Chairperson : Prof.

Madhurima Verma
Course Leader : Prof. Surinder Singh
Course Co-ordinator : Dr. Purva Mishra

M.A. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Sem- III
PAPER– IV (OPTIONAL PAPER)
Disaster Management

Introductory Letter (i)

Syllabus (ii)

CONTENTS
UNIT - I

L.NO. TOPICS AUTHOR PAGES

1. Disaster Management: Prof. S.L. Goel (Retd.) 1

Concept and Dimensions Dr. (Ms.) Durgesh Nandini (IGNOU)

2. Natural Disasters Dr. (Ms.) Durgesh Nandini (IGNOU) 10

3. Manmade Disasters Dr. (Ms.) Durgesh Nandini (IGNOU) 24

UNIT - II

4. Disaster Management Act. 2005 Prof. P. Kamra 39

5. Organisational Framework Prof. E. Vayunandan (IGNOU) 51

For Disaster Administration in
India at the Union Level.
6. Disaster Administration at State and Prof. E. Vayunandan 63
(IGNOU) Local Level.
 UNIT - III

7. Role of Information and Dr. Dolly Mathew 71

Communication Technology IGNOU
in Disaster Management

8. Interstate cooperation and Prof. Pardeep Sahni 78

International cooperation IGNOU
For Disaster Management

9. Role of NGOs, Corporates, Mrs. Prof. Alka Dhameja 96

Civil Society, Community and IGNOU
Army in Disaster Management

UNIT - IV

10. Disaster Risk Reduction Sustainable Prof. Pardeep Sahni 115

Development IGNOU
11. Disaster Preparedness Relief and Prof. Ms. Uma Medury 125
Rehabilitation IGNOU
12. Disaster Management Training Dr. Dolly Mathew 137
IGNOU
Editor & Vetter: Dr. Purva Mishra

E-Mail of Department - coordpubadm@pu.ac.in

Contact No. of Department - 0172-2534311
 (i)

INTRODUCTORY LETTER

Dear Students,
We accord you a hearty welcome on your joining the M.A. course in Public Administration in
University School of Open Learning, Panjab University, Chandigarh. We are sure you are quite
happy to find this opportunity for continuing your pursuit of higher education. The concept of
Correspondence teaching involves the provision opportunities to those who, due to certain
reasons, could not continue their formal education and, thus, enable them to make of use their
potential capabilities.
The study of Public Administration as a separate discipline gained importance and greater
significance in the modern civilized society. The success or failure of the activities of the state
depends upon the proper execution of national plans and programmes. No plan, howsoever good
it may be, can be successful without clean, efficient and impartial administration. With the concept
of a welfare-state, the functions of the modern government have increased manifold. Now the
state does not concern itself with the maintenance of law and order and revenue collection only
but it has also to look after the all-round development of the people. Public Administration
stabilizes the social structure and preserves human culture by setting social conflicts and by
creating social unity and harmony. It not only maintains and preserves the civilized social life, but
also functions as a great instrument of social change and improvement. It acts as dynamic force in
the realization of the objectives of the state policy into practice.
Keeping in view the importance of this subject, and the scientific and technological development in
Public Administration, USOL provides opportunities for regular instructions to the students who for
some reason are not able to join regular colleges in a formal system.
The lecture scripts would be reaching you at regular intervals or you may collect these personally
from USOL. Every care is taken to make the reading material simple, perceptible and useful. The
academic year is divided into two semesters. Each semester has one paper which is divided into
4 units. You will find our instructional programme more involving, interesting and instructive in
comparison with the conventional and formal methods. USOL makes arrangements for personal
contact programme for six days in every semester at Chandigarh. This will supplement your
lecture scripts.
The faculty members concerned are always at your disposal. If you feel any difficulty or problem,
you can contact them personally or through correspondence. However, it is suggested that you
may refer all academic enquiries to Swinder Singh Coordinator Public Administration, USOL, PU,
Chandigarh. The Syllabus is attached herewith.

With all good wishes.

Department of Public Administration
 (ii)

OPTIONAL PAPERS
PAPER– IV
Disaster Management

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PAPER-SETTERS AND CANDIDATES

 The Maximum Marks for the paper will be 100. The question paper will be of 80 marks and
internal assessment of 20 marks. Time allowed will be 3 Hours. For private students, who have not
been assessed for the internal assessment, the marks secured by them in the paper will be
proportionately increased in lieu of the internal assessment.
The Paper-Setter must put a note in question paper in this regard.
 The candidate shall attempt 5 questions in all (one compulsory and one each from four units).
The compulsory question shall comprise of 15 short-answer type questions, covering the whole syllabus,
to be answered in 25-30 words each, out of which the candidate would be required to attempt any 10.
Each question will carry 2 marks. Rest of the paper shall contain 4 units, each unit having two
questions, out of which the candidate would be expected to attempt one. Each question from the units
will carry 15 marks.
Objectives of the Paper: This paper seeks to makethe student of Public Administration aware about
different types of disasters and their management in India. Apart from developing and understanding of
the strategy for disaster course will develop leadership and management skills of the disaster
management. Case studies, role plays, mock drills, field visits, documentaries and interaction with
experts in the field of disaster management will form the pedagogical scheme of instruction.

UNIT-I
Disaster: Concept & Dimensions
Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions, Floods, Cyclones, Climate Change
Man-made Disasters: Anthropogenic, Soil degradation, Desertification, Deforestation

UNIT-II
Disaster Management Act 2005
Organisational Framework for Disaster Administration in India at the Union, State and Local levels
(including Nodal Agency, National Disaster Management, Authority, State Authority)

UNIT-III
Role of Information and Communication Technology Systems in Disaster Management
Interstate and International Cooperation for Disaster Management
Role of NGOs and Army in Disaster Management

UNIT-IV
Disaster Risk Reduction – Sustainable Development
Disaster Preparedness; Relief and Rehabilitation
Disaster Management Training
 (iii)

Essential Readings
Goel, S. L. (2006). Encyclopedia of Disaster Management. New Delhi: Deep and Deep.
Lal, Rammohan&Shrivastav, Madhu (2016); AapdaPrabandhanKeNayeSiddhant; New
Delhi: Hindi Book Centre
Monappa, K. C. (2004). Disaster Preparedness. New Delhi: Akshay Public Agencies.
Narayan, B. (2009). Disaster Management. New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation.
Vyas, Harishchandra. (2004). Jansankhya, PradooshanaurParyavaran. Mumbai: VidyaVihar

Further Readings
Anderson, J. (2008). Public Policy Making: An Introduction. 5th ed. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Asian Development Bank. (1991). Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the Pacific. Manila: ADB.
Dynamics of the Emergency Management System. Public Administration Review.56(3) 235-244.
Govt. of India/UNDP. (2002-07). Disaster Risk Management Programme: Community Based Disaster
Preparedness and Risk Reduction through Participation of Committees and Local Self Governments
www.ndmindia.nic.in/EQProjects/goiundp2.0.pdf
Princen, T. Y. (1994). Environmental NGO’s in World Politics. London: Routledge.
Sahni, P. Ariyabandu, M. Malagoda, M. (2003). Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia. New Delhi:
Prentice Hall.
Satendra and Sharma,V. K. (2004). Sustainable Rural Development for Disaster Management.New
Delhi:
Schnneider, Saundra K. (2009). Flirting with Disaster: Public Management in Crisis Situations. NY:
Wamsley, Gary L. and Aaron D. (May/June 1996). Escalating in a Quagmire: Changing
 1

Unit-I Lessons : 1-3

DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
CONCEPT AND DIMENSIONS
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distinction Between Hazard & Disaster
1.3 Definition of Terminology used in Disaster Management
1.4 Dimensions of Disasters in India
1.5 Disaster Management
1.6 Participation in Disaster Management
1.7 Summary
1.8 Model Questions
1.9 References
1.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to :
1. Discuss the meaning of disaster and how it is different from Hazard
2. Understand clearly the various terms of disaster management
3. Explain the various dimensions of disaster
4. Understand the disaster management cycle.
1.1 Introduction
The term “Disaster” owes its origin to the French word “Desastre” which is the combination of two terms
“des” meaning bad or evil and “astre” meaning “star”. The combined expression is “Bad or Evil Star”. In
earlier days a disaster was considered to be the loss due to some unfavourable star.
Disaster is associated with following features :
1. Disruption to normal pattern of life. Such disruption is usually severe and may also be sudden,
unexpected and widespread and thus human being remain in shock for a long period.
2. Human effects such as loss of life, livelihood and property, injury, hardship and adverse affects on
health - physical as well as mental.
3. Effects on social structure such as destruction of or damage or infrastructure buildings, communication
and other essential services leading to disruption of life and the resources become scarce.
4. Community needs such as shelter, food, clothing, medical assistance and social care.

A complete definition of disaster may be “an event, concentrated in time and space, which threatens a
society or a relatively self-sufficient, sub-division of a society with major unwanted consequences as a
result of the collapse or precautions which had hitherto been culturally accepted as inadequate” (Turner
1976).
The world bank regards as an extra ordinary event of limited, duration or strictly speaking a natural event
causing serious disruption of countries economy.
According to G. F. White “Disaster is an interaction between people and the nature governed by the Co-
existent state of adjustment in the human use system and the state of nature and the natural even
system.” D. K. Smith defines natural disaster as “catastrophic consequences of natural phenomena or a
combination of phenomena resulting in injury, loss of life or input in a relatively large scale and some disruption
to human activities1”.
The United Nations defines disasters as : The occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune which
 2

disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of a society or community.

The Webster’s Dictionary, defines disaster as “any overwhelms existing resources to deal with the event.”
According to Ministry of Environment and Forest, G. C. I, “A disaster is a Catastrophic consequences of
Natural Phenomena or a combination of Phenomena resulting in injury loss of life or input in a relatively
large-scale and some disruption of human activities.
Disaster Management Act, 2005 defined Disasters management as : “Disaster” means a catastrophe,
mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man made causes or by accident
or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to and destruction of
property, or damage to, or degradation of environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be
beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area.
Disasters is defined as : “ A serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing widespread
human material, or environment loses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own
resource.” A disaster is the product of a hazard such as earthquake, flood or windstorm coinciding with a
vulnerable situation which might include communities, cities or villages. There are two main components in
this definition hazards and vulnerability. Without vulnerability or hazard there is no disaster. A disaster occurs
when hazard and vulnerability meet2.

Hazard Disaster Vulunerability

A natural disaster is an event of the nature, which causes sudden disruption to the normal life of a society
and causes damage to property and lives, to such an extent, that normal social and economic
mechanisms, available to the society, are inadequate to restore normalcy. Viewed in this perspective, a host
of natural phenomena constitutes disasters to a society, whether they are related to an occurrence in a micro
environment or not. In macro terms, the disasters, which cause widespread damage and disruption in India,
are drought, flood, cyclone, and earthquakes.

1. Quoted in Indian Science Congress Association Presidential Address by Prof. Dilip Kumar / Sinha,
1991. The shaping of Indian science, Indian Science Congress Association, Presidential Address, 2003.
Vol.III 1982-2003 p.1729.
Response to natural disasters have evolved over time the world over. From a purely humanitarian urge to
offer succour to the victims, the response to the challenge of natural disasters has come to address itself
to preparedness to mitigate their impact and reduce their occurrences to sustain the developmental
effort. India is not an exception to this changing scenario. The philanthropy and the munificence of the rich
is still evident in offering humanitarian assistance. But this is a small part of the total relief effort. The
dynamics of voluntary action does contribute to the building up of the resilience of the disaster-prone
societies but these efforts are isolated, and still the major part of this task rests on the governmental
interventions. It is, in this context, that there is a need to closely appraise the existing response mechanisms
and relief delivery so as to realize the objectives of the natural disaster reduction in this International Decade
of Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)3.

1.2 DISTINCTION BETWEEN HAZARD AND DISASTER

Hazard and Disaster are closely related. “ —— A hazard is a natural event while the disaster is its
consequence. A hazard is a perceived natural event which threatens both life and property, a disaster is the
realization of this hazard”. (John Whittow, Disaster, 1980). Pan American Health Organization in its Scientific
 3

Publication No. 575 in 2000 describes the difference very clearly. To quote :
The term “disaster” usually refers to the natural event (e.g. a hurricane or earthquake) in combination with its
damaging effects (e.g., the loss of life or destruction of buildings). “Hazard” refers to the natural event and
“vulnerability” to the susceptibility of population or system (e. g. a hospital, water supply and sewage
system, or aspects of infrastructure) to the effects of the hazard. The probability that a particular system or
population will be affected by hazards is known as the “risk”. Hence, risk is a function of the vulnerability and
the hazard, and is expressed as follows :

Risk = Vulunerably × Hazard

Twigg, J. 2001 extracted from Living with Risk, A global review of disaster reduction initiatives 2004
version States “Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a natural disaster, but there are natural hazards,
such as cyclones and earthquakes. The difference between a hazard and a disaster is an important one. A
disaster takes place when a community is affected by a hazard (usually defined as an event and even
psychological factors that shape people’s that overwhelms that community’s capacity to cope). In other
words, the impact of the disaster is determined by the extent of a community’s vulnerability to the hazard.
This vulnerability is not natural. It is the human dimension of disasters, the result of the whole range of
economic, social, cultural, institutional, political lives and create the environment that they live in.”
Disaster management means a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating
and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for :
1. Prevention of danger, or threat of any disaster ;
2. Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences ;
3. Capacity - building ;
2. GOI, Ministry of Home Affairs, National Disaster Management Division A Primer For
Parliamentarians, Version 1.0 New Delhi, p5-6.
3. NIDM Disaster Development, Vol. 1, Number 1, Nov. 2006, p. 112
4. Preparedness to deal with any disaster ;
5. Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster ;
6. Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster ;
7. Evacuation, rescue and relief ;
8. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction ;

1.3 Definition of terminology used in Disaster Management1.3(a)Culture of Prevention

A culture of prevention, it was felt needs to be installed in all communities and amongst disaster
managers. This requires active involvement of all groups of society, national, international organizations,
governments and private organizations. Early warnings and conscious developmental programming are the
key elements of preventive planning. The new culture that is permeating the disaster management in the
present times is based on the premise that hazards both natural and human - induced are inevitable, but the
disasters that follow can be handled effectively through adequate preventive measures.

1.3(b) Preparedness
The United Nations Disaster Relief Office (UNDRO) defines Disaster Preparedness as ‘(a series of)
measures designed to organize and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation operations in
cases of disaster. Measures of preparedness include among others setting up disaster relief machinery,
formulation of emergency relief plans, training of specific groups (and vulnerable communities) to undertake
 4

rescue and relief stock piling supplies and earmarking funds, for relief operations.” This protective process
embraces measures which enable governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster
situations to cope with them effectively Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans,
the development of warning systems, the maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel. It may
also embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk from a
recurring disaster.
Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a disaster event which are aimed
at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services and damage when the disaster occurs. All
preparedness planning needs to be supported by appropriate legislation with clear allocation of responsibilities
and budgetary provisions.

1.3(c) Mitigation
Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard itself and the vulnerable
conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore mitigation activities can be
focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to the threat. Examples of mitigation measures which
are hazard specific include modifying the occurrence of the hazard, e.g. water management in drought prone
areas, avoiding the hazard by shifting people away from the hazard and by strengthening structures to
reduce damage when a hazard occurs. In addition to these physical measures mitigation should also be
aimed at reducing the physical economic and social vulnerability to threats and the underlying causes for this
vulnerability.

1.3(d) Vulnerability
Vulnerability is defined as “The extent to which a community, structure, service or geographic area is likely
to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and
proximity to hazardous terrain or ”a disaster prone area.”
A set of prevailing or consequential conditions composed of physical socio-economic and / or political
factors which increase a community susceptibility to calamity or which adversely affect its ability to
respond to events. The community and its members may or may not be willing participants in contributing to
or tolerating the conditions. Taken together, they create a dynamic mix of variables, each of which results
from a continuous process. Vulnerabilities can be physical, social, or attitudinal and can be primary or
secondary in nature.

1.3(e) Risk
Risk is a measure of the expected losses (deaths injuries, property, economic activity etc.) due to a hazard
of a particular magnitude occurring in a given area over a specific time period.
A probability that injury to life or damage to property and the environment will occur. The extent to which
risk is either increased or diminished is the result of the interaction of a multitude of causation chains of
events.

1.3(f) Rehabilitation
Means settling people in a way that they return to their normal life as far as possible through well laid out
plans. In Pakistan, the Earthquake Reconstruction program has also achieved some impressive milestone;
Construction has begun in more than 1,50,000 homes and over 80,000 workers have been trained in seismic
resistant construction. A total of 4,90,000 beneficiaries have received the first two instalments of the housing
reconstruction grant to rebuild their homes.

1.3(g) Hazard
Can be explained as event or occurrence that has the potential for causing injury to life or damage to
 5

property or the environment. The magnitude of the phenomenon, the probability of its occurrence and the
extent and severity of the impact can vary. In many cases, these effects can be anticipated and estimated.

1.4 DIMENSION OF DISASTERS IN INDIA

India is highly vulnerable to all types of natural disasters with the possible exception of volcanic
eorruptions. Of 32 states and union territories, 22 are disasters prone. However, the natural disasters take
place with various intensities in different regions due to unique and widely varying climatic, geographical and
geological conditions. As a result there is a significant regional and seasonal aspect in the occurrence of
natural disasters. The natural disasters periodically visit the same geographical region, and set the development
clock back by decades. They often result in destruction of fixed assets, loss of production capacity, market
access or material inputs and damage to transport, communication or energy infrastructure. In addition, loss
of lives and migration of key social actors leading to an erosion of social capital adversely affect the society.
In this context, lack of capacity to limit the impact of hazards remains a major burden on the society. Hence,
the natural disasters are a potentially serious shock to an economy and the socio economic development of
the nations, which is evident in the following table.
Table 1.1. Impacts of Natural Hazard on Socio-economic Development

Year People Houses and buildings, Amount of

affected (lakh) partially or totally,property damage/ loss (Rs. in crore)
damaged
1985 595.6 2449878 40.06
1986 550.0 2049277 30.74
1987 483.4 2919380 20.57
1988 101.5 242533 40.63
1989 30.1 782340 20.41
1990 31.7 1019930 10.71
1991 342.7 1190109 10.90
1992 190.9 570969 20.05
1993 262.4 1529916 50.80
1994 235.3 1051223 10.83
1995 543.5 2088355 40.73
1996 549.9 2376693 50.43
1997 443.8 1103549 n.a
1998 521.7 1563405 0.72
1999 501.7 3104064 1020.97
2000 594.34 2736355 800.00
2001 788.19 846878 12000

Source : Annual Reports, NDM Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi.
The data presented in table 1.1 reflects that there is a clear evidence of a rising trend to disaster impact
on property damage / loss which has increased from 10.90 crore (1991) to 12,000 crore (2001) during
the span of ten years. The true costs of disasters are even higher, which include taking into account less
quantifiable effects like the loss of personal belongings or jobs, widening trade or government budget
 6

deficits, or the increasing scale and depth of Poverty. However repeated occurrence of natural catastrophes
undermines the economic viability of the communities.

1.4(a) Economic Dimensions of Disasters

Disasters can wipe out the gains of development. While level of economic loss in industrially eveloped country
is greater than the less developed country due to the far higher density and cost of infrastructure and
production level. The disaster impact varies, which depends on the nature of hazards. For instance, earthquakes
often appear to trigger the most expensive disasters, but losses are concentrated in the affected area only.
The need for a comprehensive strategy and planning targeted at safeguarding the industrial and lifeline
infrastructure was underscored during the Bhuj earthquake. However, individual floods may not record large
losses, but total human impact may be much higher.
At the local level, disasters can adversely effect household livelihoods and push vulnerable groups
towards poverty. The disasters affect people and society in many ways. Such as loss of income earners
in the family due to death or injury, the interruption in production or access to markets, and the destruction
of productive assets like home based workshops. The capacity of a household, or local community to
recover and absorb the impact of disaster largely depends on the help and support of the government and
Non-Governmental Organisation (NGOs).
It has been observed that the economic losses are often reported with reference to the direct losses from
infrastructure and assets destroyed during disasters. In this context, they seldom take into account the
economic implications of reduced levels of production, which is linked to damage in productive assets or
infrastructure that in turn access to raw materials, energy labour or markets.
The repeated occurrence of natural catastrophes undermines the economic viability of the corporate sector.
In this context, now, we will discuss the Impact of disasters on the corporate sector in detail.
Impact of Disasters on Corporate Sector
It is estimated that, during the past twenty years, India suffered direct losses of over 1 billion USD. The
natural disasters eroded 2 percent of the GDP during 1996-2001 and consumed 12 per cent of the
Government revenue. On an average, the disasters have been affecting nearly six million people annually
and more than six percent of the population is directly hit.
Hence, natural disasters are posing a major threat to economic development as disaster-loss figures are
rapidly increasing. As a result, the compounded losses suffered by the Indian industries including direct,
indirect and secondary losses are colossal and virtually incalculable. In this regard, the three major natural
disasters, that is the Gujarat Cyclone of 1998, the Orissa Super-Cyclone of 1999 and the Bhuj Earthquake
of 2001 have caused massive losses to the industries and the corporates.
Man-made Disasters : Industrial and Chemical Disasters It is well-known fact that the industries
employ much production processes involving wide range of chemicals and hazardous raw materials,
intermediates, waste and final products. In the production process, disasters are normally caused by
irresponsible handling of hazardous substances; improper and unauthorized use; and / or due to inadequate
attention to maintenance of manufacturing processes. As such incidents have widespread ramifications
and long-term impact on the society and environment, therefore any such type of action substantially
undermine the functioning of industries in the region. These disasters have- widespread ramifications
and long-term impact on the society environment. The scenario becomes scary and horrendous, if one
takes into account generational and genetic impact of disaster on the community for years to come. In this
regard, the Bhopal Gas Tragedy of 1984 is worth mentioning. In this incident, a sudden release of methyl
isocynate (MIC) at the Union Carbide plant due to poor safety management practices, poor early
warning systems and lack of community preparedness led to death of about eight thousand people,
caused severe health and respiratory problems and birth of Deformed and stillborn children. It is
estimated that this incident caused damages varying-between USD 30 million to as high as USD 3 billion.
 7

The deleterious effects of the Bhopal Gas tragedy can still be felt even after more than two decades.
The Bhopal Gas Tragedy has highlighted the responsibilities of industrial units which are handling
hazardous substances including development of on-site and off emergency plans. In addition, notifying the
authorities and the community about the processes and materials used in the industrial units; storage,
handling and transportation of the hazardous material; and the requisite precautionary measures to be taken
in case of an accident.

Self-Assessment Questions
Q.1Name any two man-made disasters.
Q.2 What are the two causes of man-made disasters?

