity Structures.
The Legitimate Opportunity Structure: Refers to the Legal or Socially Accepted means of achieving.
These means may include but are not limited to the following:
1. Education - (Formal) Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Technical Vocational
2. Employment - Legal methods of earning an income; through government, private sector or self-enterprise.
3. Enfranchisement - The right to freely participate in the democratic process (voting, freedom of expression)
4. Access to Public Services - Electricity, water, health care, sanitation etc...

When the individual is denied access as a citizen to any of the afore-mentioned opportunities, frustration steps in,
unable to improve his/her condition through the legitimate means they develop alternative methods for achieving.

Illegitimate Opportunity Structure - Refer to all Illegal or Non-Socially Accepted means of achievement.
These means may include but are not limited to the following:
1. Education - (informal/socialization), criminal socialization into the deviant subculture
2. Employment - 'Black Market’ activities - this may involve the illicit drug trade, prostitution, money laundering etc...
3. Fundamentalist Politics - Guerilla warfare tactics, organized Mafia, gang violence (to solve power related issues).
4. Illegal Access to Services - squatting, 'taking lights' or tapping into cable/satellite.

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Walter Miller – Lower Class Subculture Focal Concerns

Miller asserted that lower class groups had their own cultural traditions. These cultural traditions differ in many respects from
those of the higher classes. Lower class traditions are passed on from one generation to the next, this encourages crime .Thus
the lower classes develop their own areas of concern, that would aid them in acquiring status/acceptance and achievement.
Miller called these Lower Class Focal Concerns:

1.    Toughness
Focused on the concern of masculinity

2.    Smartness
Capacity to outsmart another person. Commonly expressed in the repertoire of a conman and picket pocket

3.    Excitement
Involves search for thrills and emotional stimulus.
It is sought through gambling, sexual adventures and alcohol i.e. a night out on the town

4.    Fate
One's predestined destiny. This may be good or based on luck or bad, based on bad luck.
The individual has no control over his or her fate/destiny.

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5.    Trouble
The ability to get into trouble and not get caught! The idea is to be criminal and not to be caught
i.e. to stay of trouble (not be arrested/accused/discovered)

6.    Autonomy
This is the ability to be free from the restraint of all authority.

Lower class subculture may be influenced by:

    The need to conform to the demands of a close peer group
    Young person’s struggle for status/acceptance.

Delinquency and focal concerns

•    He concluded that delinquency derives as a result of acting out (often exaggerated) focal concerns
•    Subculture stems from the need of low skilled labor, these people need to be able to endure a repetitive routine, as a result
the focal concerns provide a balance for the dissatisfaction of work
Evaluation
•    Miller believed the lower class appeared to follow their own focal concerns with disregard to mainstream culture.

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SOCIAL ORDER SOCIAL CONTROL & DEVIANCE
Overview
Theoretical Perspectives

Functionalism:
Durkheim believed that deviance was inevitable and universal. However, he noted that if deviance became excessive, then

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social order would be threatened and anomie would result.
Conversely if deviance does not occur, Durkheim believed that society would remain static and there would be no progress or
social change.

In general functionalist points out two functions of deviance

1. It acts as a positive way to reinforce ideas of right and wrong in society.

    The basic idea behind this assumption is that members of society measure their own behavior
    against that of deviants. In turn this helps the society to reinforce the social boundaries of what is right and wrong.
   

2. Provides work - for individuals who are involved in law making and enforcement. These would include workers such as
probation officers, police officers and lawyers.

Robert K Merton : Strain Theory

Merton developed Durkheim's concept of anomie and postulated the following:

1. All members of society desire to be economically successful

2. Not all members of society have the same opportunities to equally achieve these success goals.
3. Strain is more prevalent in the lower class groups, since they lack proper conditions to achieve

Strain therefore is a product of the social structure.

Merton outlined five modes of adaptation:

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1. Conformity - this is acceptance of the general goals (of a society) and the means to accept them
2. Innovation - this is acceptance of the general goals (of a society), but rejection of the means to achieve these goals
3. Ritualism - this is acceptance of the means and rejection of the goals
4. Retreatism - this is rejection of both the goals and means of achieving
5. Rebellion - Rebellion against both the means and the goals.
 

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