1.4(b) Social Dimensions of Disasters

The disaster events destroy the lives and infrastructure they violently, and suddenly rip apart interaction
patterns and cohesiveness. In addition the disasters affect the gains of the health, sanitation drinking water
housing and education sectors that underpin social development. In this context Kutch-Bhuj earthquake in
2001, has completely damaged district hospital 992 primary schools and 18 secondary schools. Even the
Cyclone that hit Orissa in 1999 led to the contamination of drinking water wells and damaged many schools
as an aftereffect of the direct impact of a single event.
In the Post-disaster phase, the basic requirement is to take care of the injured rebuilding structures and
ensure that social structures knit together. However it is a substantial challenge which is rarely addressed with
great success. The natural disasters adversely effect the buildings, for instance an earthquake knock
down a higher Percentage of houses and other buildings in such areas where construction does not follow
building code. In this regard the uneven impacts of disaster arise due to differences in income status, culture,
gender, and location of the house / building.

Shelter and Housing

Provision of shelter is the basic requirement to minimize the suffering of the disasters victims. However,
generally, people suffer due to unhygienic conditions. In the recovery and development phase
reconstruction projects are generally launched to rebuild buildings and commercial areas without specifying
clearly who will manage and maintain them .Thus, they leave vulnerable groups even more disadvantaged
than they were before. In addition the risk of breaking-up social network due to dislocating people from their
extended families and job also affect the beneficiaries, if relocation sites are quite distant from the original
settlements and commercial transportation cost is high. For example in the Maharashtra Emergency
Earthquake Reconstruction Project, some villages were relocated so far away that peasants gave up farming
because they could not reach their fields easily.

Poverty and lnequality

The impacts of disaster on society are always observed as uneven. In this regard without careful
planning, the recovery can exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities. However poor people
living in disaster prone areas are the hardest hit in terms of direct and indirect losses due to the disasters.
Gender Specific Issues
In most of the Indian societies women face Multiple discriminations that is physical, social, economic and
psychological, which make them more vulnerable in post-disasters situations. They are generally labeled as
weaker sex, and the general perception about women is that they are not capable enough to defend
themselves in critical situations.
It is to be noted that disasters accentuate all these vulnerabilities of women. In successive disasters
 8

women have been found to suffer more casualties in deaths as well as in injuries because they are mostly
occupied in household work that makes them more vulnerable to building collapse.
It has been observed that the women have intimate knowledge of family, community life and tradition. Thus,
they can contribute in disaster management in the capacity of risk managers. They play if permitted,
active and creative role in coping with crisis situations. In practice, such capacities of women are hardly
recognised and optimally utilised for reducing the risk of disasters.

1.4(c) Needs of Children in Disasters

Disasters cause serious disruption in critical stage of development of the children. In this regard the
external support structures break down: separation from parental protection creates traumatic conditions
that may cause irreversible brain injuries. Experiences of death and destruction may create long-term mental
health problem. Unfortunately children have to compete with adults to get their share during disaster.
Children have unique requirements that flake them vulnerable in disasters. They have to depend on
external support system to survive and even they lack reserves to endure stress. However they have immature
immune system, therefore they are more likely to suffer from containing infectious diseases. Thus, they
develop dehydration malnutrition and fatigue more quickly.
Now, the international organization and national governments have started recognizing the special needs
of children in disaster management.

1.5 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

It has been realised that there is no straightforward solution for reducing the impact of disasters on socio-
economic development. In this context, multi-dimensional approaches and innovative institutional
arrangements are required to mainstream disaster risk reduction. In this direction, following approaches
may be adopted.
1. Sustainable livelihood development framework.
2. Community based disaster risk management, and
• Micro credit and micro insurance
 9

India had been reactive in its approach towards natural disasters with resources being spent on relief,
rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. Now the major emphasis is on mitigation, which refers to the sincere
efforts for reducing the adverse effects of a disaster on people, structures, and socio-economic systems.
However for mitigation of disasters, disaster management activities are useful before, during and after a
disaster and thus overlap all phases of disaster management (Diagram 1.1), that is prevention mitigation,
preparedness (pre-disaster phase), response (during disaster), recovery and development (post-disaster phase).
In India, two types of mitigation activities are implemented that is structural non-structural. In this
context, the structural activities include physical steps like construction of dams, bridges, and disaster-
resistant buildings to protect against disasters. However, non-structural activities are related to development
of land-use plans, zoning laws training and warning.

1.6 Participation in Disaster Management

The community participation can enhance sustainability and ownership, therefore it is advocated that
the community should participate in planning designing, implementing managing supervising, maintaining, and
if possible then, even in financing a project.
It has been observed that when stakeholders views are not considered, then most of the projects often
fail to solve the local problems. For example, in Gujarat, weavers that lost their looms in the earthquake were
provided with new, looms, but they were not of the type traditionally used in the region.
Lack of peoples participation in response and recovery leave the women, children old, disabled and poor
people even more disadvantaged than they were before because the official agencies involved in
disaster management may not be fully aware about the local requirements.

1.7 Summary:
Disaster is an extra ordinary event which causes serious disruption to country's social and economic life. A hazard
is a natural event and disaster is the realization of this hazard. Disaster affects socio-economic development of the
country. The poor, aged, women and children suffer a great loss owing to disasters. The community participation can
ease out a lot of stress and pressure from the agencies engaged in disaster management.

1.8 Model Questions :-

1. Define Disaster. Discuss its various dimensions.
2. Discuss various dimensions of Disasters.
1.9 References :
http://www.envfor.nic.inhttp://www.gen.umn.eduhttp://www.entitymission.org http://www.igc.apc.org
http://www.globalff.org http://www.geocities,com/RainForest
http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/soilsretrogressionand degradation
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unubooks.un17ee/uu17ee06.htm

*****
 10

Lessons – 2.

NATURAL DISASTERS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Natural Disasters : Nature
2.3 Natural Disasters in India
2.3.1 Earthquake
2.3.2 Volcanic Eruption
2.3.3 Land Slides
2.3.4 Avalanches
2.3.5 Cyclone
2.3.6 Floods
2.3.7 Drought
2.3.8 Climate Change
2.4 Lessons Learnt : Disaster Mitigation
2.5 Conclusion
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Model Questions
2.8 References
2.9 Further Readings

2.0 Objectives
After studying this Unit, you should be able to :
• Understand the nature of natural disasters ;
• Discuss the various types of natural disasters ;
• Explain the causes and effects of disasters ;
• Analyse the lessons learnt on the basis of past experiences for disaster mitigation; and
• Describe briefly the natural disasters that occur frequently in India.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
India has been vulnerable to natural disasters such as droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes and
landslides on account of its geo-climatic conditions. These disasters are often sudden and intense, resulting
in considerable destruction, injuries and deaths disrupting normal life as well as the process of development.
In fact, increasing population and various other socio-economic factors have forced people to live in vulnerable
areas. In view of the India's high vulnerability profile, about 55 per cent of the total area is vulnerable to
earthquakes, while about 4 crore hectares landmass is vulnerable to periodic floods, 68 per cent net sown
area is vulnerable to droughts, and coastal states particularly in the East Coast and Gujarat are vulnerable to
cyclones (Tenth Five Year Plan). It has been observed that the natural disasters are on the increase in their
magnitude, frequency, and economic impact. In 1999, the Orissa was hit by the worst cyclone in a hundred
years, killing about 10,000 people and destroying 18,000 villages just in one night. In addition just to quote
an example after the severe earthquake of January 2001, total expenditure on relief and reconstruction in
Gujarat alone has been about Rs. 11,500 crore in that particular year.
New disaster threats have also developed like the Tsunami, disaster of Japan, 2011 which was an
 11

unprecedented natural disaster. It is evident from the first lesson on Dimensions of Disasters that India is
vulnerable to natural disasters. They inflict serious damage to life and property of the affected people,
destroy the infrastructure, set back the development process and upset the budgetary provisions. In this
lesson, we will discuss the meaning, nature, causes, and effects of natural disasters. In addition, keeping in
view the natural disasters that occur frequently in India, we will highlight the various types of disasters with
special reference to the earthquakes, floods, cyclones, droughts and climate change. Lastly, we will highlight
the lessons learnt on the basis of past experiences of natural disaster management in India.

2.2 NATURAL DISASTERS : NATURE

A natural disaster is the product of a natural hazard, such as earthquake, flood of windstorm coinciding with a
vulnerable situation that might include communities or villages. In this context, without vulnerability or
hazard there is no disaster. The natural disaster could occur due to an immense extreme event or it could be
the result of a long duration process, which disrupts normal life of a society causing widespread human,
material and environmental losses to a considerable extent.
To be more specific a hazard may be regarded as pre-disaster situation, in which the risk of a natural
disaster exists. A hazardous situation turns into a natural disaster when the affected community (in village or
district or state or country) is not capable enough to manage adverse effects of the disaster and they need
immediate and prolonged assistance and support from the governmental and non-governmental organisations
to deal with the critical situation and its impacts.
As the hazards can be posed by natural phenomena or man-made events, therefore on the basis of their
origin disasters may be natural or man-made. In the subsequent lesson, we will discuss the man-made
disaster, that is chemical, industrial, nuclear, biological and other accident related disasters (HPC). However
in this lesson, we will confine ourselves to the study of natural disasters in India.
The nature and severity of a disaster depends on the basis of disruption to normal pattern of human life,
impacts such as loss of life and property, injury, hardship and adverse effects on health, basic community
needs socially shelter, food, clothing, medical assistance, hygiene and social care damage to infrastructure,
buildings, and communications and the assessment of rehabilitation and reconstruction. In this context, following
table presents a clear picture of loss of life and damage due to natural hazards during 1996 to 2001.
Table 2.1 : Disaster History by Major Hazards in India
Dr. (Ms.) Durgesh Nandini (IGNOU)

Hazard No. of No. of People Reported No. of loss Percent Average

Reported reported Affected Losses ($submitted Reported Loss per
events deaths (000) Million) region report
(000) ($ Million)
Windstorm 15 14.6 25213.75 619 15 100 374.6
Flood 29 8.9 150980.3 2928 18 62 162.7
Earthquake 3 20.1 16367.04 707 6 20 784.5
Drought 4 - 90000.0 588 - - -
Other 24 5.9 356.9 - 3 13 -
Total 75 - 282917.9 13842 - 56 329.6

Source : World Bank

It is evident from the above table that during five years (1996 to 2001) maximum number of people were
affected due to floods, that is about one lakh fifty one thousand, and maximum loss was reported due to
windstorm followed by earthquake. The extent of impacts of natural disaster. On societies differs, depending
on their level of development. It has been observed that the vulnerable condition of the affected community
 12

is increased by poverty high population density, weak infrastructure, proximity to river, sea or mountains,
lack of awareness and cooperation within the community, and poor governance.

2.3 NATURAL DISASTERS IN INDIA : TYPES

As already mentioned in section 2.1 above (Introduction) India's unique geo-climatic position makes the
country particularly vulnerable to natural disasters. India is a vast peninsula of sub-continental size and is
surrounded by seas on three sides and has the Himalayan range on the fourth side, which has some of the
tallest mountains of the world. That is why India has to face a very large variety of disastrous events of
geological, oceanic or climatic origin. A High Powered Committee has identified 31 types of disasters in
India (discussed in the first lesson). These disasters were placed in five categories, that is Water and
Climate related. Geologically related, Chemical Industrial and Nuclear related; Accident related, and Biologically
related disasters. Similarly we can also list the natural disasters on the basis of their origin, as follows (Table
2.2).
Table 2.2 Types of Natural Disasters
S.No. Nature Disaster
1. Wind and water related disasters Floods, Droughts, Cyclones, Tsunami

2. Climate related disasters Heat and cold waves Global warming Sea level, Rise
Ozone depletion

3. Mountain area related disasters Landslides Avalanches

4. Geological Earthquakes Volcanic eruptions

This is broad classification of certain types of natural disaster, although one can suggest a different
categorization. For example tsunami can be considered to be of geological origin as it is evident from the
Geol's categorisation of natural disasters but in this lesson it (Tsunami, 2004) has been put under the
water related category because the disastrous effect is caused by the giant sea waves. According to the
Goel, the natural disasters are as follows :
(i) Wind- related - Storm, Cyclones, Tornado, Hurricane, Storm Surge, Tidal Waves.
(ii) Water- related - Cloud Burst, Flash flood, Excessive rains, Drought, Communicable diseases.
(iii) Earth related - Earthquake, Avalanches, Landslides, Tsunamis, Volcanic Eruption.
Even the Twelfth Finance Commission has recommended to include landslides avalanches, cloudburst and
pest attacks in the list of items and norms for assistants from CRF/NCCF during 2005-2010 in the wake of
identified natural calamities.
Each of these phenomena requires detailed discussion. However at this stage, as per syllabus, we will
discuss the selected natural disasters beginning with disasters of geological origin.

2.3.1 Earthquake
As per the Seismic Zoning map of India the country is divided into four Seismic Zones, Geographically, much
part of India lies in Zone III, which represents the region of low risk Zone. However, Zone V shows the area
of Very High Risk Zone like Rann of Kutchch in Gujarat.
Earthquake can be defined as a sudden geological event below the surface of the earth, which results in
generation of a series of underground shock waves that travel far and wide and cause vertical and
horizontal vibrations. The consequential motion causes massive destruction in the settlements of the
earthquake prone area.
The severity of the impact of an earthquake depends on its magnitude, which in turn depends on the
 13

amount of energy released at the spot where the geological event took place that is below the surface of the
earth. Even various hazards are associated with an earthquake, which can be grouped as follows:
Primary Hazards are the effects, which occur simultaneously along with the natural phenomenon of
earthquake, that is ground shaking, fault rupture, and tectonic deformations; and
Secondary Hazards are effects that occur at the end or after the earthquake phenomenon such as soil
liquefaction, land and mudslides, submarine ava lanches, and tsunami.

(i) Impacts :
On the basis of past experience, it can be stated that the impact of an earthquake may also be grouped
in the following manner on the basis of the type of hazard.
• Primary Impacts include building and bridge collapse, rupture of water and gas pipelines and other
utilities, changes in underground water sources, changes in courses of rivers, and disappearance
and/or creation of new islands.
• Secondary Impacts are identified as death and damage due to collapse of infrastructure including
buildings, fire and explosions, disease and epidemics, floods from dam failure, and floods due to
tsunami.
Thus, it is evident that not only earthquake but its associated hazards also cause massive destruction in
terms of life and property. An earthquake is a sudden onset hazard, therefore it occurs suddenly, and as
yet there is no dependable technique for prediction of an earthquake.
We have already mentioned in the introduction that the India is highly vulnerable to the earthquakes; and
the country has been visited by some very severe earthquakes, which are depicted in the following table
(2.3) on damaging earthquakes.
Table 2.3 : Damaging Earthquakes in India since 1950

Yeayr ear Rergieognion DeaDthesaths

19510950 Assaasmsam 1,5001,500
Ak1e9r8e18l9a8te8d de Thns. Nabn.ihdbaliorhsasres are due to the s Tr1u,c3t0u01ra,3l 00
U1a9k9e13r9e9s3istant Dleastilguanrtuarnd construction of buil D8in,g0s008a,s000
I2n0t0h21is00c1ontex T,gthugejaubrajuatrreaat u of Indian Stand Ar1d3s,8h10a35s,805
C2h0s0h25o0u0ld5 be s Trjicatlmyjaemmnufmoarucnedadnk.dianksahadm N1a,t3io0n81a,3l 08
sdhiirtmioinr , the
The data presented in above table reflects that Gujarat was worst affected. On January 26, 2001 a
devastating earthquake of M 6.9 on Richter scale occurred in the Kutch district. According to official estimates,
the total loss of life was 13,805 and 12,05,198 houses were destroyed (Hazards, 'Disasters and Your-
Community - Report). It is to be noted that it is poorly built structures, not earthquakes that kill people. The
impact of an earthquake on a building depends on the building material used, design of the building and
techniques employed for construction.

(ii) Mitigation Strategy

It is a well-known fact that most of the earthqu a collapse of houses and other buildings. Hence, earthq per
the guidelines/codes can mitigate the disasters. brought out codes for earthquake resistant design, whi
Disaster Management Guidelines have been prepared for earthquake risk management. In view of the
above, efforts should be made to enhance the level of awareness of people regarding disaster mitigation
measures and involve all stakeholders in strengthening the national efforts towards a more proactive
preparedness and mitigation.

2.3.2 Volcanic Eruption

 14

Volcano can be explained as a vent or chimney to the earth's surface, from a reservoir of molten rock,
called magma, deep in the crust of the earth. It is not that volcanoes are always emitting lava, steam or
smoke. Many volcanoes have been “sleeping" for decades or even longer period in the world. In terms of
forecasting of volcanic eruptions, it can be stated that short-term forecasts within hours or days may be
made through volcano monitoring techniques. India is not much affected due to volcano, in the Indian
territory there are only two volcanoes viz, Narcondam and Barren Island-both are in the Andaman.
It is worth mentioning here that both are sleeping volcanoes, although the Barren Island volcano emits
some heat and smoke occasionally and goes to sleep again. In any case there is no evidence of any
serious damage in India due to these volcanoes, in the known past. However, other countries such as Italy,
Japan, Mexico, Indonesia and Iceland are worst affected.

2.3.3 Landslides
Landslides are known as the mass movement of rock debris or mud down a slope and include a broad
range of motions whereby falling, sliding and flowing under the influence of gravity. It has been
observed that they also occur as secondary effects of heavy rainstorms, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
In almost all cases, landslides occur as a consequence of changes - either sudden or gradual - in the
composition and structure of rocks or vegetation on a slope, which loosens the soil or rocks that slide on a
trigger such as heavy rains or vibrations in the earths surface.
It can be stated that the landslide can be caused by poor ground conditions, geomorphic phenomena, heavy
rainfall, earthquakes or undercutting of the base of slopes by rivers and quite often due to heavy spells of
rainfall coupled with impeded drainage. Even increased pace and influence of developmental activities in
the hill areas has also resulted in increased incidence of landslides. Slope cutting for roads, housing, etc. and
denudation of hill slopes due to clearing of forests, and mining activities for business purpose have adverse
effects on the stability of hill slopes.

(i) Impact
The landslides frequently destroy the infrastructure, agriculture, and dwellings resulting in considerable loss of
life and property besides blocking vital roads in the inaccessible areas. In most cases it has been
observed that the landslides give no notice and enormous amounts of rock and soil come crashing with
speed on the unwarned and unprepared victims. In such cases, damage may occur to buildings, even if
foundations have been strengthened.
Keeping in view the disaster situations, the adverse effects of landslides may be divided into direct and
indirect impacts.
Direct impact reflects total destruction of anything on top or in the path of a landslide. The resulting
rubble from landslide damages lines of communications and blocks roadways, blockage in the waterways
create flesh flood with adverse effect. They cause disruption to traffic due to collapse of road infrastructure
or accumulation of collapsed material on road from upper slopes, and bridge failures due to debris flows. In
landslide disaster, it is to be noted that casualties may not be widespread, except in the case when it is
associated with earthquake or volcano. It has been observed that fatalities are more where population
pressure has prompted settlements in vulnerable areas. In this context, casualties result from collapse of
buildings or burial by landslide debris.
Landslides create indirect impacts also that lead to loss of productivity in agriculture, poultry, small scale
cottage industry or forest produce, reduced real estate prices in high risk areas, changes in streams and
irrigation facilities and flooding. In addition, impact of road damage on socio-economic activities can be seen
as village isolation, house relocation, evacuation of persons, and increase in prices of essential
commodities in short supply. In this regard, a well-developed road network or an alternate alignment with
little detours may minimize the effects.
 15

India provides striking examples of bewildering variety of landslides for example in the Assam tragedy (July
1992) 300 people were killed, road and buildings were damaged and it costed millions of rupees,
however in the Malpa tragedy (August 18,1998), 210 people were killed and the village was wiped out in the
event, and landslides, on NH-39 in Manipur - Nagaland (July, 2004) a toad stretch kept on striking, as a result
about 80 houses including some permanent buildings experienced severe damages, about 130 families
were rendered homeless and about 300 vehicles carrying essential commodities were stranded on the
highway for about 10 days.

(ii) Mitigation Strategy

• Hazard mapping.
• Land use practices like areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be
afforested with suitable species, any development activity should be taken up only after a detailed
study of the region, total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone, relocate settlements and infrastructure
that fall in the possible path of the landslides, and do not construct buildings in areas beyond a certain
degree of slope.
• Retaining walls can be built to stop land from slipping specially to prevent smaller sized and secondary
landslides that often occur along the toe portion of the larger landslides.
• Engineered structured with strong foundation should be encouraged, because only such structures
can withstand or take the ground movement forces caused by the landslides.
• As the increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and an effective way of arresting landslides,
therefore awareness level of the community should be enhanced in this context.
• Insurance
• Community participation in disaster mitigation can play a vital role in identifying the disaster prone
areas. Compacting ground locally, slope stabilization and avoiding construction of houses in hazardous
location are certain measures that community has to adhere to avoid damage from the possible
landslides. In this regard, community based activities such as education and awareness generation
among the communities, establishing community based monitoring, timely warning and evacuation
system will be effective.

2.3.4 Avalanches
An avalanche is described as an event in which a large mass of snow, ice, rock or other material moves
swiftly down a mountain side or over a precipice and crushes everything in its path. An avalanche
generally starts when the large mass of snow, ice and rock overcomes the frictional resistance of the sloping
surface either due to rain, melting of ice base or vibrations.

(i) Impact
As the landslides and avalanches are events of mountain areas, therefore they are rather similar in nature
and impact. The basic difference between these two events is that landslide involves movement of rock,
soil and mud whereas the avalanche comprises snow, ice and rock, and landslides can occur in smaller hills
or rocky slopes but avalanches occur in high mountains with snow in abundance.
In the case of snow avalanches in Jammu and Kashmir during 16-20th February, 2005 incidences of snow
avalanches were reported from Anantnag, Poonch, Doda and Udhampur districts, which were worst hit. In
this event, avalanches and landslides caused house collapses.
IMD declared that snowfall up to 2 metres (m) have occurred at many places in the higher reaches of the Pir
Panjal range. However the pilgrimage to the Vaishno Devi shrine resumed but the valley remained cut off
from other parts of the country. The Jammu-Srinagar National Highway remained blocked for many
days, which resulted in shortage of some of the essential commodities in the Kashmir division of Jammu and
 16

Kashmir State.
As per the State Government reports approximately 2.35 lakh primary population was affected. Out of
these 278 persons lost their lives, and about 262 persons were missing due to snowfall and avalanches. In
this disaster, 445 persons had been rescued including 40 foreigners. About 4,500 persons were evacuated
from the affected area to safer places, while 1,500 vehicles were stranded on the highway. Among massive
damage 12,000 (approx.) houses were damaged, and in agriculture Rabi crops and the plantations suffered
extensive damage. In addition, snowfall led to breakdown of power, police wireless system, water supply
and telephonic communications. In this situation, even the inter-district bus service was hit very badly and
many roads were closed.

(ii) Avalanche Disaster Mitigation Strategy

Avalanche is a recurring phenomenon; the avalanche hazard. mitigation is done through Active and
Passive methods. In this context, efficient control of avalanches is possible only through active methods
comprising essentially structures, afforestation and artificial controlled release / triggering. However, these
methods are not only costly but are also difficult to execute due to the peculiarities of the terrain. At certain
places these methods cannot be implemented at all because of the logistic problems. While methods such
as structural control or afforestation arrest the creep and glide motions of snow on slopes, and retarding and
diversionary structures retard and divert a flowing avalanche, and artificial triggering helps in bringing down
the avalanches before they reach stupendous proportions. Thus in the context of disaster mitigation, latter
method is relatively cheaper. However, the passive methods include increasing awareness about the avalanche
hazard, timely forecasting the avalanche danger, and imparting training on safety and rescue methods. The
forecasting models available today, supported by the fast computational techniques, provide a promising
tool in disaster mitigation.

2.3.5 Cyclone
Cyclone is a major threat to human lives unless the people are evacuated from affected areas in India
these storms are called cyclones, however in other parts of the world they have different nomenclature like
hurricanes in America and typhoons in Japan.
Tropical cyclones are weather systems with strong winds, which circulate, anti-clockwise around a low-
pressure area in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. They generally
form in certain tropical areas over the open seas where the sea surface temperature is around 260 C. In this
context, the necessary atmospheric and oceanic conditions for the formation of cyclone are a warm sea
temperature, high relative humidity, atmospheric instability and a location around atleast 4-5 degree latitude
away from the equator. The cyclones continue to gather strength from warm seawater. They decay rapidly
into a depression after entering the land, and at times may continue moving as a depression over the land
for a few days giving widespread rainfall but much less wind. Even the cyclones die over the ocean by
entering a region of cold water or due to unfavourable meteorological environment.

(i) Impact
• Severe tropical cyclones are responsible in large casualties and damage to life, property and agricultural
crop in the coastal districts.
• Principal dangers involve (i) very strong winds, (ii) torrential rains, and (iii) high storm tides technically
known as storm surge.

(ii) Mitigation Strategy

For the cyclone disaster mitigation proper hazard mapping, land use control, construction of engineered
structures, and community based mitigation activities are essential. The community based mitigation will
may an important role in construction of cyclone resistant houses and strengthening of existing houses,
 17

which can be done through community participation. Among local people, engineers and masons can take
part in the construction of the building in their area such as construction of multipurpose cyclone shelters and
demonstrate to the people about disaster resistant construction methods. During normal time local people
as school or as community centres can use these buildings. In case of cyclones or floods, local community
can take shelter in these designed buildings and the local communities will be responsible for the maintenance
and management of these community shelters. Other community based mitigation activities are protection
measures for the livestock, the boats, fishing nets, household items and other possessions; construction of
saline embankments for, protection against sea water increase, reforestation, conservation of green
belt areas and participating in coastal shelter belt plantation programme.

2.3.6 Floods
India is one among the most flood prone countries. In our country 40 million hectare area is vulnerable to
floods, and floods affect about 8 million hectare annually. It is evident from the data that India is highly
prone to floods especially in the monsoon and cyclone seasons. The flood denotes inundation or accumulation
of water. In other words, flood can be the result from an imbalance between inflow and outflow of water. It is
known that floods are caused due to heavy rains, dam failures, rapid snow melts, river blockages or even
burst water mains. There are basically three types of floods, that is flash floods, river floods, and coastal
floods.

(i) Impact
Floods result in damage, deaths and injuries, and generally create problems in drinking water supply and
food shortages. The Mumbai flood disaster of July, 2005 refers to the human causes of flooding also in
addition to rain. In Bihar, during July to September 2007, about 19 million people in 20 districts were
affected, 450 human lives were lost, 500 cattle perished, around 9 lakh people were evacuated and 128 relief
camps were setup. In this disaster about 235 health institutes were fully damaged. The total estimated
damages were of Rs. 100 crores. The Bihar floods of 2007 have affected most to those people who have
been cursed to live in abject poverty for generations. These floods are designated as unprecedented in its
intensity, unpredictability, its spatial coverage, its spells and extended duration. The impact of southwest
monsoon on July 7, 2008 can be seen in the following table.
Table 2.4 Impact of Southwest Monsoon in 2008

S.No. State District Village People (affected)

1. UP - - 61 (died)
2. Orissa - 1768 14.94 (lakh)
3. Assam 3 - 3.95 (lakh)
4. West Bengal 2 - 37.03 (lakh)

The floods in U.P., Orissa, Assam and West Bengal due to heavy to very heavy rainfall portrayed
familiar picture of the state's vulnerability to floods and extensive devastation destruction and disruption. It
is evident from the data that maximum number of people were affected in the West Bengal. In this grim
situation, about 425698 people stayed in 914 relief camps in the West Bengal.
Is it a fact that flood in itself is not a disaster. It exists only as a natural phenomenon characteristics of all
rivers so long as it does not threaten human life and property. In practice, flood brings in the much
needed water and fertile silt. However, the vulnerability of human life turns flood into a hazard and the actual
devastation by flood is termed as flood disaster. In mountainous and hilly terrain, the saturated soils often
result into landslides creating more hardships to the vulnerable people. In addition, storm surge brought in by
 18

cyclones and tsunami are the cause of coastal floods. These floods are highly destructive because of the
high salinity of seawater.

(ii) Mitigation Strategy

Following activities will be very useful for disaster mitigation :
• Mapping of the flood prone areas/regions,
• Land use control,
• Construction of engineered structures,
• Flood control, and
• Community based mitigation will play an important role in sedimentation clearance, reforestation
programm, dike and flood wall construction programme. In addition, the community can also participate in
flood fighting by organizing work groups to repair embankments, pile sandbags and stockpile needed
materials and in creating awareness among the local citizens about the construction of flood resistant
buildings and multipurpose shelter.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Write two impacts of floods.
2. Write two causes of climate change.

2.3.7 Drought
Drought could be considered as the most devastating disaster. It refers to a temporary reduction in water
availability on an area for unusually long period. Depending on the resulting water scarcity, a drought has
disastrous and long term socio-economic impacts, which may last for months and in some cases years. It is
a slow onset phenomenon with a very high destructive potentiality. There are three types of droughts : -
• Meteorological drought refers to the situation when the monthly or seasonal rainfall over an area is
appreciably below normal.
• Hydrological drought occurs when the water scarcity over an area results in reduction in the available
water in surface water bodies and the water table also recedes. In this regard, prolonged meteorological
drought leads to hydrological drought.
• Agricultural thought is declared when the water scarcity results in partial or total loss of crops and
affects agricultural activity adversely.
Hence it is to be noted that the drought is generally caused by adverse water balance or scarcity of water to
satisfy the normal needs of agriculture, livestock or people. It can also occur in those areas where normally
people enjoy adequate rainfall and moisture levels. Drought may be the result of excessive evapotranspiration
losses, high temperature low soil holding capacity, deforestation, industrial explosion and exploitation.
It has been observed that prolonged drought can result in aridity or even desertification when the
exceptionally dry soil can no longer sustain any biological activity whether organisms or vegetation.
The drought of the year 2002 was an all-India drought. In terms of magnitude, it ranks 5th amongst the
severe droughts faced by India in its meteorological history since 1875. This thought was unique with
reference to its magnitude, temporal spacing, spatial dispersion, and duration dimension. In this context, the
intensity of dryness in July 2002 (51% rainfall deficiency) surpassed all previous droughts. The impact of
drought spread more than 56% of the landmass threatening livelihood of about 300 million people in 18
States. In addition, the monsoon of 2002 was one of the shortest monsoons in recorded history and the
specter of drought stalked for almost one year in most parts of India.

(i) Impact of Droughts

 19

Both the primary and secondary impact of droughts are presented in Table 2.4.
Table 2.5 : Impact of Drought

Primary Secondary
Loss of crops and agricultural production Famine

Loss of livestock and other animals Spread of disease and death

Lack of water for drinking and sanitation Loss of livelihood

Loss of hydroelectric power generation Changes in settlement patterns; and in social

and living patterns.
Loss of industrial production Major ecological changes including increased
desertification
Decreased scrub growth; and Increased wind
erosion of soils.
It is evident from the table that primary effects of drought mainly result from lack of water. However, the
secondary effects of drought are the result of the primary effects. In such poor condition people begin to
migrate in search of better grazing lands for their herds or to the cities to seek alternate source of income.
In case dwindling supplies of food are not replace and famine can occur, which further deteriorate the
miserable condition. The migration may in itself contribute to spreading the scope of disaster, if grazing
animals are moved with their masters. Among the ecological changes due to drought the desertification
cycle is of the serious concern. As per its nature the drought spreads gradually bringing more and more land
under desert conditions. Hence, long term drought results in permanent changes in socio-economic patterns.

(ii) Mitigation Strategy

The main mitigation strategies for disaster management include drought monitoring water supply
augmentation and conservation, land use, Livelihood planning, drought planning and public awareness and
education. In the area of generating awareness and educating the masses will contribute in organizing
drought information meetings, implementing water conservation awareness programmes publishing and
distributing pamphlets on water conservation techniques and agricultural drought management strategies
such as crop contingency plans and rainwater harvesting and establishing drought information centres for
easy access to the farmers.

2.3.8 Climate change

The climate changes have occurred on the earth due to various factors such as evolution of the
chemical composition of the atmosphere, geological changes in the earth, and slow changes in the sun-earth
geometry. These climatic changes are related to natural causes. The attributes of climate change are many
like change in the frequency of extreme weather and climate events like heavy rainfall spells, tropical cyclones,
storm surges, floods and droughts, rise in soil temperatures, sea level rise, alterations in the working of the
global carbon cycle and the bio-geochemical cycle etc.
It is stated that weather and climate have the inherent characteristic of a change. The term weather refers
to the day-to-day state of the atmosphere, characterized by meteorological variables, such as rainfall,
temperature, wind etc. and climate refers to the normal/long-term average conditions of weather variable
over a specified period like month, season or year. However, the climate may also provide information on
the frequency and intensity of extreme events and other statistical properties of weather elements. In this
subsection on climate change first of all we will deal with heat and cold waves.
 20

a) Heat Waves and Cold waves

As the name implies, heat and cold waves are spells of extreme surface air temperatures over a region for
rather prolonged period of several days or few weeks. When the maximum temperature in the day over an
area overshoots in the hot and dry weather months (March to June), it leads to heat wave. Similarly, when the
minimum temperature falls appreciably below normal in the winter months, it causes cold wave.

(i) Impact
Both the phenomena are extreme weather events and lead to very considerable discomfort, illness,
epidemics and deaths due to exposure.
In India, in the year 1988, the severe heat wave killed nearly 900 persons in the states of Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan during the months of May and June. In 1998, the number of casualties were still
higher and about 1,300 persons died in the heat wave over different parts of the country. In the case of cold
wave more than 600 persons died in the winter of 2001-02; and during the first fortnight of January, 1983 the
death toll was 452 in the two States of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. It has been observed that in such extreme
temperature conditions, the worst affected are the economically weaker sections of the society; and people
who are in the susceptible age groups such as children, old or the infirm with fragile health conditions who
have little adaptability to extreme temperature variations. In addition, heat and cold waves adversely effect
the agriculture specially in terms of livestock losses can be very high. Plants crops and vegetables are also
affected. Even during the heat waves railway lines can expand to the point where they buckle and cause
derailments of trains. Road damage can also occur, where bitumen melting and concrete expanding and
cracking occur, which may lead to disruption of traffic.
As the earth's climate is fundamentally controlled by its orbital parametres, the chemical composition of the
atmosphere and feedbacks within these components of the climate system, therefore it is advisable to
study Global Warming as a natural disaster because it involves the atmosphere in general and is global in
nature. In this context, its impacts are global even if the human activity is local or regional. Similarly, the same
argument applies in treating Sea level rise and Ozone depletion under the category of natural disasters.

(b) Global Warming

Increase in greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and other retards cooling of the
earth's surface at nights and this tends to increase the minimum temperature. (the morning temperature)
almost all over the globe resulting in the phenomenon known as Global Warming. In this regard, the increase
in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is due mostly to human activities.

(i) Impact
The global warming will adversely affect the environment, people, and animals. It is to be noted that there
would not only be less cooling of the earth's surface at night but the atmosphere will also get warmer due
to trapping of the heat on account of greenhouse effect. The studies highlight that increased temperature may
be advantageous for agriculture in hilly regions of India but may be marginally detrimental to crops
grown in the hot plains. Wheat, a winter crop may somewhat benefit but it would also reach mature stage
early. In the area of Terrestrial Ecosystem, it has been observed that the terrestrial ecosystems and climate
have very close links. Here, the term ecosystem is used to describe natural systems (such as corals,
evergreen forests, grasslands), and for managed systems like plantation, forests and agricultural crop.
However, these managed ecosystems are different from the natural ecosystems. The natural vegetation in
Himalayas, grass lands, subtropical dry lands / arid belts and tropical evergreen forests etc, is affected by
the climate and C02 concentration.
Global warming may adversely effect oceans too and produce changes in EI Nino phenomenon (in its
intensity and frequency). It is to be noted that ocean warming may lead to more intense tropical cyclones,
 21

higher storm surges and rise in sea level in this context, it is stated that warming of the global ocean would
lead to rise in the sea level as a result of thermal expansion of the water.

(c) Sea level Rise

The sea level rise threatens the existence of islands arid coastal zones. In India, most of the coasts, except
part of Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, the deltaic regions and Kutch coast, is safe and the impact
of sea level rise even upto 100 cm. may not be very serious. However, several islands in Maldives and
Lakshdweep are barely above the sea level and they could be even wiped off due to the sea level rise by
100 cm. In the case of sea level rise, any increase in the average temperature of the earth is bound to
have impact on the glaciers. As a result, permafrost, ice caps on the poles and mountain peaks will witness
increased melting and consequent increase in the water in rivers and oceans. In this regard, the large body
of water in the sea will expand in volume due to increased temperature. Thus both these factors will create
a rise of water in the sea and ocean, which will pose serious problems to the inhabitants of the coastal and
island areas; and their socio-economic well being.

(i) Impact
Among the impacts, land loss due to erosion would affect several smaller islands, which are more
vulnerable to sea level rise. In this regard, major impacts of sea level rise are listed below :
Impacts on land and coastline
- Land loss due to erosion
- Damage to natural vegetation and crops
- Population displacement
- Change in the coastline features
- Higher Inundation of coastal areas
• Damage to Coastal Marshes, Swamps, Man-groves and Wetlands.
• Environment Disruption
• Adverse effect on socio-economic development in Tropical Islands (Maldives and Lakshdweep).
2.4 LESSONS LEARNT : DISASTER MITIGATION
There has been a considerable concern over natural disasters at the grassroots, state, national and global
levels. It can be stated, on the basis of the first lesson, that poverty lies at the root of the disaster
vulnerability, and sustainable development process cannot exclude hazard reduction as one of its goals.
Therefore to bring about change in the disaster mitigation efforts, one need to incorporate hazard assessment
and disaster mitigation into the process of development planning, which can be achieved by joint efforts of
the political leaders, administrators and citizens in the following areas :
• Linking disaster management with development process at the policy formulation level.
• Improvement in the communication network for better performance during crisis such as proper use of
I.C.T. for disaster management.
• Further strengthening the use of information technology for disaster management and mitigation at all
levels.
• Strengthening search and rescue capability of first responders, that is community and Non-
Governmental Organisations to disasters.
• Involvement of the private sector, NGO's and CBO's in disaster mitigation.
• Use of insurance as a tool to mitigate the impact of disasters with public private partnership.
It has been observed that the community as an institution in itself is emerging as an effective player in the
entire mechanism of disaster management. As the community is the first responder to the disaster,
therefore fully aware and trained community can substantially take action to reduce the damage caused by
 22

the disaster. In view of the above, awareness and training of the community is necessary in the disaster
prone areas. In this regard, considerable efforts are being made at grassroots levels.

2.5 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, we have discussed the nature, causes, adverse effects and efforts to mitigate disasters. It has
been emphasised that a natural disaster retards the socio-economic development process in the affected
area, and extends to the neighbouring region also. Various types of natural disasters that occur in India have
been explained in brief and the regional and seasonal profile of their occurrence has been mentioned. In this
unit, certain disasters such as earthquakes, floods, cyclones, droughts and climate change have been explained
in detail with special reference to India. It has been observed that the twin strategies of Culture of Prevention
and "Spirit of cooperation" go a long way to mitigate the adverse affects of natural disasters. Hence, joint
efforts of citizens, political leaders and administrators are imperative in the field of disaster management. The
need for strengthening disaster mitigation efforts has been felt and shown in the recommendations of the Tenth
Five Year Plan, Eleventh and Twelfth Finance Commissions and the High Powered Committee on Disaster
Management. Last but not least, we have analysed the lessons learnt on the basis of past disasters in India. In
the subsequent unit, we will discuss on the man-made disasters.

2.6 GLOSSARY
Very strong WindsIn Indian region, very strong wind represent the estimated highest wind speed
associated with tropical cyclones, in the past, is about 140 knots (about 260 km/h) in association with
Andhra Pradesh cyclone of 1977 and the Orissa cyclone of October 1999. Torrential rainIt is a rainfall
activity, which is associated with a tropical cyclone. Normally it depends on its size, strength, wind
speed and direction of movement, Heavy rainfall is generally confined within 150-200km. from the cyclone
centre, decreasing drastically thereafter with distance and becoming insignificant at a distance of about
500 km. It is stated that rainfall of the order of 20 to 30 cm per day is common with a cyclone.
Associated with a tropical cyclone, 24 hours cumulative rainfall can be about 100 cm. In the extreme
case, rainfall, associated with tropical cyclone can be as high as 250 cm. Storm SurgeTropical
cyclone's worst killer the storm surge, comes from the Ocean. It is the sudden rise of sea level along
the coast caused by tropical cyclone as it moves towards the coast.
Rapid Onset DisasterThese disasters develop fast, and strike quickly. Most of the natural disasters are of
this type, however the earthquakes and landslides are the worst examples. Slow Onset Disasters
Disaster that develop over a period of time such as drought. Flash floodsThis type of floods are
generally events of hill areas, where sudden very heavy rain over a limited area can cause strong flow.
They occur when a temporary blockage in hilly areas impounds water, which when released suddenly
creates the havoc. River floods It refers to floods that mostly occur due to heavy inflow of water from
heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and short intense storms. Flooding in rivers is also caused due to inadequate
capacity within the banks of the flyer to contain high flows, river bank erosion and silting of riverbeds,
synchronisation of flood in the main and tributary rivers, and flow retardation because of tidal and
backwater effects. Coastal floods The third type of floods are caused due to heavy rainfall from cyclones
and the storm surge associated with a cyclone.
Tsunami Tsunami is a Japanese word, which means, "harbour wave". These waves often effect distant
shores, originate from undersea or coastal seismic activity, Iandslides, and volcanic eruptions. In this
case, whatever the cause, seawater is displaced with a violent motion and swells up ultimately surging
over land with great destractive power. Tsunami of 2011 caused unprecident loss of life and property in
Japan.
 23

2.7 MODEL QUESTION :

Discuss various Natural Disasters and their impacts on environment.

2.8 REFERENCES
Chakrabarti Samrat, "Standing up to Mother Nature", The Economic Times, July 12, 2008, New Delhi.
Coordinates, volume III, Issue 11, November 2007, www.mycoordinates.org.
Goel, S.L., 2007, Disaster Administration and Management, Deep and Deep Publications; New Delhi.
Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Drought : 2002 : A Report, New Delhi.
Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, 2001, The Report of High Powered Committee on Disaster
Management, New Delhi.
Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Hazards, Disasters and Your Community, New Delhi.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, I.C.T. for Disaster Risk Reduction : The Indian
Experience, New Delhi.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Disaster Risk Reduction : The Indian Model, India's
Approach to Disaster Risk Management, New Delhi.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Disaster Management : The Development Perspective,
An extract of the Chapter in the Tenth Five Year Plan Document (2002-2007), New Delhi.
Nandini, Durgesh, 2005, Understanding Natural Disasters, M.P.A. - 001 Understanding Natural
Disasters, IGNOU, New Delhi.
MPA-001 Understanding Natural Disasters, IGNOU, New Delhi. NIDM Newsletters, www.nidm.net

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

Prakash, Indu, 1994, Disaster Management, Rashtra Prahari Prakashan, Ghaziabad. Thomas, Babu,
1993, Disaster Response : A Handbook Emergencies, CASA, New Delhi.
Thukral, K. K., 2007, Disaster Management Relevant Issues and Challenges, Cyber Tech. Publications,
New Delhi.
Tidings, NIDM Newsletters (2007-2008), National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, website
: www.nidm.net
World Bank, 2006, Hazards of Nature, Risks to Development. An - IEG Evaluation of World Bank
Assistance for Natural Disasters, Washington D.C.
United Nations Development Programme 1995, Disaster and the Environment Disaster Management
Training Programme, Geneva.
Weber, T., 1987, Hugging the trees, Viking.
Whitekar, R., 1985, Endangered Andamans, WWE India and Department of Environment, Government
of India.

*****
 24

Lessons - 3
MAN-MADE ISASTERS
Structure

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Man-made Disasters : Nature and Types
3.3 Environment Related Disasters
3.4 Disaster Management : Lessons Learnt
3.5 Conclusion
3.6 Glossary
3.7 Model Questions
3.8 References
3.9 Further Readings

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
• Define and understand the nature of man-made disasters;
• Explain the various types of man-made disasters;
• Describe the causes and impacts of man-made disasters;
• Discuss the typical post-disaster needs along with risk reduction measures; and
• Highlight the general concerns confronting the disaster management and lessons learnt on the
basis of past experiences.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Man-made disasters are non-natural disasters like chemical, industrial, nuclear, biological and accident
related disasters. The man-made disasters could also be termed as human induced disasters or
disasters of anthropogenic origin. It is generally defined as a man-made event, sudden or progressive,
which impacts with such severity that the affected community has to respond by taking immediate
exceptional measures including help from the governmental and non-governmental organisations. In this
context, even broader definition of man-made disasters acknowledges that all disasters are caused by
humans because they have chosen to be there where natural or non-natural phenomena occurs, which
result in adverse effects. It is to be noted that man-made disaster is an emergency situation, which is
caused due to identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise.
Like natural disaster, the man-made disasters disrupt the normal pattern of life that affect people and
environment; leave impact on the social structure; and wreak economic damage that mostly hits the
poorest of the poor. The High Powered Committee (HPC) on Disaster Management has considered the
man-made disasters, in addition to natural hazards, in terms of planning and "consequence management".
In this regard, it has been the first ever such exercise in India where-in an attempt has been made to look
at all kinds of disasters in a holistic manner. Hence, significance to study man-made disasters lies in the
fact that at the time of planning for disaster management, all kinds of disasters should be considered in a
holistic manner. Therefore, in this lesson, we will explain the nature, types, causes and impacts of man-
made disasters. In addition, we will discuss the major concerns in the management, of man-made disasters
on the basis of past experiences.
 25

3.2 MAN-MADE DISASTERS : NATURE AND TYPES

A comparative study of the natural and man-made disasters proves that the hazard is directly
attributable in most of the former cases, however the causes of human induced disasters are complex
and inter-related. In this regard except for accidents, man-made disasters have a slow onset such as soil
degradation and desertification. Even, social and religious problems generally lead to riots or terrorism as
the underlying cases brew up over a period of time. It has been observed that the man-made disasters
could also result from natural disasters like flood may render large number of people homeless, drought
may result in migration of people and cattle; and an earthquake may adversely effect the livelihood also.
Even such crisis could lead to socio-economic and political problems. Here it is worth mentioning that like
natural disasters, man-made disasters also exacerbate the vulnerability of an area and its people, as it is
evident in the case of Bhopal Gas Tragedy. In this context, the accident occurred on the night of 2-3
December 1984 at the Union Carbide Factory at Bhopal producing pesticides. In this tragedy, about 40
tons of Methyl Iso-Cynate (MIC) and other toxic gases including Hydrogen Cyanide (HCM) leaked from the
plant, which affected the residents of Bhopal in a big way. In the aftermath of disaster, it has been observed
that the majority of the most affected persons were those staying in the localities downwind in the vicinity
of the plant. As per reports, about 8000 persons were killed, and health of more than 5,30,000 persons
was severely affected causing multi-systematic injuries. In addition, thirty-six municipal wards were affected.
Man-made disasters could arise from the indiscriminate industrialization, over population, increased
consumerism, use of hazardous substances or processes or simply accidents of various types. Besides,
negligence on the part of professionals as well as the public along with ignorance increases the possibility
of disasters like fire in Uphaar Theatre, New Delhi (June 13, 1997). Disasters could also result from wilful,
deliberate and intentional activity, such as sabotage, mischief, revenge, riots, or enemy attack through
bomb, as it is evident in the case of Ahmedabad Bomb Blast. On July 26, 2008, 17 bomb blasts have
rocked Ahmedabad in just 70 minutes. In this tragedy, 29 people were killed and more than 100 were
injured. Sometimes, man made disasters, specially those related to industrial and technological causes,
are the result of system or process malfunctioning as in the case of nuclear radiation, gas leak, explosion
and fire.
After a clear understanding of the nature of man-made disasters, now we will enlist the various types of
man-made disasters in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 : Types of Man-Made Disasters

Sr. No. Types of Disasters

(i) Accident related Disasters
(ii) Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear Leaks, Fires, Explosion, Technical System Failure,
Disasters
(iii) Biological Disasters
(iv) Environment related Disasters
(v) Civil Conflicts related Disasters
Air, Road, Rail and Sea Accidents Forest Fires
Urban and Village Fires Electrical Disasters and Fires
Mine Fire and Flooding Oil Spill Major Building
Collapse Serial Bomb Blasts, Boat Capsizing
Plant Safety Failure, Reactor meltdown, Radioactive
leaks Disaster during Transportation, Waste Disposal
Biological Disasters and Epidemics Food Poisoning
Soil Degradation, Desertification, Deforestation, Air
Pollution, Water Pollution, Industrial Wastewater
Pollution, Global Warming
Arson, Sabotage, Terrorist activities
 26
Although we have mentioned a sizeable number of disasters, based on the H.P.C. Report, even than
this cannot be an exhaustive list of human induce disasters. There is every possibility of the more types
of man-made disasters. In the succeeding section of this lesson, we will discuss some of the
environment related disasters like soil degradation, desertification and deforestation.
3.3 ENVIRONMENT RELATED DISASTERS
The manifestation of disasters like soil degradation, desertification and deforestation are related to
indiscriminate human activities, which result in degradation of the environment that causes imbalance in
nature. It has been noticed that the over- exploitation of forests started from World War II, when the British
started clearing forest to meet their needs. However, in post-independence period, the process of
exploitation has been accelerated to meet development projects of railways, industries, mining, river
valley projects etc. In addition, urbanisation and expansion of agricultural activities have also contributed
to the exploitation of forests. During 1951-75, 43.28 lakh hectares area has been lost due to different
development works in the country. In this regard maximum deforestation say about 2 million hectares has
occurred in Madhya Pradesh (including Chhattisgarh); more than one million hectares of forest has lost in
Maharashtra only; the Rajasthan and Himachal Pardesh have lost approximately half million hectare and
the total forest lost in Orissa, Andhra Pardesh and Jammu and Kashmir have been about one million
hectare. In terms of proportion the Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur and Meghalaya are the worst affected
deforested states of India.
Over the years, soil degradation, desertification and deforestation have became a matter of great
concern both for the union and State' governments demanding urgent remedial measures. To understand
more and about these problems, here we will concentrate on causes and impacts of these disasters
followed by remedial measures to mitigate these disaster.
3.3.1 Soil Degradation
Soil degradation is the regressive evaluation process, which is associated with the loss of equilibrium of a
stable soil. Here, the term evolution is directly related to human activity. To be more specific, it is due to
the replacement of the primitive vegetation by a secondary vegetation. However, this replacement
modifies the humus composition and amount, and affects the formation of the soil. In this context, the soil
represents the surface layer of the earth's crust.
It has been observed that at the beginning of a soil formation, only the bare rock outcrops. In the next
step, it is gradually colonized by pioneer species (lichens and mosses), then herbaceous vegetation,
shrubs and finally forest.
The cycle of evolution of soils have variable durations, between a thousand- year-old for soils of quick
evolution to more than a million of years for soils of slow development. It has been noticed that the older
soils are more vulnerable to the effects of induced degradation. The destruction of the vegetation
generally implies the destruction of evoluted soils, or a regressive evolution. The cycle of succession
regression soils follow one another due to human actions or climate variations.

(D) Causes
Ecological factors
- Ecological factors influence the evolution of a soil through
- alteration, and
- humification
Perturbations in the balance of a Soil
When the state of balance of the soil is reached up to the ecosystem climax it tends to be maintained stable
in the course of time. The vegetation installed on the ground provides the humus, and it protects the
 27
ground from erosions, a barrier which protects it from water and wind. "Similarly, plants can also reduce
erosion by binding the particles of the ground to their roots.
However, disturbance of climax will cause retrogression, but nature makes every effort to restore the
damage via secondary succession. The secondary succession is much faster than primary because the
soil is already formed, even though deteriorated and needing restoration as well.
A significant destruction of the vegetation takes place due to natural hazard such as an avalanche or
human activities. In the latter case, erosion is mainly responsible for the destruction of the upper
horizons of the ground. In such situations, for example, the clearing of ground can lead to the complete
destruction of the soil due to violent rains. In this context, it is evidence that man can deeply modify the
evolution of the soils by direct and brutal action that is clearing, abusive cuts, forest pasture, litters raking.
The climax vegetation is gradually replaced and the soil modified, for example replacement of leafy tree
forests by plantation of pines.

Human Activity or Anthropogenic causes of soil degradation are :

Erosion is strongly related to the human activity, and it is the main factor for soil degradation, which is
caused due to several mechanisms such as water erosion, wind erosion, chemical degradation and
physical degradation. In addition, agriculture also accelerates soil erosion as generally the farmers remove
hedges and ditches to increase the field size. Hence, meadows are in regression to the profit of plowed
lands.
• Even spring culture surfaces, that is plantation of sunflower, corn, and beet are increasing, and
ground remains naked in winter.
• While sloping grounds are gradually colonized by vine.
• Use of herbicides leaves the ground naked between each crop.
• New cultural practices, for example mechanization also increases the risks of erosion.
• However, fertilization by mineral manures rather than organic manure gradually destructure the soil.
In this regard, many scientists observed a gradual decrease of soil organic matter content in soils, as
well as a decrease of soil biological activity.

Deforestation is particularly responsible for degradation of forest soils.

To conclude, the agricultural increases the risk of erosion through its disturbance of vegetation by way of
overgrazings of animals, planting of a monoculture, row cropping, hilling or plowing, crop removal, and
land-use conversion.
(ii) Impact
Phenomenal growth of human population have placed a great strain on the soil system. According to
F.A.O. Database (2003) more that 6 billion people are using about 38 percent, of the land area of the
earth to raise crops and livestock. The soil suffer from various types of degradation that ultimately reduce
their ability to produce food resources. In this context, slight degradation refers to land where yield potential
has been reduced by 10 percent and moderate degradation refers to a yield decrease from 10.50 percent.
However, severely degraded soils have lost more than 50 percent of their potential. It has been observed
that most severely degraded soils are located in developing countries of Asia and Africa.
It is to be noted that increase in the turbidity of water and the contribution of nitrogen and of phosphorus
can result in eutrophication. In addition, soils particles in surface waters are also accompanied by
agricultural inputs and by some pollutants of industrial, urban and road origin such as heavy metals,
which deteriorate the water quality.
The soil degradation may involve. The disappearance of the climax vegetation and decrease in animal
habitat, hence leading to a bioadversity loss and animal extinction.
 28
(iii) Mitigation strategy : Soil Enhancement and Rebuilding
The problems of soil erosion can be mitigated, and certain practices can lead to soil enhancement and
rebuilding. Although simple, even than the methods for reducing erosion are often not chosen because
these practices outweigh the short-term benefits. However, rebuilding is possible through improvement of
soil structure, addition of organic matter and limitation of runoff.

3.3.2 Desertification
Desertification is the development of desert-like conditions. It is the degradation of land in arid, semi
arid and dry sub-humid areas that result from human activities and influenced by climatic variations.
Desertification is taking place at a much faster pace, which usually arises due to the demands of increased
population that settle on the land to grow crops and graze animals.
Broadly speaking, desertification is defined as the loss of vegetative cover and plant diversity that are
attributable in some parts to human activity as well as the element of irreversibility. However, such
definitions are not confined to advancing frontiers of sand that engulf pastures and agricultural land, as
often shown visually in the media.

Causes
Desertification is induced by several factors, primarily it is caused by anthropogenic activities such as
overgrazing, over cultivation, increased fire frequency, water impoundment, overdrafting or
groundwater increased soil salinity, deforestation and global climate change.
The processes of degradation or desertification damage the vegetation cover. Much damage has been
observed on the economic activities in the arid regions, leading to a great deal of hardships for the
majority of the people in that area. In this regard, hardships were caused due to human pressure in the dry
zones that has grown enormously owing to an increase in population. Similarly, their ever increasing need
for food, water, fuel, raw materials and other natural resources have grown accordingly. In many cases,
requirements exceeded the carrying capacity of the land. In addition, protracted drought coupled with the
human pressures have produced disastrous results. Hence, the soil erosion caused by various activities
over exploitation of the natural resources are, in essence, responsible for the advancement of deserts.

(ii) Impact

Physical indicators Decrease in soil depth Decrease in soil organic matter Decrease in soil fertility
Appearance / increase in frequency / severity of dust/ sandstorms / dune
formation and movement Salinization / alkalinization Decline in quality and
quantity of ground and surface water Alteration in relative reflectance of land
Vegetation Decrease in cover Decrease in above-ground biomass Decrease in yield
Failure of species successfully to reproduce
Animal Change in population of domestic animals Change in herd composition Decline in
livestock production Decline in livestock yield
 29

Socio-economic Change in land use / water use Change in settlement pattern Change in
indicators population parameters for example demographic evidence, migration statistics,
public health information Change in social process indicators - increased
conflict between group / tribes, marginalisation, migration, decrease in
incomes and assets, change in relative dependence on cash crops/subsistence
crops.
A major impact of desertification has been observed on biodiversity and as productive capacity, for
example, by transition from land dominated by shrublands to non-native grasslands. The impact of
desertification involve a drastic change in microclimates. For example, if shrubs and trees are felled, the
sun will fault directly on hitherto shaded soil; the soil will become warmer and drier, and organisms living
on or in the soil will move away to avoid the harshness.

Table 3.2 Various Indicators of Desertification

Source: Reining (1978) and Kassas (1987), http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unubodes.un

These changes in microclimate will also bring about ecological changes. The ecosystem is being
altered. Hence, these processes result in a loss of biological productivity and degradation of surface
microclimates. Even the phenomena such as global warm and the greenhouse effect have their origin in
desertification, therefore they are potentially more threatening.
The desertification adversely effect the agricultural productivity the health of humans as well as
livestock, and economic activities like eco-tourism. In this regard, they have serious socio-economic
implications on the people. For better, understanding of impacts, we will highlight various indicators of
desertification in the following table (3.2) These indicators are used to assess and analyse the impact of
deforestation.

(iii) Mitigation Strategy

• Citizen Participation
In India the Chipko movement began in 1972 that is a people's ecology movement professing non-
violence and non-cooperation. It has been proved significant in protecting forest and woodland on the
Indian subcontinent . In addition, a centuries - old practice has been adopted. As a result deeply rooted,
hedge - forming vetiver grass planted in contour strips across hills slopes slows water run off
dramatically, thus it reduces the erosion and increase the moisture available for crop growth. This
practice is being rediscovered, adopted and promoted.

• Forestry
Forestry has a major role to play in development strategy for combating desertification. The problem of
developing arid lands and improving the well being of the people living in that area is related to magnitude
and complexity. Here, complexity is related to their development and cannot be disassociated from their
ecological social, and economic characteristic. In this regard, the forestry may contribute in :
• Maintenance of the soil and water base for food production through shelterbelts, windbreaks,
scattered trees and soil enrichment;
 30

• Providing food from wildlife as well as from plants in the form of fruits, leave, roots and
fungis;Livestock production through silvipastoaral systems, particularly the creation of fodder reserves or
banks in the form of fodder trees or shrubs particularly to cushion the calamities of drought;Source :
Adopted from R.K. Panchuri and Rajashree S. Kanetkar, http:/www.uni.edu
Figure 3.1 Map showing Arid Zones of India
• Producing fuelwood and charcoal and other forest products through village and farm woodlots; and
Creating rural employment and enhancing development through cottage industries based on raw
material derived from wild plants and animals and the development of wildlife-based tourism.

3.3.3 Deforestation
The statistics related to forest cover in India shows that 19.44 per cent of the total geographic area
(639,182 km.) is covered by forests (Government of India, 1991). The estimated annual rate of deforestation
during 1981-1985 was 147,000 hectare and the area annually deforested as a percentage of the total
forest area was 0.25 per cent.
The arid zone covers about 12 per cent of the geographical area including (31.9 billion km.) of hot desert
located in parts of Rajasthan (61 per cent), Punjab and Haryana (9 per Cent), and Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka (10 per cent). The cold arid tracts are located in the north-west Himalayas that is Ladakh
Kashmir and Lahaul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). However the Indian arid zone is the most populated arid
 31
zone in the world. The statewise distribution of arid zones in India are mapped in figure 3.1.
In India, the clearing of tropical forests across the earth has been occurring on a large-scale basis. This
process is known as deforestation, which involves the cutting down, burning, and damaging of forests.
After agriculture, forestry is the second largest land use in India, which covers about 22 percent of the
total land base. In this regard, the contribution from forestry and logging to Gross Domestic Product
was barely 1.1 per cent in 2001 (World Bank). As per data analysis about 41 percent forest cover of India
has been degraded to some degree, 78 percent of forest is subject to heavy grazing, 50 percent of the
forest is at risk from forest fires, and domestic demand for timber and fuelwood is already above the
sustainable level. It is worth mentioning that the loss of tropical rain forest is more profound than merely
destruction of beautiful natural areas. In case the current rate of deforestation continues, the world's rain
forests will vanish within 100 years. This will cause unknown effects on global climate such as global
warming or desertification that may eliminate the majority of plants and animal species on the planet. As
a result of the deforestation about 50,000 species of plants and animals become extinct every year.
Besides, 2.47 acres of forests area is cleared every single second. It shows that equal to 78 million acres
of trees are disappearing from the earth's surface every year. Thus, deforestation is a serious problem. In
the following paragraphs we will discuss the causes and impacts of deforestation and strategies to mitigate
the impacts of deforestation.

Self-Assessment Question
1. Define the term Desertification.
2. Write two causes of Deforestation.

(i) Causes
Deforestation occurs in many ways due to severe human pressures owing to over-harvesting
inadequate regeneration clearance for agriculture urbanisation commercial logging, and air pollution, which
will continue to threaten the existence of natural resources. In parallel forests continue to be disappearing
Hence, the causes of deforestation are very complex .The major causes of deforestation are as follows :
Population growth, agricultural expansion, and resettlement : Forest degradation and loss from the
spontaneous expansion of human activities into forest land is difficult to quantify. Overpopulation in cities
is a prominent reason for deforestation. As the population is growing at a very fast rate, therefore such
increase in population force farmers and landowners to sell off their land. As a result, these landless
peasants are forced to possess land in the untouched forests.
Even bad land tenure, shortage of modern agricultural tools, and government neglect of subsistence to
farmers have put an influx of human interference in the forests. In such situation, to settle farm land the
poor become 'shifted cultivators and resort to use slash and burn methods of tree removal in the forests,
which is the most devastating. Shifting agriculture is the primary cause of deforestation, accounting for
about 49 per cent in South-East Asia notably Sri Lanka, Thailand, north-east India, Laos, Malaysia, and the
Philippines. In this method of slashing and burning, trees are cut down and the remains are burned; ash is
used as a fertilizer; and the land is then used for farming or cattle grazing. The soil that is cleared in slash
and burn is left infertile, and nutrients in the soil are quickly absorbed by surrounding organisms. In case
the farmers move on to other areas and repeat this process, then the worthy Land and trees will become
scarce.

Logging and Exploitation

The small farmers and loggers play a big role in logging. Although it is evident that the logging have its
repercussions, but it is modern industry that encourages to cut down the trees. In this regard, 11 million
 32
acres a year are cut for commercial and property industries. The data reflects that the McDonald's needs
800 square miles of trees to make the amount of paper they need for a year's supply of packaging; British
Columbia manufactures 7, 500,000 pairs of chopsticks a day, and the demand for fuel wood is so high
that it is predicted that there will be a shortage soon.

Cattle Grazing and Ranching

Another of the more devastating forces behind deforestation in India is cattle grazing. Domestic animals
usually in tropical woodlands and forests reduce regeneration through grazing, browsing, and
trampling. The spread of irrigated and cultivated land has forced livestock owners for cattle grazing into
forest areas, where 90 million of the estimated 400 million cattle reside, whereas the carrying capacity is
estimated at only 31 million (Government of India, 1987).
Other Causes
The growth, development, and decline of forests have always reflected the integrated effects of many
variables. Beyond the major causes of deforestation, there are some supplementary, ones that too stack
the odds against forests. The stress of pollution brings about nutrient deficiencies thereby rendering the
vegetation vulnerable to droughts, insects, and pests. Even the acid rain and the building of dams have
their share of harmful effects. The race to produce and plant cash crops such as fruit, spices, sugar,
tobacco, oil palm, rubber, and products like paper, and cloth have led to destroying of the forests. The
need for products in industrialized countries drives production in other poor or developing countries. This
increased production is at the cost of the trees and the services that they provide, which will aggravate
this problem further.

(ii) Impact
Deforestation presents multiple socio-economic and environmental problems. The immediate and long-
term consequences of deforestation are almost certain to jeopardize life on earth such as loss of
biodiversity; destruction of forest-based societies; and climatic disruption. In this sub-section, we will
discuss the effects of deforestation on carbon cycle, hydrologic cycle, flooding, biodiversity, and nutrients.
Flooding
Flooding is a known consequence of deforestation. In this context, clearing the forest increases the
surface run-off from rainfall, mainly because a greater proportion of the rain reaches the ground due to a
lack of vegetation that would suck up the excess rainfall.
In addition, the root system of trees not only store and channelise rainwater, but they also hold the soil
together. As this process retards the violent flow of water, thus it reduces the flow of floods and soil
erosion. It has been observed that in the case of dense forests, flooding is not a serious problem because
there is vegetation to absorb the rainfall. However, the problem of flooding is more in those areas where
there is little vegetation.
Global Carbon Cycle
It is well known fact that the deforestation increases the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace
gases in the atmosphere. In this regard, when a forest is cut and burned to establish cropland and
pastures, the carbon that was stored in the tree trunks joins with oxygen and is released into the atmosphere
as CO2. The carbon dioxide levels increase for a number of reasons; but decay of woody material is the
main factor that is contributing to the increase of carbon levels. Thus due to decrease in the number of
trees and plants, it is much harder to moderate these levels. As a result, it leads to more heat in the
atmosphere. However, releasing CO2, into the atmosphere enhances the greenhouse effect, and could
contribute to an increase in global temperatures.
 33
Hydrologic Cycle
Tropical deforestation affects the local climate of an area by reducing the evaporative cooling that takes
place from both soil and plant life. The moist canopy of the tropical rain forest quickly diminishes due to
clearing of trees and plants. The research suggests that about half of the precipitation that falls in a
tropical rain forest is a result of its moist, green canopy. From evaporation and evapotranspiration processes
from the trees and plants return large quantities of water in the local atmosphere, promoting the formation
of clouds and precipitation. Here, less evaporation means that more of the sun's energy is able to warm
the surface and, consequently, leading to a rise in temperatures.

Biodiversity
It is worth mentioning that many of the rain forest plants and animals can only be found in small areas
because they require a special habitat in which they live. This requirement makes them vulnerable to
deforestation. In case their habitat is destroyed, they may become extinct, It is to be noted that every
day, species are disappearing from the tropical rain forests due to the deforestation. The exact rate of
extinction is not known but estimates indicate that up to 137 species disappear each day. It will be a great
impact on the planet, we are perhaps losing plant species that have medicinal value, which might help us
to prevent cancer or to find a cure for AIDS.
Nutrients
It has been noticed that different cutting techniques, and uses of the land have diverse effects on the
ground and surviving organisms, which make up a rain forest. In the case of a tropical rain forest,
almost all of the life-sustaining nutrients are found in the plants and trees. However, these plants and trees
are cut down to sow the land. Farmers mostly burn the tree trunks to release the nutrients, which are
necessary for a fertile soil. In this situation when the rains come, they wash away most of the nutrients,
leaving the soil much less fertile. As a resort, within three years, the ground is no longer capable of
supporting crops. In this condition, when the fertility of the ground decreases, farmers seek other areas to
clear and plant, abandoning the nutrient-deficient soil to grow back to a rain forest. It is to be remembered
that just as the crops did not grow well because of low nutrients, the forest will also grow back just as
slow. Even it may take up to fifty years to grow back.
In addition to cutting technique, modern farming can be more devastating for the forest re-growth.
Intensive agricultural system use large quantities of chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, which
kill a lot of the living organisms in the area, seeping into the soil and washing into the surrounding areas. In
this regard, in case of banana plantations, pesticides are used on the plants and in the soil to kill pest
animals. It has beep observed that these pesticides weaken ecosystem health and after the abandonment
of a banana plantation, or other intensive agriculture system, it may even takes centuries for a forest to
re-grow.
(iii) Mitigation Strategy
The forest management remains largely in the domain of the state government. In this context the state-
level forest department in collaboration with the union Ministry of Environment and Forests, make most
decisions over planning, management, and marketing. It has been analysed that to mitigate the
problem of deforestation, we should stop destroying the forests all together. As it seems impractical,
therefore we have only one option that is to immediately start using the forest products in moderation.
Today, tropical rain forests are disappearing, this destruction can be slowed, stopped, and in some cases
even reversed. However it needs strong will, and can be resolved with the joint efforts of people and the
government. As the local conditions are of paramount importance in conservation, therefore it is essential to
adapt the mitigation strategy as per the requirement of each region. The forest conservation cannot
 34
come at the expense of local people; however, they must be made both partners and beneficiaries in
conservation. In this regard, even the World Bank report suggests that giving greater rights and
responsibilities to forest-dwellers over local non-protected forests could help, raise peoples income
substantially taking total forest income from an estimated US$ 222 million in 2004 to about US$2 billion
per annum in 2020. Hence to achieve the objective of mitigating deforestation, success depends largely
on long term planning, cooperation and coordination among environmentalists scientists, industrialists,
developers, politicians, and local people to protect and manage the forests. If the development programmes
are managed properly then the rainforests can provide for many of the world's needs on a perpetual basis.
In this context, shade agriculture is one of the sustainable farming methods; and selective logging is
remedial option for wood requirement because there are still many trees to provide seeds and protect
young trees from sun.
3.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT : LESSONS LEARNT
Man-made disasters occur frequently, and there is an urgent need to improve the disaster management
system and practices. However, the Nodal Agencies responsible for managing these disasters have
played crucial role and the outcome of their efforts continue to receive mixed reactions. The main
reasons for such reactions are lack of coordination, inadequate resources, lack of motivation, and
frequent transfer of trained personnel, lack of accountability, and delay in response particularly in
accident related cases causes massive casualties.
However, the environmental degradation is a real threat to human lives and property losses. In this
context, the primary causes for major problems are unsustainable exploitation of natural resources due to
growth of population; indifference of agricultural industries and government towards environmental safety
and protection aspects leading to soil related disasters, low level of environmental awareness amount
people resulting in under-evaluation of ecological aspects of bio-diversity; and inadequate environmental
incorporated policies in development projects that do not consider long term ecological and social impacts.
In this regard, following preventive measures will be useful in disaster management.
Preventive measures
Strengthening the knowledge base, and developing information and monitoring systems for regions that
are prone to desertification and drought, including the socio-economic and social aspects of the fragile
ecosystems.
Combating land degradation through, inter alia, intensified soil conservation, afforestation, and
reforestation activities.
Developing and strengthening integrated development programmes for the eradication of poverty and
the promotion of alternative livelihood systems in the desertification prone areas.
Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes, and integrating them into national
development plans.
Developing comprehensive drought-preparedness and drought-relief schemes, including self-help
arrangements for drought prone areas, and design the programmes specially to cope with
environmental refugees.
Encouraging and promoting the people's participation and environmental education, focusing on
desertification control and management of the effects of thought (UNCED, 1992).
In the context of sustainable development, the overriding need is to evolve strategies that inextricably tie
conservation and development together. Hence, policies for resource management shall have a
recognition of the true value of natural resources, because they are in finite supply, institutional responsibility
for resource management and matching accountability for results, and better knowledge of the extent,
quality, and potential of the resource base while accelerating the diffusion of existing technology that can
 35
expand output in environmentally sound ways.
The programme for combating desertification was started in 1977-1978 and is being implemented in the
affected-districts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh. The social
forestry programme of the state Forest Departments and various community and agro forestry projects,
funded nationally as well as internationally, are actively countering deforestation.
In the participatory forest management programme, the Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) has
implemented the Joint Forest Management programme (JFMP) in the state of Haryana in collaboration
with the Haryana Forest Department (H.F.D.) and with the active participation of the community members,
TERI's primary objectives in implementation this programme are as follows :
• Facilitate the development of participatory forest management by the HFD;
• Orient the forestry staff and community members to bring in attitudinal changes regarding JFMP
through regular meetings, workshops, effective training, and extension activities ;
• Assist in research on the institutional, socio-economic and ecological aspect of joint forestry
management; and
• Disseminate information concerning the effects of joint forestry management on ecological
regeneration, economic productivity, and environmental safety and security.
• To achieve the desired objectives, following strategies and incentive mechanism have been adopted.
• Provision of non-timber forest products to local communities at concessionary rates.
• Organisation of meetings, field training and workshops emphasising micro planning and women's
participation specially to sensitise, motivate, and orient the target groups.
• Regular documentation, dissemination of information and extension material.
For the forest management, Hill Resource Management Societies have been formed in villages
adjoining the forests in Haryana Shiwaliks (lower Himalayas). In this regard the target group comprises
marginal farmers and traditional graziers. Since 1990, that has been a remarkable change in the livestock
pattern, even for grazing, emphasis has been shifted from open grazing to stall feeding. In addition, an
agricultural yields have increased up to four fold due to the provision of irrigation water through the
construction of water-harvesting structures.
Measures undertaken by the FAO and UNDP
To counter the problems of deforestation and desertification the FAO and United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) have been playing significant role by mapping and monitoring
deforestation and desertification, specially since 1979. Even the Geographical Information System (GIS)
is being used to map and monitor the amount of degree of damage caused by deforestation and extensive
databases are being established.
The United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) , in 1977, adopted Plan of Action to
Combat Desertification (PACD) that was endorsed by the UN General Assembly. The worldwide programme
was aimed at stopping the process of desertification and at rehabilitating affected land. In this regard in
1985, the World Resources Institute of the World Bank, and the UNDP published a Tropical Forestry
Action Plan (TFAP) through the combined efforts of the governments, forestry agencies, UN agencies,
and NGOs. The plans, however, could not generate enough political support, although the proposals were
probably quite sound. Despite the limited success, several countries have adapted the national plans to
come within the scope of PACD implementation and significant measures have been undertaken in the
countries of the Sudano-Sahelian belt of Africa, and in India, China, Iran, and the former USSR.
It has been observed that much could be achieved through a change in attitude toward forests, that is to
emphasise on need and desirability to conserve and use the resources in a more rational manner. The
multinational development agencies and Philanthropic foundations such as the FAO the World Bank,
 36
and the Ford Foundation a supporting efforts to encourage management by smaller groups, which are
more closely associated with particular forest tracts. In this regard, give them responsibility to manage the
forests, and degraded land. For instance, the Joint-Forest-Management Programme India, implemented
in 12 states since 1990, is being funded by such organizations. The programme aims at evolving and
establishing systems of sustainable forest management jointly by the government and the people.
Financial Aid
The massive aid inflows through the multilateral development banks and bilateral agencies for
international development can solve the problems of lack of funds for disasters of this type, success
largely depends on the attitude of the people and organization who is getting development assistance.
However, the NGOs such as TERI, which are actively involved in a participatory approach at the grass
roots, research on biomass, and biotechnology could play a vital role in developing the disaster prone site
and implementing the research development programmes.
Role of ICT and Public Private Partnership
As is evident that the development of science and technology, occupies a prominent position in the
disaster management therefore land-use planning, dryland cropping strategies, appropriate forest
management technologies optimum utilization of resource potential, the standardization of harvesting
techniques for non-timber forest products, fuelwood supply plantations, and renewable energy-technologies
are some of the potential areas for the Public-Private Partnership (PPP). Thus enthusiastic workers can
help in regenerating natural forests; better management of forests; better fire control measures reforestation
and afforestation; fuelwood / energy plantations and woodlots agro-forestry farm and village woodlots,
cash-crop free farming; and developing non-conventional methods of forest management.
Research and Development
The following suggestions are appropriate for immediate action to fight against soil degradation,
deforestation and desertification in a long-term perspective.
• Strengthen the planning and organisation of ecological silvicultural and socio-economic research in
disaster prone areas.
• Strengthen research on particular areas such as social and cultural aspects of forest life, non-
traditional methods in forestry - use of biotechnology, and distribution of natural resources, specially
that appear weak in view of the sustainable development.
• Design and implement systematic programme for the advanced training of volunteers and
administrators in the management of soil degradation desertification and deforestation.
The urgency of the problem is accentuated by the fact that the pressure on natural resources is growing
due to unprecedented population growth. Even other environmental problems are likely to become serious,
tending to distract the attention of international funding agencies to other issues like the global
warming and sea level rise. However, if the process of desertification and deforestation is not arrested
immediately, then the problem of food shortage will increase.
The success to combat desertification and deforestation depend on the institutional arrangements,
financial arrangements, dissemination of information, awareness generation, development of assessment
methodology, and adaptive research. Therefore, the funding and implementing agencies must give priority
to programmes for disaster management in the area of desertification and deforestation. Last but not
least, the affected people must be fully involved in the planning and implementation of programmes.
3.5 CONCLUSION
A man-made disaster not only impedes progress but also sometimes disrupts the entire life stream. It has
been observed that much of the earth is degraded at some places, and is being degraded at other
 37
places. The processes of soil degradation, desertification, and deforestation are widespread and discrete
when caused by human actions.
In this lesson, we have described the major environmental hazards, which are affecting the planet, namely
soil degradation, desertification, and deforestation in terms of causes, effects, nature and magnitude of the
problem. In addition, the various measures that have been adopted so far to combat the environmental
problems are reviewed. The role of forestry in controlling desertification, and strategies for development
while conserving the global environment are also explained.
It has been realised that the environmental disasters are becoming alarming and joint efforts are
required to plan and execute the idea to safeguard the world from the disaster. The immediate effects of
soil degration, desertification and deforestation may not yet be felt, but if this generation doesn’t implement
necessary action than the next generation will definitely suffer. Thus, immediate efforts are required to
protect the environment.

3.6 GLOSSARY
Atmosphere : It is the outer layer of gases that surround a planet.
Climax : After parallel evolution between the ground and the vegetation, a
state of steady balance is reached; this stage of development is
called climax or natural potential. In this regard, succession is the
evolution towards climax.
Erosion : In this process land becomes barren of nutrients, and the soil
literally "erodes" and is swept away by the elements.
Global Warming : It refers the temperature increase in the earth's climate, which
is caused by an increased number of gases such as methane,
carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide that retain heat in the earth's
atmosphere.

Man-made hazard :
It is a threat, which derives from technological processes,
human interactions with environment or relationship within and
between communities.
Population displacement : It is generally associated with crisis included mass
migrationwhen large number of people are forced to their
houses to seek alternative means of survival and habitation.
Normally, such migrations result due to severe food shortage or collapse of economic support
system.
3.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the causes and impacts of man-made disasters.
2. Discuss the mitigation strategies for man-made disaters.

3.8 REFERENCES
Ahmed, Sirjuddin, 2006, "Deforestation", MPA 002 understanding Man-made Disasters, IGNOU, New
Delhi
Astrid Von Kotze and Als Holloway, 1996, Reducing Risk a Participatory Learning Activities for Disaster
Mitigation in Southern Africa, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and
Department of Adult and Community Education, University of Natal.
Brown Katrina and David W Pearce, 1994, The Causes of Tropical Deforestation, UCB Press,
Vancouver.
 38

Center for Science and Environment, 1985, The State of India's Environment / 2nd Citizens Report, New
Delhi.
Cuny, F. 1997, Displaced Persons in Civil Conflict, Disaster Management Training Programme, UNDP,
Geneva.

3.9 FURTHER READINGS

Goodwin Gill G. 1996, International Law of Disasters and Armed Conflict, Disaster Management
Training Programme United Nations Development Programme Geneva.
Government of India, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation Ministry of Agriculture 2002, High
Powered Committee on Disaster Management Report, New Delhi
Kothari A. 1995, Hope for the future : Regenerating Biodiversity in a Himalayan Village Conserving Life,
Kalpavriksh, New Delhi

*****
 39

Unit-II Lesson : 4-6

THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT, 2005

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Main Provisions
4.3 Summary
4.4 Model Question
4.5 References
4.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to:
1. know about the various provisions of Disaster Management Act, 2005.
2. Learn about various authorities set up for Disaster Management in India.
3. Understand powers and functions of various authorities set up for Disaster Management in India.
4.1 Introduction
This Act was enacted in 2005. The Act contains eleven chapters and seventy nine sections. It extends to the
whole of India. Some of the significant provisions of this Act are discussed in the subsequent pages.
4.2 Main Provisions
CHAPTER - II
THE NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY
Establishment of National Disaster Management Authority
1. The Central Government shall set up an authority to be known as the National Disaster Management
Authority. It shall consist of the Chairperson and such number of other members, not exceeding
nine, as may be prescribed by the Central Government and, unless the rules otherwise provide,
the National Authority shall consist of the following :
(a) The Prime Minister of India, who shall be the Chairperson of the National Authority, ex officio;
(b) Other members, not exceeding nine, to be nominated by the Chairperson of the National Authority.
The Chairperson of the National Authority may designate one of the members to be the Vice-
Chairperson of the National Authority. The term of office and conditions of service of members of the
National Authority be such as may be prescribed.
Meetings of National Authority
The National Authority shall meet as and when necessary and at such time and place as the
Chairperson of the National Authority may think fit. The Chairperson of the National Authority shall preside
over the meetings. In his absence, the Vice Chairperson shall preside over the meeting.

Powers and Functions of National Authority

2. The National Authority shall have the responsibility for laying down the policies, plans and guidelines
for disaster management for ensuring timely and effective response to disaster. The National
Authority may -
(a) lay down policies on disaster management;
(b) approve the National Plan;
(c) approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Department of the Government of India in accordance
with the National Plan;
 40

(d) lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the state Plan;
(e) lay guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or Departments of the Government of India
for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effect in
their development plans and projects;
(f) coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan for disaster
management;
(g) recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation;
(h) provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as may be determined
by the Central Government;
(i) take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation or preparedness and
capacity building for dealing with the threatening disaster situation or disaster as it may consider
necessary;
(j) lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the National Institute of Disaster
Management.
The Chairperson of the National Authority shall, in the case of emergency, have power to exercise all
or any of the powers of the National Authority but exercise of such powers shall be subject to in it a
ratification by the National Authority ;

Constitution of Advisory Committee by National Authority

3. The National Authority may constitute an advisory committee consisting of experts in the field of
disaster management and having practical experience of disaster management at the national,
State or District level to make recommendations on different aspects of disaster management.

Constitution of National Executive Committee

4. The Central Government shall, constitute a National Executive Committee to assist the National
Authority in the performance of its functions under this Act. The National Executive Committee shall
consist of the following members namely -
(a) the Secretary to the Government of India in charge of the Ministry or Department of the Central
Government having administrative control of the disaster management, who shall be Chairperson,
ex officio;
(b) the Secretaries to the Government of India in the Ministries or Departments having administrative
control of the agriculture, atomic energy, defence drinking water supply, environment and forests,
finance (expenditure), health, power rural development, science and technology, space,
telecommunication, urban development water resources and the Chief of the Integrated Defence
Staff of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, ex officio;
(c) the Chairperson of the National Executive Committee may invite any other officer of the Central
Government or a State Government for taking part in any meeting of the National Executive
Committee and shall exercise such powers and perform such functions as may be prescribed by
the Government in consultation with the National Authority.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

5. The National Executive Committee shall assist the National Authority in the discharge of its functions
and have the responsibility for implementing the policies and plans of the National Authority it also
ensure the compliance of directions issued by the Central Government for the purpose of disaster
management in the country (I).
(a) act as the coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management;
(b) prepare the National Plan to be approved by the National Authority;
 41

(c) coordinate the monitor the implementation of the National Policy;

(d) lay down guidelines for preparing disaster management plans by different Ministries or Department
of the Government of India and the State Authority;
(e) provide necessary technical assistance to the State Government and the State Authorities for
preparing their disaster management plants in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the
National Authority;
(f) monitor the implementation of the National Plan and the plans prepared by the Ministries or
Departments of the Governments of India;
(g) monitor the implementation of the guidelines laid down by the National Authority for integrating of
measures for prevention of disasters and mitigation by the Ministries or Departments in their
development plans and projects;
(h) monitor, coordinate and give directions regarding the mitigation and preparedness measures to be
taken by different Ministries or Departments and agencies of the Government;
(i) evaluate the preparedness at all governmental levels for the purpose of responding to any
threatening disaster situation or disaster and give directions, where necessary for enhancing such
preparedness;
(j) plan and coordinate specialized training programme for disaster management for different levels of
officers, employees and voluntary rescue workers;
(k) coordinate response in the event of any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(l) lay down guidelines for or give directions to the concerned Ministries of Departments of the
Government of India, the State Government and the State Authorities regarding measures to be
taken by them in response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(m) require any department or agency of the Government to make available to the National Authority or
State Authorities such men or material resources as are available with it for the purpose of
emergency response, rescue and relief;
(n) advise, assist and coordinate the activities of the Ministries or Departments of the Governments
of India, State Authorities, Statutory bodies, other governmental or non- governmental
organizations and other engaged in disaster management;
(o) provide necessary technical assistance or give advice to the State Authorities and District and
District Authorities for carrying out their functions under this Act;
(p) promote general education and awareness in relation to disaster management; and
(q) perform such other functions as the National Authority may require into perform.

6. National Plan
There shall be drawn up a plan for disaster management for the whole of the country to be called
the National Plan. It shall be prepared by the National Executive Committee having regard to the
National Policy and to be approved by the National Authority.

The National Plan shall include :

(a) measures to be taken for the prevention of disasters, or the mitigation of their effect;
(b) measures to be taken for the integration of mitigation measures in the developments plans.
(c) measures to be taken for preparedness and capacity building to effectively respond to any
threatening disaster situations or disaster;
(d) roles and responsibilities of different Ministries or Departments of the Government of India in respect
of measures specified in clauses (a), (b) and (c).
(e) The National Plan shall be reviewed and updated annually. The Copies of the National Plan shall be
made available to the concerned Ministries or Departments and such Ministries or Departments
 42

shall draw up their own plans in accordance with the National Plan.

Guidelines for minimum standard of relief

7. The National Authority shall recommend guidelines for the minimum standards of relief to be provided to
persons affected by disaster, which shall include,
(a) the minimum requirements to be provided in the relief camps in relation to shelter, food, drinking
water, medical cover and sanitation;
(b) the special provisions to be made for widows and orphans;
(c) ex-gratia assistance on account of loss of life as also assistance on account of damage to houses
and for restoration of means of livelihood;
(d) such other relief as may be necessary.

STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITIES

8. Establishment of State Disaster Management Authority
Every State Government shall, establish a State Disaster Management Authority for the State. A
State Authority shall consist of the Chairperson and such number of other members, not exceeding
nine, as may be prescribed by the State Government and unless the rules otherwise provide, the
State Authority shall consist of the following members namely:
(a) the chief Minister of the state, who shall be chairperson in ita;
(b) other members, not exceeding eight, to be nominated by the Chairperson of the State Authority;
(c) the chairperson of the state Executive Committee, in ita.
The Chairperson of the State Authority may designate one of the members to be the Vice-Chairperson of the
State Authority. The Chairperson of the State Executive Committee shall be the Chief Executive officer
of the State Authority, in ita provided that in the case of a Union Territory having Legislative Assembly Union
Territory of Delhi, the Chief Minister shall be the chairperson of the Authority established under this
section and in case of other Union territories, the Lieutenant Governor of the Administer shall be Chairperson
of that Authority. The Chairperson of the State Authority shall preside over the meetings of the State Authority.
Provided further that the Lieutenant Governor of the Union Territory of Delhi shall be the Chairperson and
the Chief Minister thereof shall be the Vice-chairperson of the State Authority. The term of office and
conditions of service of members of the State Authority shall be such as may be prescribed. The Chairperson
of the State Authority shall preside over the meetings of the State Authority.

9. Powers and Functions of State Authority

The State Authority will perform almost similar functions at the state level as are performed by the
National Authority at central level.
In emergent situations the Chairperson of the State Authority can exercise all or any of the powers of the
State Authority but the same shall be subject to in ita ratification of the State Authority.

10. Guidelines for Minimum Standard of Relief by State Authority

The State Authority shall lay down detailed guidelines for providing standards of relief to persons
affected by disaster in the State provided that such standards shall in no case be less than the minimum
standards in the guidelines laid down by the National Authority in this regard.

11. Constitution of State Executive Committee

The State Government shall also constitute a State Executive Committee to assist the State Authority in the
performance of its functions and to coordinate action in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the
State Authority and ensure the compliance of directions issued by the State Government under this Act.
 43

The State Executive Committee shall consist of the following members, namely :
(a) the Chief Secretary to the State Government, who shall be Chairperson in ita ;
(b) four Secretaries to the Government of the State of such departments as the State Government
may think fit, in ita.
(c) the Chairperson of the State Executive Committee shall exercise such powers and perform such
functions as may be prescribed by the State Government and such other powers and functions as
may be delegated to him by the State Authority.

12. Functions of the State Executive Committee

The State Executive Committee shall have the responsibility for implementing the National plan and
State plan and act as the coordinating and monitoring body for management of disaster in the State. The
State Executive Committee may perform similar functions at the State level as are performed by the
National Executive Committee at the National level.

13. State Plan

There shall be a plan for disaster management for every State to be called the State Disaster
Management Plan.
The State plan shall be prepared by the State Executive Committee having regard to the guidelines laid
down by the National Authority and after such consultation with local authorities, district authorities and
the people's representatives as the State Executive Committee may deem fit. The plan shall be
approved by the State Authority. The plan shall be financed by the State Government. It shall include :
(a) the vulnerability of different parts of the State to different forms of disasters;
(b) the measures to be adopted for prevention and mitigation of disasters;
(c) the manner in which the mitigation measures shall be integrated with the development plans and
projects;
(d) the capacity building and preparedness measures to be taken;
(e) the roles and responsibilities of each Department of the Government of the State in relation to the
measures specified in clauses (b), (c) and (d) above;
(f) the roles and responsibilities of different Departments of the Government of the State in responding
to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(g) the State Plan shall be reviewed and updated annually. Copies of the State Plan shall be made
available to the Departments of the Government of the State and such Departments shall draw up
their own plans in accordance with the State Plan.

14. Powers and Functions of State Executive Committee

For the purpose of assisting and protecting the community affected by disaster or providing relief to such
community or preventing or combating disruption or dealing with the effects of any threatening disaster
situation, the State Executive Committee may -
(a) control and restrict, vehicular traffic to, from or within, the vulnerable or affected area;
(b) control and restrict the entry of any person into, his movement within and departure from a
vulnerable or affected area;
(c) remove debris, conduct search and carry out rescue operations;
(d) provide shelter, food drinking water, essential provisions healthcare and services in accordance
with the standards laid down by the National Authority and State Authority;
(e) give directions to the concerned Department of the Government of the State, any District Authority
or other authority, within the local limits of State to take such measures or steps for rescue,
 44

evacuation or providing immediate relief saving lives or property;

(f) require any department of the Government of the State or any other body or authority or person in
charge of any relevant resources to make available the resources for the purposes of emergency
response rescue and relief;
(g) require experts and consultants in the field of disasters to provide advice and assistance for rescue
and relief;
(h) procure exclusive or preferential use of amenities from any authority or person as and when
required;
(i) construct temporary bridges or the necessary structures and demolish unsafe structures which
may be hazardous to public;
(j) ensure that non-governmental organizations carry out their activities in an equitable and non-
discriminatory manner;
(k) disseminate information to public to deal with any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(l) take such steps as the Central Government or the State Government may direct in this regard or
take such other steps as are required or warranted by the form of any threatening disaster situation
or disaster.
Self-assessment questions
1. Write two provisions of Disaster Management Act, 2005.
2. Write two powers and functions of National Executive Committee.
3. Write two powers and functions of State Executive Committee.

15. DISTRICT DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY Constitution of District

Management Authority
Every State Government shall establish a District Disaster Management Authority for every district in the
State. The District Authority shall consist of the Chairperson and such number of other members, not
exceeding seven, as may be prescribed by the State Government, it shall consist of the following
namely :
(a) the Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner, as the case may be of the district who
shall be Chairperson, in ita;
(b) the elected representative of the local authority who shall be the Co-Chairperson, in ita;
(c) In any district where Zila Parishad exists, the Chairperson thereof shall be the Co- Chairperson of
the District Authority.
The State Government shall appoint an officer not below the rank of Additional Collector or Additional District
Magistrate or Additional Deputy Commissioner, as the case may be, of the district to be the Chief
Executive Officer of the District Authority.

16. In emergent students the Chairperson of the District Authority shall, have power to exercise all or
any of the powers of the District Authority but the same shall be subject to in ita ratification of the District
Authority.

17. Powers and Functions of District Authority

The District Authority shall act as the district planning, coordinating and implementing body for disaster
management and take all measures for the purposes of disaster management in the district in
accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National Authority and the State Authority. The District
Authority may –
 45

(i) prepare disaster management plan including district response plan for the district;
(ii) coordinate and monitory the implementation of the National Policy State Policy, National Plan, State
Plan and District Plan;
(iii) ensure that the areas in the district vulnerable to disaster are identified and measures for the
prevention of disasters and the mitigation of its effect are undertaken by the Departments of the
Governments at the District level as well as by the local authorities;
(iv) ensure that the guidelines for prevention of disasters, mitigation of its effects, preparedness and
response measures as laid down by the National Authority and the State Authority are followed by all
departments of the Government at the district level and the local authorities in the district;
(v) give directions to different authorities at the district level and local authorities to take such other
measures for the prevention or mitigation of disaster as may be necessary;
(vi) lay down guidelines for prevention of disaster management plans by the department of the
Government at the districts level and local authorities in the district;
(vii) lay down guidelines to be followed by the Departments of the Government at the district level for
purposes of integration of measures for prevention of disasters and mitigation in their development
plans and projects and provide necessary technical assistance therefore.
(viii) monitor the implementation of measures referred to in clause (viii);
(ix) review the state of capabilities for responding to any disaster or threatening disaster situation in the
district and give directions to the relevant departments or authorities at the district level for their
upgradation as may be necessary;
(x) review the preparedness measures and give directions to the concerned departments at the
district level or other concerned authorities where necessary for bringing the preparedness
measures to the levels required for responding effectively to any disaster or threatening disaster
situation;
(xi) organize and coordinate specialised training programmes for different levels of officers, employees
and voluntary rescue workers in the district;
(xii) facilitate community training and awareness programmes for prevention of disaster or mitigation
with the support of local authorities, governmental and non-governmental organizations;
(xiii) set up, maintain, review and upgrade the mechanism for early warnings and dissemination of proper
information to public;

18. District Plan

There shall be a plan for disaster management for every district of the State. The District Plan shall be
prepared by the District Authority, after consultation with the local authorities and having regard to the
National Plan and the State Plan to approved by the State Authority.

19. Plans by different authorities at district level and their implementation

Every office of the Government of India and of the State Government at the district level and the local
authorities shall under the supervision of the District Authority-
(a) Prepare of disaster management plan setting out the following namely :
(i) provisions of prevention and mitigation measures as provided for in the District Plan as is assigned
to the department or agency concerned and;
(ii) provisions for taking measures relating to capacity-building and preparedness as laid down in the
District Plan;
(iii) the response plans and procedures, in the event of, any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(b) coordinate the preparation and the implementation of its plan with those of the other organizations
at the district level including local authority, communities and other stakeholders;
 46

(c) regularly review and update the plan; and

(d) submit a copy of its disaster management plan, and of any amendment thereto, to the District
Authority.

20. Measure by the Government for Disaster Management Central Government to take
measures The Central Government shall take all such measures with respect to all or any of
the following matters as it deems necessary for the purpose of disaster management.
(a) coordination of actions of the Monasteries or Departments of the Government of India, State
Governments, National Authority, State Authorities governmental and non-governmental organizations
in relation to disaster management;
(b) ensure the integration of measures for prevention of disasters and mitigation, by Ministries or
Department of the Government of India into their development plans and projects;
(c) ensure appropriate allocation of funds for prevention of disaster, mitigation capacity - building and
preparedness by the Ministries or Departments of the Governments of India;
(d) ensure that the Ministries or Departments of the Government of India take necessary measures for
preparedness to promptly and effectively respond to any threatening disasters situation or disaster;
(e) cooperation and assistance to State Governments, as requested by them or otherwise deemed
appropriate by it;
(f) deployment of naval, military and air forces, other armed forces of the Union or any other civilian
personnel as may be required for the purposes of this Act;
(g) coordination with the United Nations agencies, international organizations and governments of foreign
countries for the purposes of this Act;
(h) establish institutions for research, training and development programmes in the field of disaster
management.

21. Responsibilities of Ministries or Departments of Government of India

It shall be the responsibility of every Ministry or Department of the Government of India to take
measures necessary for prevention of disasters, mitigation preparedness and capacity-building in
accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National Authority;
To allocate funds for measures for prevention of disaster, mitigation capacity building and
preparedness and in this regard provide assistance to the National Authority and State Governments.
To make available its resources to the National Executive Committee or a State Executive Committee
for the purpose of responding promptly and effectively to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
Disaster management plans of Ministers or Department of Government of India.

22. Every Minister or Department of the Government of India shall -

(a) of sub-section to the National Authority, as and when required by it.
(b) Furnish a status report regarding the implementation of the plan referred to in clause

23. STATE GOVERNMENT TO TAKE MEASURE

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, each State Government shall take all earnest measures specified
in the guidelines laid down by the National Authority and such further measures as it deems
necessary or expedient for the purpose of disaster management.
(2) The measures which the State Government may take under sub-section (1) include measures with
respect to all or any of the following matters namely -
(a) coordination of actions of different departments of the Government of the State, the State Authority,
District Authorities, local authority and other non-Governmental organization;
(b) cooperation and assistance in the disaster management to the National Authority and National
 47

Executive Committee, the State Authority and the State Executive Committee and the District
Authorities;
(c) cooperation with and assistance to the Ministries or Departments of the Government of India in
disaster management as requested by them or otherwise deemed appropriate by it;
(d) allocation of hinds for measures for prevention of disaster, mitigation, capacity- building and
preparedness by the departments of the Government of the State in accordance with the
provisions of the State Plan and the District Plans;
(e) ensure that the integration of measures for prevention of disaster or mitigation by the departments
of the Government of the State in their development plans and projects;
(f) integrate in the State development plan, measures to reduce or mitigate the vulnerability of
different of the State to different disasters;
(g) ensure the preparation of disaster management plans by different departments of the State in
accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National Authority and the State Authority;
(h) establishment of adequate warning systems up to the level of vulnerable communities;
(i) ensure that different departments of the Governments of the State and the District Authorities take
appropriate preparedness measures;
(j) ensure that in a threatening disaster situation or disaster the resources of different departments of
the Governments of the State are made available to the National Executive Committee or the State
Executive Committee or the District Authorities as the case may be, for the purposes of effective
response rescue and relief in any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(k) provide rehabilitation and reconstruction assistance to the victims of any disaster; and such other
matters as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of securing effective implementation of
provisions of this Act.

24. Responsibilities of Departments of the State Government

It shall be the responsibility of every department of the Government of a State to-
(a) take measures necessary for prevention of disasters, mitigation, preparedness and capacity- building
in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National Authority and the State Authority;
(b) integrate into its development plans and projects the measures for prevention of disaster and
mitigation;

(c) make available its resources to the National Executive Committee or the State Executive
Committee or the District Authorities for the purpose of responding promptly and effectively to any
disaster in the State, including measures for -
(i) providing emergency communication with a vulnerable or affected area;
(ii) transporting personnel and relief goods to and from the affected area;
(iii) providing evacuation, rescue, temporary shelter or other immediate relief;
(iv) carrying out evacuation of persons or live-stock from an area of any threatening disaster situation
or disaster;
(v) setting up temporary bridges, jetties and landing places;
(vi) providing drinking water, essential provisions, healthcare and services in an affected area;
(vii) such other actions as may be necessary for disaster management.

25. Disaster Management Plan of the Departments of State

Every Department of the State Government, in conformity with the guidelines laid down by the
State Authority, shall -
(a) prepare a disaster management plan which shall lay down the following :
 48

(i) the types of disasters to which different parts of the State are vulnerable;
(ii) integration of strategies for the prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effect or both;
(iii) the roles and responsibilities of the department of the State;
(iv) every Department of the State Government shall furnish an implementation status report to the
State Executive Committee shall furnish an implementation status report to the State Executive
Committee regarding the implementation of the disaster management plan referred to in sub-section (1).

LOCAL AUTHORITIES
26. Function of the Local Authority
The authority shall -
(a) ensure that its officers and employees are trained for disaster management;
(b) ensure that resources relating to disaster management are readily available for use disaster situation
or disaster;
(c) to carry out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in the affected area in accordance
with the State Plan and the District Plan.
The local authority may take such other measures as may be necessary for the disaster
management.

27. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

(i) The National Institute of Disaster management shall be constituted.
(ii) It shall consist of such number of members as may be prescribed by the Central Government.
(iii) There shall be a governing body of the National Institute of Disaster Management which shall be
constituted by the Central Government from amongst the members of the National Institute of
Disaster Management.
(iv) The governing body of the National Institute of Disaster Management shall exercise such powers
and discharge such functions as may be prescribed by regulations.
(v) The National Institute of Disaster Management shall function with the board policies and guidelines
laid down by the National Authority.
(vi) The National Institute, for the discharge of its functions, may -
(a) develop training modules, undertake research and documentation in disaster management and
organize training programmes;
(b) formulate and implement a comprehensive human resource development plan covering all aspects
of disaster management;
(c) provide assistance in national level policy formulation;
(d) provide required assistance for the training and research institute for development of training and
research programmes for stakeholders including Government functionaries and undertake training
of faculty members of the State level training institutes;
(e) provide assistance to the State Governments and State Training institute in the formulation of State
level policies strategies, disaster management framework and any other assistance as may be
required by the State Government or State training institutes for capacity building of stakeholders,
Government including its functionaries civil society members, corporate sector and people's elected
representatives;
(f) develop educational materials for disaster management including academic and professional
courses;
(g) Promote awareness stakeholders including college or school teachers and students, technical
personnel and other associated with multi hazard mitigation preparedness and response measures;
(h) undertake, organize and facilitate study courses, conferences lectures, seminars within and
 49

outside the country to promote the aforesaid objects; undertake and provide for publication of
journals, research papers and books and establish and maintain libraries in furtherance of the
aforesaid objects;
(i) do all such other things as are conducive or incidental to the attainment of the above objects.

28. National Disaster Response Fund

(1) The Central Government may constitute a fund to be called the National Disaster Response Fund for
meeting any threatening disaster situation or disaster and there shall be credited thereto -
(a) an amount which the Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law
in this behalf provide;
(b) any grants that may be made by any person or institution for the purpose of disaster management.
(2) The National Disaster Response Fund shall be made available to the National Executive
Committee to be applied towards meting the expenses for emergency response, relief and
rehabilitation in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the Central Government in
consultation with the National Authority.

29. The National Disaster Mitigation Fund shall be applied by the National Authority.

30. Establishment of Funds by State Government

The State Government shall, immediately constituting the State Authority and the District Authorities,
establish for the purpose of this Act the following funds, namely-
(1) the fund to be called the State Disaster Response Funds;
(2) the fund to be called the District Disaster Response Fund;
(3) the fund to be called the State Disaster Mitigation Fund;
(4) the fund to be called the District Disaster Mitigation Fund.

31. Allocation of Funds by Ministries and Department

Every Ministry or Department of the Government of India shall make provisions, in its annual budget
for funds for the purposes of carrying out the activities and programmes set out in its disaster
management plan.

OFFENCES AND PENALTIES

Punishment for Obstruction etc.
(a) If some one obstructs any officer or employee of the Central Staff Government or the State
Government, or a person authorized by the National Staff Authority in the discharge of his functions
under this Act; or refuse to comply with any direction given in this behalf by the Government.
(b) Shall on conviction be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to one year or
with fine, or with both, and if the such obstruction or refusal to comply with directions results in loss of
lives or imminent danger thereof, shall on conviction be punishable with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to two years.
False alarm or warning as to disaster or its severity or magnitude, leading to panic, shall be
punishable.

MISCELLANEOUS
Prohibition Against Discrimination
32. While providing compensation and relief to the victims of disaster, there shall be no discrimination
on the ground of sex, caste, community, descent or religion.
 50

Direction to media for communication of warnings, etc.

33. The National, State or District Authority may recommend to the Government to give direction or
any authority or person in control of any audio or audio visual media or such other means of
communication as may be available to carry any warnings or advisories regarding any threatening
disaster situation or disaster, and the said means of communication and media as designated shall
comply with such direction.

Annual Report
34. The National and State Authority shall prepare an annual report giving a true and full account of its
activities during the previous year and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the Central State
Government and that Government shall cause the same to be laid before both Houses of
Parliament each House of State legislature within one month of its receipt.

Bar of Jurisdiction of Court

35. No court (except the Supreme Court or a High Court) shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or
proceeding in respect of anything done by the Central Government, National Authority, State
Government, State Authority or District Authority in pursuance of any its functions, respect of any
impending disaster communicated or disseminated by them in their official capacity or any action
taken or direction issued by them in pursuance of such communication dissemination.

Power of Central Government to make Rules

36. The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the
purposes of this Act.

Rules and Regulations to be laid before Parliament

37. Every rule made by the Central Government and every regulation made by the National Institute of
Disaster Management under this Act shall be laid, before each House of Parliament.

4.3 Summary
The Act elaborate the various provisions pertaining to the National/State, District Disaster
Management Authority, National Executive Committee, its powers and functions, Measures by the
Government for Disaster Management and functions of National Institute of Disaster Management and the
extent of punishments for various offences related to disaster management.

4.4 Model Questions

1. Discuss various provisions of Disaster Management Act, 2005.
2. Evaluate the provisions of Disaster Management Act, 2005. Give suggestions.

4.5 References
The Disaster Management Act, 2005, Government of India, New Delhi.

*****
 51

Lesson : 5
ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK OF DISASTER
ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA AT THE UNION LEVEL

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Profile of Disasters in South Asia
5.3 Disaster Response in India
5.4 Coordination and Control in Disaster Response
5.4.1 Administrative Response Framework
5.4.2 Nodal Ministry : Ministry of Home Affairs (M.H.A.)
5.5 Issues
5.6 Enhancing Disaster Response Management
5.7 Conclusion
5.8 Glossary
5.9 Model Questions
5.10 References
5.11 Further Reading

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be above to :
• evaluate the role played by the Central Ministries and Departments;
• assess the coordination and control mechanism; and
• discuss an integrated policy to strengthen and expand the capacity, preparedness and
response of the various agencies to disasters.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters are an unavoidable part of life. Every one of us face some degree of personal risk from
disasters of one kind or another. Disasters have always been mankind's constant companion.
Generations of people have had to withstand disaster. They suffered from the consequences and
recovered from them, and life continued. But somehow, over the ages, the scenario has changed quite a
bit, but there has not been much reduction in the traditional disaster threat. Natural disasters like
earthquakes, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, wildfires, floods, landslides and droughts
continue to strike. While we have learned to cope with these problems to a certain extent, we have
neither eliminated nor contained them. So, whilst their effects may have been modified, they continue
to inflict unacceptable pressure on the world population. This applies to South Asian countries
specifically, as they reel under the adverse consequences of natural and man made disasters.
Besides the natural disasters, the world today witnesses new disaster threats. Increased social
violence has drastically affected many nations and communities. Instances of hijacking, terrorism, civil
unrest and conflict with use of conventional arms have become common. Instances of cross-border
terrorism in parts of India continuing for many years and the organized simultaneous multi-targeted
terrorist attacks in USA on September 11th, 2001 on the Mumbai attack in 2008 are the most despicable
instances of willful man-made disasters. Dr. Kulshreshtha states that the consequence has been heavy
burdens on governments and societies, more so in developing countries whose existence is already
precarious because of poor economic and social conditions.
 52

The reduction in the number of people killed over the last 30 years has been due to the preventive
measures undertaken by the governments worldwide. Also, the UN declaration of International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction between 1990 - 2000, and the Yokohama (Japan) Declaration, 1994,
'Towards Safer World', helped to spread greater awareness among the nations to take up measures
for disaster mitigation. The Natural Disaster Reduction Report, 1999, specifies that the largest sufferers
are the least developed nations and economically weaker sections of the society. In this unit we will be
discussing about the role played at central, level in disaster response. We will also assess the
coordination and control mechanism of the various agencies involved in disaster response and
discusses various options available to integrate the policy to strengthen and expend the capacity
preparedness and response of various agencies to disasters.

5.2 PROFILE OF DISASTERS IN SOUTH ASIA

The South Asian countries namely, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka are among the
world's most vulnerable countries to both natural and man-made disasters. These countries have
diverse agro-climate regions, each subject to particular natural disasters. Long coastal regions are
prone to cyclones, arid and semi-arid regions are prone to droughts, the Himalayan mountaineous
terrain and parts of the continental crust are prone to earthquakes and landslides, and the near perennial
rivers of the region are prone to floods. The countries of this region are densely populated and are low-
income economies. Recurrent natural disaster inflict set backs to their efforts in development and
aggravate poverty conditions. The region recorded 15 out of the 40 major disasters in the world in the
last thirty years. This has also halted development efforts, as the funds earmarked for new initiatives are
transferred to relief, response and rehabilitation work. The response of major stakeholders has been
reactive rather than pro-active. There is a need for coordinated efforts towards disaster mitigation among
these countries.
Many times disasters have cross border effects. Among, the South Asian countries, India faces the
largest number of disasters.
In the ensuing paragraphs, the structure of disaster response as operating at central level, is
discussed.

5.3 DISASTER RESPONSE IN INDIA

India is one of the world's major theatres of disasters, both natural and man-made. It remains the worst
affected country. In fact, the frequency of all categories of disasters, varying from epidemics to road
accidents and perennial droughts and floods, is escalating, resulting in a multifold growth of injuries,
disabilities, diseases, and deaths, disrupting life supporting systems, and adding to the health, social,
and economic burden of an already impoverished people. Because of the adverse weather conditions,
population growth, urbanization and industrialization, there has been increase in the number of
disasters every year.
India has attempted to follow the IDNDR guidelines. The effort is to make disaster reduction a part of
India's development plan so that recurring disasters will not erode progress in social and economic
sphere. One of the lessons learnt by victims of various natural disasters is that the aftermath of the
disaster can be even worse than the disaster event itself. Thus, there is a need to acknowledge the
need for preparedness towards disaster mitigation. Natural occurrences cannot be avoided altogether.
What could best be done is to take maximum possible preventive measures at various levels within the
society in order to minimize the impact of such natural disasters for the people. The impact of
disasters can be reduced and the worst affects can be prevented. The communities, which are
actively involved in the prevention of the natural disaster, belong to the international, regional, national,
state and local institutions and organisations. What is important is that they seek to introduce a culture of
 53

prevention in all communities at different levels. This leads to strengthening the control and
coordination mechanism for disaster response.
In this context, the unit examines the mechanisms adopted by the government at National, State, and
District levels for managing the natural disasters besides analyzing its existing capacity for effective
response and its ability to achieve unity of efforts among the governmental and non-governmental
organisations.

5.4 COORDINATION AND CONTROL IN DISASTER RESPONSE

In disaster response coordination and control is required not only within the administrative framework of the
nation, state and district but also with the various service agencies and the civil societies involved in it.
Fig.1 depicts this relationship.
FIG.1 : COORDINATION AND CONTROL IN DISASTER RESPONSE

ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSE FRAMEWORK

(NATIONAL, STATE, DISTRICT) CIVIL SOCIETIES

(NGOS, VOLUNTAREE ORGANISATIONS, CBO,

INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES AND COMMUNITY)

SERVICE AGENCIES
(Fire Agencies, Civil Defence, Armed Forces, Para-Military LEGEND
Forces and Police)
COORDINATIO
CONTROL

The disaster response structure at the national, state and district level are discussed in the ensuing
paragraphs.

5.4.1 Administrative Response Framework

Under India's federal system, the states have the responsibility for disaster response and the Central
Government supplements the efforts of the state governments by providing financial and material
assistance when the disaster is severe or spread over several states. Recently the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) was constituted. The Prime Minister will be chairman and the other
members will consist of one Deputy Chairman and six Members.
The NDMA will have the responsibility for laying down the policies and plans for disaster management. The
Authority will approve the National Disaster Management Plan. It can lay down guidelines to be followed by
Ministries and Departments of the Central Government and any state authority in drawing up the State
Plan. The Authority will also coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policies and plans
for disaster management, and arrange for and oversee the provision of funds for mitigation measures,
preparedness and response. It may also frame guidelines for the minimum standards of relief to be
provided to persons affected by disaster and give direction regarding relief in loan repayment or grant
of fresh loans on such concessional terms as may be deemed appropriate.
The Authority may also take such measures for prevention of disaster of mitigation of its effects, or for
preparedness and capacity building for dealing with a threatening disaster situation or disaster. The
National Disaster Management Authority will be serviced by the Ministry of Home Affairs.
The National Disaster Management Division (NDMD) is the division of Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)
in the Government at the Central level that deals with the subject of National Disaster Management.
 54

FIG.2 ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSE FRAMEWORK

NATIONAL DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
AUTHORITY
MINISTRY OF HOME
AFFAIRS STATE GOVERNMENT
NATIONAL
DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
DIVISION

DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

Source : National Disaster Management Division (Ministry of Home Affairs)

The disaster response is planned and organized within the paradigm of three phases : pre-disaster,
during disaster or disaster impact and post disaster recovery. As a follow up to IDNDR and Yokohama
declaration, the Government of India established the National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM)
to encourage effective training, coordination and planning for disaster response. The Government of
India constituted a High Power Committee (HPC) to bring about institutional reforms in the field and
planning of disaster management. The Committee had submitted its report in 2002 with numerous
recommendations some of which are being implemented.
Number of educational institutions has started imparting education in the area of disaster
management for long-term effect. The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was the first in
the country to offer a six months Certificate Course in Disaster Management through distance learning
mode. Since launch of programme in January, 1999 it has been very well received by number of
stakeholders through out the country. With regard to effective disaster response at micro level, IGNOU
undertook a project on Community Awareness on Disaster Preparedness in 550 villages in 5 most
disaster Prone states in India namely Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.
Likewise the Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, Indian Institute
of Technology, Kanpur. Tata Institution of Social Sciences, Mumbai, and others are engaged in
disaster management education.

The disaster response at National level is as follows :

National Level
Even though history of disaster management in varied form is as old as the recorded history, yet in a
formal sense in India, the famines and other major natural disasters had necessitated the need for
building a disaster response mechanism into the civil administration system. Disaster management in
the country dates back to 1878, when, as a result of a series of droughts in the country, the first
 55
Famine Commission was appointed. It made several suggestions, on the basis of which the famine
codes were promulgated in 1883.
In the initial years following independence the subject of 'natural calamities was handled in the Union
Home Ministry before a Scarcity Relief Division was set up in the Ministry of Agriculture to deal with the
problem of food scarcity in the country. Subsequently, the division was upgraded to deal with other
types of natural calamities.
Earlier, the division was called the Natural Disaster Management Division (NDMD). The NDMD within
the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture and the National Centre for
Disaster Management (NCDM) within the Indian Institute of Public Administration (llPA) were the nodal
agencies for natural disaster management in the country. Presently the NDMD has been shifted to the
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and the Ministry has become the nodal agency for natural disaster
management in India, of course, although the Drought Management continues to be with the Ministry
of Agriculture.
At the national level, depending on the type of disaster, a nodal ministry is assigned the task of
coordinating all activities of the state and district administration and the other support departments/
ministry. The nodal ministry for different type of disasters is depicted in Table 2. The nodal ministries
form part of the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC). They have to prepare detailed
contingency plans for each type of disasters falling in areas of their responsibility.
The various committees for achieving coordination at centre and state level at the time of disaster is
discussed below :

Cabinet Committee
The Cabinet may set up a committee for effective implementation of Relief measures in the wake of
natural disaster. The Secretary in the MHA acts as the secretary of this committee. In the absence of
such a committee, all the matters related to the relief shall be reported to the cabinet secretary.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

Under the chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary the NCMC has been constituted in the Cabinet
Secretariat. The other members of this committee include the secretary to the Prime Minister,
Secretaries of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Agriculture and Defense along with the Directors of
Intelligence Bureau, Research and Analysis Wing and an officer of the Cabinet Secretariat. The
NCMC gives direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary.

Crisis Management Group (CMG)

This is a group under the chairmanship of the Central Relief Commissioner comprising the senior
officers from the various ministries and other concerned departments. CMG's function is to review
every year contingency plans formulated by the Central Ministries / Departments and the measures
required for dealing with any disaster; co-ordinate the activities of the Central Ministries and the State
Governments in relation to disaster preparedness and relief and to obtain information from the nodal
officers on measures relating to the above. The Joint Secretary (NDM) and Additional Central Relief
Commissioner is the Convenor of CMG. The CMG meets twice a Year under the Central Relief
Commissioner.

State Crisis Management Group (SCMG)

There is a State Crisis Management Group (SCMG) under the chairmanship of the State's Chief
Secretary / Relief Commissioner. This Group comprises Senior Officers from the Departments of
Revenue/ Relief, Home, Civil Supplies, Power, Irrigation, Water Supply, Panchayat (local self-government),
 56
Agriculture, Forests, Rural Development, Health Planning, Public Works and Finance.

The SCMG is required to take into consideration the guidance received from time to time, from
Government of India and formulate action plans for dealing with different disasters.

Central Control Room

An Emergency Operations Centre (Control Room) in the Ministry of Home Affairs/ assists the Central
Relief Commissioner in the discharge of his duties. The Control Room functions full-scale and round-
the-clock, with a full complement of staff after receipt of first information about the occurrence of a
major natural calamity. It remains operational on these terms for a period specified by the Relief
Commissioner for dealing effectively with the crisis arising out of a natural calamity. At other times, the
arrangement for receiving messages outside office hours are by way of a Night Duty Cell facility. The
Control Room is intended to be the nerve centre of all emergencies; therefore it is adequately
equipped and optimally located.

State Control Room

It is the duty of the Relief Commissioner of the State to establish a emergency operation centre
Control Room at state headquarters as soon as a disaster situation develops. Besides having all
updated information on forecasting and warning of disaster the centre would also be the contact point
for the various concerned agencies.

District Control Room

Likewise in the wake of natural disasters, a Control Room is set up in the district for day to day
monitoring of the rescue and relief operations on a continuing basis, operationalsing the contingency
plan and keep close liaison with the State Headquarters, NGO's and other agencies dealing with
disaster management and relief.

TYPE OF DISASTER AND NODAL MINISTRY

Type of Disaster / Crisis Nodal Ministry

Air Accident Ministry of Civil Aviation
Civil Strife Ministry of Home Affairs
Major breakdown of any of the essential services posing Concerned Ministries
widespread and protected problems
Railway Accidents Ministry of Railways
Chemical Disasters Ministry of Environment
Biological Disaster Ministry of Health
Nuclear Accident inside or outside the country which poses Department of Atomic Energy
health or other hazards to people in India
Droughts Ministry of Agriculture
Natural Disasters Ministry of Home Affairs (M.H.A.)
 57
Source : Ministry of Home Affairs.

5.4.2 Nodal Ministry : Ministry of Home Affairs

The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the nodal ministry for all maters concerning natural disaster relief
at the Centre. In the MHA, the Relief Commissioner functions as the Nodal Officer to coordinate relief
operations for all natural disasters. The MHA will deal with the disasters except drought, which is dealt
by Ministry of Agriculture. The organisational set up of the NDMD is shown in the Figure 3.

Figure - 3 : National Disaster Management Division (Ministry of Home Affairs)

|
CENTRAL RELIEF COMMISSIONER AND ADDITIONAL SECRETARY
|
ADDITIONAL RELIEF COMMISSIONER AND
JOINT SECRETARY (NDM)
|
DIRECTOR (NDM)
|
UNDER
SECRETARY (NDM)
|

ASSISTANT SECTION
DIRECTOR OFFICER
(MONITORING)|
| NDM SECRETARIAT
TECHNICAL
OFFICER
(MONITORING)
|
CONTROL
ROOM

Source : Ministry of Home Affairs.

The Central Relief Commissioner receives information relating to forecast / warning of natural
disasters from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) or from the Central Water Commission
(CWC) on a continuing basis. He also would send the information up the chain of command to keep
everyone informed-Secretary (MHA), Home Minister, Cabinet Secretary and the Secretary to the Prime
Minister and through him the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the National Crisis Management
Committee (NCMC). He may, whenever required also disseminate the information to different central
government ministries/ departments and the state governments for the appropriate follow up action.
The Central Relief Commissioner also monitors the development of the situation on a continuing
basis. The pattern of interaction amongst the different ministries and departments in the event of natural
calamities is illustrated in Figure 4.
 58

Figure - 4 Interaction Among Ministers and

Departments
CABINET
NCMC CABINET COMMITTEE
PRIME MINISTER

CABINET
SECRETARY

SCRETARY H.M./
TO P.M. MOS

SECRETARY
(MHA)

CENTRAL RELIEF
COMMISSIONER &
CENTRAL NATIONAL DISASTER
MINISTRIES MANAGEMENT
DIVISION
IMD CWC

STATES &
UTs LEGEND

INFORMATION

INSTRUCTION / DIRECTION

FEEDBACK

Source : Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India.

While the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal ministry managing disaster situations, other ministries
support it as well for their specialised functions. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare through the
Emergency Medical Relief Division of the Directorate General of Health Services makes an important
contribution. In a typical disaster situation, the Medical Relief Division gets in touch with the Central
Control Room in M.H.A. and obtains feedback on the extent of disaster situation on a particular day, the
population affected and the health profile of the victims, such as, the number of casualties, type of
injuries/diseases.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Write two functions of Ministry of Home Affairs relating to disaster management.
2. Write two functions of Central Relief Commissioner.
 59
5.5 ISSUES
In the recent past, government response to natural disasters has progressively improved in terms of its
effectiveness. This is chiefly due to the emergence of well organized administrative machinery,
presence of Relief Manuals at district level, predetermined allocation of duties and recognized public-
private partnerships. However, there are certain aspects, which still need to be addressed to answer
to the very cause of disaster management.

Absence of a national policy on disaster Management

There is an absence of an integrated and coordinated policy at the national level. The Government of
India has the requisite structure to cope with disasters. However, it has yet to publish a national
emergency management plans. It also lacks the strategy for guidance and doctrinal development.
There is non-existence and non-formalization of standard operating procedure to be followed in
providing disaster relief. Presence of such a policy will also help clearly define government's approaches
on a continuing basis. It will also provide for an appropriate legislation and associated regulations in this
regard besides providing an overall national competence and self-reliance. The Disaster Management
Act needs to be given for effecting implementation.

Fragile coordination and control mechanism

The coordination and control mechanism is very fragile, because the significance is given to
personalities rather than to structures which lead to inadequate coordination between the different
stakeholders. It also leads to over-lapping and competition on same financial resources and
emergency response assets and ultimately end up with ineffectiveness and confusion.
Likewise, there is discrepancy in the distribution of relief to the affected community as a result those
who are in need of relief are not reached in proper time.

Improper risk assessment and vulnerability analysis

There is improper risk assessments and vulnerability analysis. This makes it difficult for different
stakeholders to understand risk, which makes it difficult to address the issue of disaster prevention,
preparedness, response and recovery.

Bureaucratic apathy and lack of political will

It has been found that in cases of disaster like Gujarat earthquake, Orissa Cyclone, Gorakhpur Floods
and other disasters in the different parts of the country the government response have been found very
tardy and lukewarm. The state administration lacks attitude and temperament to respond. Bureaucracy
is not as responsive as required.

Again downsizing of many civil defence organisations has left a gap in the individual emergency response
capacity of many states.

Lack of Community Participation

The government views rescue and relief work on a piecemeal basis as the responsibility is accorded to the
revenue department. The community involvement and public support is not factored into it.

People's participation and involvement in the design, formulation, implementation, monitoring are
evaluation of disaster management plan is absent. The administration views the people as a passive
recipient rather than as active partners in dealing with disasters. Involvement of local people and civil
society groups in rescue and relief is viewed as obstruction by the authorities.
 60
Even if few community based initiatives exist, they have limited outreach and they fall short of
achieving greater impact, this is a major challenge.

5.6 ENHANCING DISASTER RESPONSE MANAGEMENT

Constitutional and Legal Framework
To ensure the efficiency and effective management of natural and other disasters and for achieving
greater coordination and responsiveness with respect to prevention and mitigation of disaster and also
to provide better relief and rehabilitation of victims of disaster, strong constitutional and legal framework
needs to be developed.

As recommended by High Powered Committee (HPC) the Disaster Management as a subject/ item
should be mentioned in any one of the lists (Centre or State). In addition to the constitutional framework
a suitable legislation is to be adopted at the centre and the state to clearly define the role and
responsibilities of government at various levels.

There is a need to have an effective act at the Centre and the State level. Such an act will entail the
formulation of a national policy on disaster management.
The state should adhere to the larger principles guiding emergency humanitarian assistance in crises
as laid down by international humanitarian law. These principles will be guiding factor in the preparation
of national policy, plan, relevant documents and manuals pertaining to disasters. The State should also
integrate these principles to prepare the plan to suit to the local context and conditions. For this, there
should be disaster preparedness plan at the national, state and district level which play a vital role by
instructing the officials what they should follow at the time of disaster and also instruct and issue
directions to the their subordinates and affected people. This has the affect of not only speeding up the
rescue and relief operations but also boosting the morale of the affected people.
Coordination and Control Mechanism
To improve coordination and control at national and state level a Cabinet Committee should be vested
with the subject of Disaster Management. Further the All Party Committee consisting of all major
political parties, bureaucrats, NGOs, community, and other actors under the Chairmanship of Prime
Minister at the National Level and Chief Minister at the State Level should be set up. This will help in
generating the requisite political will, much needed consensus and coordination among the various
stakeholders in disaster management.
National Institute for Disaster Management also needs to be established as a centre of excellence in the
area of creation of knowledge and dissemination including training and capacity building related to
disasters.
A networking of training institutions led by a national level disaster management institutions with
symbolic linkages with other national and state level institutions need to be forged and developed.
There should be active interaction amongst all training and educational institutes.
To respond to disaster properly, there is a need to identify the strength and gaps in the operational
capacity of different agencies involved in disaster preparedness and response. Hence, proper
inventory for assessment of government, non-governmental and other agencies and civil society have
to be initiated likewise.
A clear grading of disasters that is who should take the responsibility in providing relief and
rehabilitation at the time of disaster is to be clearly defined. The HPC, in its report, has recommended that a
district level disaster should be dealt by district administration, the State level disaster should be looked
into by the concerned State Governments and the National level disasters by the Central Government.
 61
Trigger mechanism has to be incorporated as an emergency quick response mechanism, which would
spontaneously set the vehicle of management into motion on the road to disaster mitigation process.
To improve cooperation and coordination in crises prevention and response by civil society
humanitarian agencies, there is a need to develop coherent protocols that ensure national policies are
observed by these organizations in order to avoid unnecessary duplication and colliding initiatives at the
time of a crisis.
Bilateral agreements between neighbouring countries, has to be facilitated. The reception and delivery
of emergency humanitarian assistance and for this purpose the earmarking of resources that will be
made available in response to specific disaster should be identified.
There is a need to evolve continuous process of analysis - action - reflection which will help to
decipher the gaps in disaster management plans. This will result into new actions. This will also help
to share lessons learnt from disaster episodes and incorporate the best practices.
Parasuraman and Unnikrishnan have suggested a four-tier response model in the Indian Context. This
will operate at the National, State, District, and Block Level and they also suggested setting up of a Rapid
Rescue Relief Force comprising community, panchayat, government, and civil service agencies at
each of the four-tiers in all disaster prone areas. They pinpoint the promising feature of India, that is the
existence of functioning peoples' institutions at all levels. These levels have played a very effective role in
responding to disasters. What is wanting and necessary is the identification of all institutions, their roles
and responsibilities and the assessment and strengthening of their capacities. Thus according to them
in the final analysis effective coordination between the concerned government agencies, voluntary
groups, professional groups, the international community and the affected community will determine
the outcome of any disaster management programme.
Promoting People's Participation
People's participation is a pre-requisite for success of disaster management efforts. They should find a
suitable role in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of the disaster management plan. The
community awareness in disaster preparedness should be taken up in the disaster prone areas of
different states. The women, the youth and the people from all walks of life should be involved in
preparedness, prevention, response and recovery. The capacity of the community should be
strengthened so as to enable them to cope with disasters. The NGOs and educational institutions can
play a significant role in community awareness and preparedness for disasters.
There is a much felt need to identify those persons, communities and households most at risk to
disaster through assessment and analysis of risks, vulnerability and capacities as a basis for
prioritizing location and focus of programme activities. Create a security plan and relevant capacity to
ensure the protection of both service providers and relief recipients at the time of crisis.
5.7 CONCLUSION
As rightly stated in the HPC report, disaster management needs a dedicated political commitment at all
levels of national and local governments. A structure with clearly defined authority and appropriate
budget to maintain an effective disaster plan is needed. Preparedness plans should be comprehensive
in scale and operation, ideally through a nominated national body. There should be well-coordinated
network between NGOs and the Government and also between NGOs themselves. Better
coordination would result in a wider reach and a more comprehensive approach to disaster
management. Coming to the control, it is expected to be the basic duty of the Government to
coordinate, integrate and control various activities and operations at the time of responding to disaster.
The central, state, and local governments and the NGOs have stressed more upon relief. Now it is high
time that all the agencies, involved in the disasters, should direct themselves towards the entire
 62
process of disaster management - prevention, preparedness, response and recovery. They should
also evolve an integrated and holistic approach in dealing with disasters. The initiative should come
from the government and also from the community as the community is the first responder in case of
disasters. The local bodies namely the panchayati raj institutions and urban local bodies have to be
integrated in the disaster management, as these bodies are nearer to the communities. Apart from
all these, the recommendations of the HPC should be implemented in true spirit that will create
coherent, cohesive, and well-coordinated disaster response system in India.

5.8 GLOSSARY
Nodal Ministry : The Ministry mainly responsible.
Relief Operations : It includes any action or steps or measure taken, assistance given or support
rendered or succour delivered, at anytime, before during or after disaster towards preventing, easing,
alleviating, mitigating any suffering or hardship, pain or injury or distress arising out of or related to a
disaster.
District Magistrate : It includes Collector and/or Deputy Commissioner in charge of district by
whatever nomenclature he may be called.

5.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss organizational framework of Disaster Management at National Level.
2. Evaluate the functions of Ministry of Home Affairs.

5.10 REFERENCES
Anderson, M. B. and P. J. Woodrow, 1998, Rising from the Ashes : Development Strategies in Times of
Disaster, Lynne Rienner Publishers, London.
Carter W. Nick, 1992, Disaster Management : A Disaster Manager's Handbook, Asian Development Bank,
Manila.
Manual on natural Disaster Management in India, 2001, NCDM, IIPA, New Delhi
Mohan, Munasinghe and Clarke, Caroloine (eds)., 1995, Disaster Prevention for Sustainable
Development - Economic and Policy Issues, IDNDR and World Bank, Washington.
Natural Disaster Reduction - South Asian Regional Report, 1994, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India, New Delhi.
Report of the Geneva Mandate on Disaster Reduction, 1999, International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction Programme Forum, Geneva.
Report of the High Powered Committee on Disaster Management, 2001, Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India, New Delhi.

5.11 FURTHER READING

Singh, Prakash, Mendel, William W. and Turbiville, Graham H. Jr. 2000, Disaster Response in India, A
joint study initiative by the Center of Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance
and the Foreign Military Studies Office.
Vayunandan E. Stakeholders' Response in Disaster Risk Reduction in Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi
Malagoda Ariyuabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi
World Disasters Report, 1999-2005, International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent
Society, Geneva.
*****
 63

Lesson : 6
ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK OF
DISASTER ADMINISTRATION
AT STATE & LOCAL LEVEL

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Administrative Response at the State Level
6.3 Role of Service Agencies
6.4 State Disaster Management Plan - Maharashtra
6.5 Enhancing Disaster Response Management
6.6 Conclusion
6.7 Glossary
6.8 Model Questions
6.9 References and Further Reading
6.10 Further Readings

6.0 Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be able to :
 evaluate the role played by state, district and local government ;
 assess the coordination and control mechanism ; and
 discuss an integrated policy to strengthen and expand the capacity, preparedness and response
of the various agencies to disasters.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be discussing about the role played by state, district and local level in disaster
response. We will also assess the coordination and control mechanism of the various agencies
involved in disaster response and discusses various options available to integrate the policy to
strengthen and expand the capacity, preparedness and response of various agencies to disasters. We
have already discussed in the earlier units about the issues and also enhancing disaster response
management. In this unit we will highlight the role of state, district and local administration in disaster
response.

6.2 ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSE AT THE STATE LEVEL

State governments are autonomous in organizing relief operations in the event of natural disaster and
also for purposes of long term preparedness and rehabilitation measures. The Central government's
role is limited to supplementing the efforts of the State Government.
Every State has a Relief Commissioner who is incharge of disaster relief. In states where there is no
designated Relief Commissioner, the Chief Secretary or an officer nominated by him is given overall
charge of relief operations. Every state has a number of secretaries who head various departments
connected with administration and they all function under the overall supervision and control of the
Chief Secretary, who ensures that their combined efforts are coordinated for effective disaster
management. The states deal with natural disasters through their Revenue Departments or Relief
Departments. The State response system is being depicted below in Figure-1
 64

Figure - 1, State Response System

STATE GOVERNMENT
CHIEF SECRETARY
STATE CRISES EMERGENCY
MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS
GROUP CENTRE
RELIEF COMMISSIONER

OTHER REVENUE POLICE

DEPARTMENTS

Divisional
Commissioner

DISTRICT
(DISTRICT) MAGISTRATE

Sub-Divisional
(SUB-DIVISION) MAGISTRATE

(TEHSIL) TEHSILDARS

PATEL OR
(VILLAGE) PATWARI

Source : National Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home Affairs

The State also has a State Crisis Management Group (S.C.M.G), which functions under the
chairmanship of Chief Secretary/Relief Commissioner. The Group comprises senior officers from the
departments of revenue/relief, home ,civil supplies, power, irrigation, water supply, local self
government (panchayat), agriculture, forests, rural developmet, health, planning, public works and
finance. The S.C.M.G time and formulate action plans accordingly for dealing with different kinds of
natural disasters.Some of the states like Gujarat and Maharashtra have enacted a Disaster
Management I\ct. In few states there are authorities set up like the Orissa State Disaster Management
Authority and the Gujarat State Disaster Mitigation Authority. The Relief Codes are existing in all the
states and some of these have been updated to specific response plans for cyclone, floods etc. The
Relief Commissioner of the State establishes an Emergency Operations Centre (E.G. C.) Control
Room as soon as disaster situation develops The E.O.C. collects and disserninates the latest
information on forecasting and warning of disaster and functions as the local point for coordinating
disaster relief efforts with the other concerned departments. This is depicted in Figure 2.
 65

Figure-2 : State Level Interaction among Ministries, Departments and Officials

Source: National Disaster Management Division (Ministry of Home Affairs)

District Level
World Disaster Report 1998 states that effective and accountable local authorities are the single most
important institutions for reducing the toll of natural and human induced disasters.
Every state is divided into a number of districts. The country's day to day administration centres round
the District Collector, (in some states he is also known as District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner)
who heads the administrative organization in a district. District administration is the focal point for field
level organizations and implementation of all government contingency plans. The District Coliector is
incharge of all the relief measures at the district level. The State Government routes its instructions
through him (in some states through the Divisional Commissioner also) and he ensures that the total
efforts of the district are geared in a coordinated manner for providing relief to the people affected by
disasters. The various measures undertaken at the district level are:

Contingency Plans
The District Magistrate develops a district level plan, which is submitted to the state for approval. The
plan assigns measures to be taken by the different district departments and their functionaries, and it
identifies the areas of coordination.

District Relief Committee

The relief measures are reviewed by the district level relief committee consisting of official and non
official members and including the local representatives of the people, members of the Legislative
Assembly and the Parliament.

District Control Room

A Control Room is set up in the district as soon as a natural disaster occurs. The Control Room
monitors the rescue and relief efforts on a continuing basis.
 66

Coordination
The District Collector also coordinates with central government authorities and defence forces that may
be posted in the district. He synchronizes the voluntary efforts of N.G.Os. with the efforts of the district
administration The communication channels are maintained through the police wireless network in the
event of breakdown of the normal means of communication, including the telephone and the telegraph
systems.

Sub District Level

A district is further divided into sub-divisions and tehsils or talukas. The head of the sub division is
called a Sub-Divisional Officer or Deputy Collector, while the tehsil is under the charge of the Tehsildar
(Talukdar or Hamlatdar in some States). The lowest unit of administration is the village whose revenue
matters are attended to by a functionary known as Patel or Patwari. All these tiers of administration -the
Patwari, Tehsildar, Deputy Collector and the District Collector -function as a team to provide succour to
the people in the event of a disaster. The entire chain beginning at the Centre to the village level is
connected by the means of a telecommunication system.
The Panchayats at the village level are incorporated in the disaster management plans. Besides the
governmental functionaries, the civil societal organisations play an important role in disaster response
They include the non governmental organizations, voluntary organisations, community based
organisations, and various other agencies The international organisations also playa role. Efforts
pertaining to disaster response by various stakeholders are discussed in the ensuing paragraphs.

6.3 ROLE OF SERVICE AGENCIES

Various agencies like army, fire, police and emergency health services can serve as an effective first
line of response for rapid and effective disaster interventions. The role of various service agencies in
disaster response is now discussed.

Medical and Public Health Services

The Emergency Medical Relief Division of the Directorate General of Health Services discharges the
responsibility of catering to emergency help. The Medical Stores Organisation maintains the depots in
Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Guwahati. These depots maintain civil defence stocks and
mobile hospitals units for emergency use.
India has taken steps to educate medical professionals about their role in disaster relief. The training
activities were conducted under the W.H.O. funded programme by the disaster management
collaborating centers with a view to create awareness among the officials of the health and other
departments on various aspects of health sector disaster management. This has contributed to building
up a cadre of officials in the health and other departments who are sensitive to natural calamities and
are conversant with the drill to be adopted and the procedures to be followed in the event of a disaster
so as to provide necessary relief to the affected population.
The states, the districts and sub-districts and the primary health care centers also provide medical relief
in case of disasters. Some charitable, voluntary and private institutions also provide medical relief at
times of disasters.

Fire Fighting Services

The National Fire Service College, Nagpur, conducts different types of courses for the training of fire
officers in India including disaster management. Fire services at the local level always respond to any
emergency.
 67

Civil Defence
Civil Defence aims at saving life, minimizing damage to Property and maintaining continuity of industrial
production in the event of a hostile attack. It has small number of staff and establishment which gets
augmented during the emergencies.

Police
In times of disaster, the police is first to respond and it maintains security and law and order and
provides disaster assistance through effective police communication system. It also regulates the
movement of victims, rescue and relief, medical assistance and supplies.

Role of Police in Disaster Management

There is universal acceptance that police force is primarily meant for the preservation of life and
property, It follows naturally from this that the Police have a clear duty to adopt all reasonable means
towards these ends. Though they have no defined role in disaster management yet they are the first to
reach disaster site. Since central assistance takes time to reach local police can immediately act.
Moreover they can easily motivate the local people to extend all possible help in the regards.
The Indian has always been the nerve centre of land based rescue efforts because it has the
nationwide 24 hour presence, wide reach, familiarity with local terrain (area) and the communication
network to respond to emergencies. Most incidents that are small-scale and local can be easily handled
by the police and local volunteer resources.
Occasionally, however, an event occurs on a much larger scale, such as an earthquake, a major air or
train crash or a storm of exceptional destructiveness. These require the mobilization of much greater
resources.
The principal roles of the police in such an emergency are maintaining law and order, protecting life and
property, assisting the movement of rescue, medical, fire and other. essential services, coordinating
movement control over land and conducting inland search and rescue.
They work closely with local state and central government organisation, emergency services, welfare
and health agencies, utility companies and the many other organisations that can be involved in
responding to an emergency.

Response of Police Disaster

Crowd Control
Disaster situation draw in crowds. There will be some people hoping for a glimpse of the unfolding.
Family members and friends of the victims will also show up, hoping to glean information about their
loved ones. The people involved in the situation will also be milling around, sometimes while injured or
in shock the police will cordon off areas and work to keep crowds under control.

Public Safety
Police Officers might go from house to house searching for the injured or needy. They can offer
transportation, emergency medical care, and be a bridge between citizens and rescue personal. They
can check the credentials to see if someone really needs to be in the area. They can warn people when
electric wires are on the ground. When dangerous pests are lurking around or when unstable people
are nearby.

Self assessment Questions

i) Explain in Short role of Police in Disaster Management
ii) Write two functions of State Relief commissioner.
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Directing Traffic
Many disasters wipe out infrastructures such as electricity, making an unsafe situation for both traffic
and pedestrains. The police can close unsafe roads where downed wires, trees or flood situation might
take travel unsafe. They can direct citizens through trees or flood situation might make travel unsafe.
They can direct citizens through non working traffic lights. They can re-route random traffic to safer
roads and try to keep out all unnecessary traffic away. They can put roadblocks in the areas where the
crisis is still underway.

Organizing Search Teams

Disaster situation often lead to family members being separated from each other Elderly and single
people are at risk if they have no one to check on them. If these citizens randomly wander around,
chaos can result. The police can set up search teams and put together systems where loved ones can
check on, each other. They can set up command centers where the victims and family can be reunited.
They can also work with emergency personnel to list the various medical facilities used for treating sick
or injured people.

Looters
Unfortunately, there are always those who will take advantage of a chaotic situation. When people are
evacuated from their homes or neighbourhoods, houses are left unsupervised and opportunities to
commit crime can be rampant. Police presence can help to ensure that looting does not happen.When
looting does occur, the police will be ready to apprehend and arrest the suspects

Police Training for Disaster Response:

To upgrade the skills and technical know how the state police needs to be properly and regularly
trained. The police can be trained in :
• Collapsed structure search and rescue
• Medical first aid response
• Flood Fire rescue training

The National Disaster Management Authority can extend all the necessary help with regard to providing
best of equipments, design of training infrastructure, of training at the state locations making available
syllabus and trained trainers. The time is ripe when state Government can undertake steps to establish
State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) as was decided in Annual DPGs conference -2006 for a proper
response to disasters.

Paramilitary Forces
The paramilitary forces such as Border Security Force (BSF), Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF),
Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), National Security Guard
(NSG),
Railway Protection Force (RPF), Home Guards and Assam Rifles (AR) have well defined roles in
disaster situations.

Defence Forces
The Defence forces are frequently called upon to assist the civil authorities in natural calamities. The
defence forces are most useful as they provide timely assistance such as dropping food, water and "
medicines to affected areas, erecting military bridge equipment and other services that save lives
immediately.
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These service agencies work in coordination with the government at various levels. They also
coordinate with the NGOs. Control is exercised by the respective Ministries / Departments under whom
they operate

6.4 STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN -MAHARASHTRA

Several States have been active in training disaster management personnel and preparing contingency
plans. A good example is the Centre for Disaster Management, at the Yashwant Rao Chavan Academy
of Development Administration, Government Training Institute in Pune, Maharashtra. It is a research
and training institution which has focused on assisting the districts with developing their disaster
management plans. Among the states, Maharashtra has taken lead in preparing a comprehensive
multihazard Disaster Management Plan (DMP.). The plan has three components namely (i) risk
analysis and vulnerability assessment, (ii) response planning, and (iii) mitigation strategy The details of
which are given below:
• The Risk Analysis and Vulnerability Assessment depicts the present picture for each disaster
exposure, loss of life, property damage, etc. It also shows geographic distribution of each hazard.
The various monitoring facilities, regulatory regimes, and the countermeasures available for each
disaster have been depicted in the analysis
• The Response Plan gives the organizational structure of all the state, central and non-
governmental agencies to effectively deal with disaster in a coordinated manner to mitigate its
impact. It identifies the functional areas such as relief, communications, information, transport,
health services and proposes assignments to the various departments. The plan also lays down
preparedness checklists, operating procedures and repeating formats.
• The mitigation strategy focuses on the long term planning for disaster reduction. It deals with
issues of continued commitment to hazard identification and risk assessment, applied research
and technological transfer, investment-incentives of mitigation, and leadership for mitigation. The
strategy argues for better land use management, building codes, traffic standards, health
standards, etc. These objectives are to be secured through disaster legislation, mitigation,
regulation, and incentives for the same.
Based on the State Plan, detailed district plans have been made. These plans are frequently rehearsed
and periodically updated. These are also linked to the activities of various response agencies.

6.5 Enhancing Disaster Response Management: For details please see previous lesson.
6.6 CONCLUSiON
As rightly stated in the HPC. Report, disaster management needs a dedicated political commitment at
all levels of national and local governments. A structure with clearly defined authority and appropriate
budget to maintain an effective disaster plan is needed. Preparedness plans should be comprehensive
in scale and operation, ideally through a nominated national body. There should be well-coordinate
network between NGOs and the Government and also between NGOs themselves. Better coordination
would result in a wider reach and a more comprehensive approach to disaster management Coming to
the control, it is expected to be the basic duty of the Government to coordinate, integrate and control
various activities and operations at the time of responding to disaster.
The central, state, and local governments and the NGOs have stressed more upon relief Now it is high
time that all the agencies, involved in the disasters, should direct themselves towards the entire
process of disaster management -prevention, preparedness, response and recovery They should also
evolve an integrated and artistic approach in dealing with disasters. The initiative should come from the
government and also from the community, as the community is the first responder-in case of disasters.
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The local bodies namely the panchayati raj institutions and urban local bodies have to be integrated in
the disaster management, as these bodies are nearer to the communities. Apart from all these, the
recommendations of the HPC should be implemented in true spirit that will create coherent, cohesive,
and well-coordinated disaster response system in India.

6.7 Glossary
Nodal Ministry: The Ministry mainly responsible.
Relief Operations: It includes any action or steps or measures taken, assistance given or
support rendered or succour delivered, at any time, before, during or after disaster towards
preventing, easing, alleviating, mitigating any suffering or hardship, pain or injury or distress
arising out of or related to a disaster.
District Magistrate: It includes Collector and / or Deputy Commissioner in charge of district by
whatever nomenclature he may be called.
6.8 Model Questions
1) Discuss the organizational framework of Disaster Management at the State Level.
2) Discuss the organizational framework of Disaster Management at the District level.
6.9 References
Down to Earth, Volume 10, No.6, Centre of Science and Environment, New Delhi, India, August
15,2001
Maharashtra Disaster Management Plan, 1998, Risk Assessment and Vulnerability analysis,
Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai
Mohan, Munasinghe and Clarke, Caroloine (eds.), 1995, Disaster Prevention for Sustainable
Development -Economic and Policy issues, IDNDR and Work Bank, Washington
Pasuraman S. and Unnikrishana P. V (eds.),2000, India Disaster Report: Towards a Policy Initiative,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

6.11 Future Readings

Sharma, Vinod K. (ed.) 1997, Disaster Management, National Centre for Disaster Management, Indian
Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi
Sinha,P.C. (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Disaster Management, National Centre for Disaster Management,
Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi
Special Issue on Crisis and Management’ Asian Review of Public Administration 2 No. 1-2 (January-
December,1990) : 1-122

*****
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Lesson : 7

ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

(ICT)IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Meaning
7.3 Role of ICT in Disaster Management
7.3.1 Information browsing
7.3.2 Electronic publishing
7.3.3 Online discussions
7.3.4 Electronic conferences
7.4 Applications of ICT in Disaster Management
7.4.1 Geographic Information System (GIS)
7.4.2 Studies of environmental hazards
7.4.3 Mapping
7.4.4 Simulation and Modelling
7.4.5 Planning of Health Services
7.4.6 Rescue and Evacuation
7.4.7 Records Management
7.4.8 Remote Sensing
7.4.9 Satellite Imagery
7.4.10 Internet
7.5 Summary
7.6 Model Question
7.7 References
7.8 Further Readings
7.0 Objectives

After reading the lesson you will be able to to:

1. Learn the meaning of ICT and its role in disaster management.
2. Understand the Applications of ICT in disaster management

7.1 Introduction
Disasters strike without any prior indication and cause immense damage to lives and country's social
and economic infrastructure. More to speak of natural disasters that account for nearly 80% of all
disaster-affected people in the world today.
Though the occurrence of natural disasters cannot be prevented, yet it is possible to reduce their
adverse impact by means of effective prevention, preparedness, response and recovery measures.
Amongst various tools available, information and communication technology (ICT) emerges as an important
one in enabling and facilitating these measures.
Before we focus our discussion on the role and significance of ICT in disaster management, we will
initiate with a brief description on the concept of ICT.
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7.2 Meaning
Information and Communication Technology, ICT, includes three significant words, namely
‘Information’, ‘Communication’ and ‘Technology’. Webopaedia defines information as a concept that bears
a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. However in generic terms, the concept
of information is closely related to notions of communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge,
mental stimulus, pattern, perception and representation.
Communication on the other hand, is a process that allows information exchanging by several methods.
It is the act of passing information and the process by which meanings are exchanged so as to produce
understanding. It is the articulation of sending a message, verbal or non-verbal, so long it is a thought
provoking idea, gesture, or action. What type of things are communicated by whom, in which form,
through which medium, to whom and for what purpose are a few major dimensions communication is
usually described along.
The third component namely technology includes the theory, design and equipment related to the
processing and communication of messages and information it will include all products and applications
that have already been in use by the individuals, businesses and organisations to process information and
communication and all that which is still to come.
Together these three components constitute ICT, which then covers any product that will receive, store,
retrieve, manipulate, transmit, or display information electronically in a digital format. For example,
telephone, radio, television, computers, telecommunications satellite, wireless devices etc. can all be
classified as ICTs. ICT is also concerned with the way these different uses can work with each other.
After understanding the concept of ICT we will now discuss various roles and applications of I.C.T. in
disaster management.

7.3 ROLE OF ICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

ICT plays a significant role in disaster management as stated below :

7.3.1 Information browsing

A web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text, images,
videos, music and other information typically located on a Web page at a website on the World Wide
Web (www) or a local area network (LAN). Text and images on a Web page can contain hyperlinks to
other Web pages at the same or different website. Web browsers allow a user to quickly and easily
access information provided on many Web pages at many websites by traversing these links. Web
browsers format HTML information for display, so the appearance of a Web page may differ between
browsers. Some of the Web browsers available for personal computers include Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, Safari, and Opera in order of descending popularity. Although browsers are typically used to
access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by Web serves in
private networks or content in file systems. Hence, the community and disaster managers like government
agencies, authorities, civil society organisations can browse different websites and access information
pertaining to disaster management in a multimedia format.

7.3.2 Electronic publishing

Electronic publishing enables publishing of reliable material by different stakeholders on disaster
management that can be accessed by the community and other concerned. Academicians researchers
practitioners and policy makers can post necessary text in different aspects of disaster management
preparedness to recovery on the web. Essential information on the do's and dont's of and can help in
building community awareness. All such relevant and requisite databases can be accessed by the
stakeholders at a click of the mouse.
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7.3.3 Online discussions

Sophisticated applications, such as mobile phones, teleconferencing, email, telephone, two-way radios,
etc. can enhance disaster management, as these systems can quicken and hasten decision
making by concerned disaster management agencies. Particular services required as per needs can be
ascertained and logistics can be supplied. Operating and implementing agencies can then have operating
efficiency. This will result in savings in time, money and energy.

7.3.4 Electronic conferences

ICT facilitate meetings and conferences on a virtual forums allowing discussions, dissemination of
information and immediate presentation of new results and cutting edge research. It serves the benefit of
capturing audience anywhere with 24xz access. It economizes on travel, time and cost.

7.4 APPLICATIONS OF ICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

7.4.1 Geographic Information System (GIS)
Information Systems have become an integral part of society today. According to Estes Star an
information system is defined as a chain of operations that takes us from planning the observation and
collection of data, to storage and analysis of the data, to the use of the derived information in some
decision-making process. One of the significant information systems that have its use in disaster
management is the Geographic Information System, GIS, which originated in the 1960s, when it was
limitedly used by the practitioners and universities, but with years it has been increasingly used for various
purposes.
GIS are the computer based software systems that process spatial data into information. According to
Webopacdia, GIS arc tools used to gather, transform manipulate, analyze, and produce information
related to the surface of the Earth that may be depicted through maps, virtual models, tables or lists. The
Department of Environment, Government of India, defines GIS as a system for capturing, storing, checking,
integrating, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying data, which are spatially referenced to the earth.
GIS has three main components, namely computer system, software and spatial data, arid data
management and analysis procedures. It is basically the spatial data known also as geographical data
that is characterized by information about position, connections with other features and details of non-
spatial characters. Spatial data about a particular area can include the latitude and longitude as a
geographical reference; connection details to that area such as roads, rail that can provide access to that
area ; and non spatial data or attribute data such as, detail of amount of rainfall, wind speed, direction etc.
GIS uses geographical position or location as a common thread to integrate and analyse information from
various sources. GIS can also be put to use to assess risk to life and property accruing from natural
disasters, such as earthquakes, cyclones, flood etc.
GIS can handle and manipulate geographically referenced data in large quantities that may have
hundreds or thousands of features (location) or factors associated with these features. Hence it proves to
be less costly and less time consuming. It quickly and simultaneously works upon large amount of data
and come out with accurate analyses for informed decision making. Hence its utility for various purposes
such as development planning, town planning, land use management, industrial management, hospital
management, forest management, census and also its use by the police department, fire department,
research institutes, etc. With multipurpose utilities, one of the significant areas where GIS can make a
definite impact is disaster management. Herein we will discuss the various applications of GIS in effective
management of disasters.
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7.4.2 Studies of environmental hazards

Studies of environmental hazards have become feasible with GIS that can help mitigate adverse health
consequences. GIS plays a useful role, including, studies of reported disease clusters, geographical
surveillance, analysis of health statistics in relation to single or multiple sources of pollution, natural
calamities, chemical accidents etc. It is also useful for modelling distribution of exposures, as well as the
size and characteristics of population at risk. It has application in areas, such as, quantitative risk
assessment of exposure to outdoor air pollution, estimation of health impact flood hazards, health
consequence of localized water pollution, infectious diseases and effects of global change, spread of
vector borne diseases, heat related and cold related deaths, change in agricultural patterns and yields,
effects of ultra violet radiation from ozone depletion, etc. GIS methods are also used in planning of response
of emergency services to major chemical or radioactive element spillage, earthquakes or similar incidents.

7.4.3 Mapping
As the data pertaining to various diseases can be displayed on digital map, it becomes easy to identify
local disease patterns and their geographical relation. This helps in displaying visual information to the
health professionals and disaster managers instantaneously. The spread of vector borne diseases can
be analyzed and displayed on the maps that can help the concerned officials to assess the risk of
exposure to such diseases and take effective preventive, preparedness and response measures.

7.4.4 Simulation and Modelling

A simulation is an imitation of some real thing, state of affairs, or process. The act of simulating
something generally entails representing certain key characteristics or behaviours of a selected physical
or abstract system. Simulation is used in many contexts, including the modelling of natural systems or
human systems in order to gain insight into their functioning. Simulation can be used to show the eventual
real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action. Simulation can show the real effects of alternative
course of action that is very much required during disaster.
The Indian Meteorological Department and Weather Departments use various ICTs, supercomputers and
software to produce models through simulation and are thus able to give weather forecast that can alert
the flood and cyclone prone areas to take necessary preventive and preparedness measures such as
evacuation and realocation. Likewise, the model can be simulated to have effective disaster management in
real situations, as simulation will give a feedback on the changes or modifications required in the model.
Modelling of different disaster scenarios can provide a clue about their health impacts and also the
expected number of casualties. This will enable the health centres and officials to prepare for receiving
and treating of the casualties. Modelling of size and characteristics of population along with the distribution
of exposures to disasters can help the emergency services to examine their capacity to handle, casualties
Modelling of storm impacts, sea level rise etc. can help in taking preemptive measures such as community
awareness, evacuation procedures, site placement of site emergency workers etc. Hospitals can draw
an emergency management model based on the analysis of huge database on area affected, causes for
injuries or deaths, damage to infrastructure and causes thereof, transportation route for ambulances,
accessibility and approach to disaster site etc. that can improve hospital response.

7.4.5 Planning of Health Services

During disasters life can be saved with referral hospitals in vicinity and having specialist services and in
vicinity. With the help of new technology the current patterns of use of health service facilities by the
people in different areas and the access and approach to them can be taken up. With the help of GIS
techniques it becomes possible to characterize the population that a hospital serves. Overlay of map
 75

layers projecting address locations on census boundaries and other geographical features using GIS can
help to define hospital's service area.

7.4.6 Rescue and Evacuation

With GIS it becomes helpful in identify disaster prone areas and zoning them on the basis of
vulnerability and risk magnitudes. This will in turn enable authorities to know about the population and
infrastructure at risk that can help the disaster workers to evacuate the people in advance against an
impending disaster.

7.4.7 Records Management

Records management through GIS is facilitated by way of displaying the current project status that is the
status of ongoing work and the work so far completed. Even the damaged structures or those required
renovation can be coded and displayed in GIS As the status changes, information can be quickly updated
and reports generated.

7.4.8 Remote Sensing

In the broadest sense, remote sensing is the short or large scale acquisition of information of an object
or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real time sensing device(s) that is not in physical or
intimate contact with the object (such as by way of aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, ship etc.). In practice,
remote sensing is the stand off collection through the use of a variety of devices for gathering information
on a given object or area. Thus, Earth or weather satellite collection platforms, ocean and atmospheric
observing weather platforms, monitoring of a pregnancy via ultrasound, Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI), Position Emission Tornigraphy (P.E.T.) and space probes are all examples of remote sensing. In
modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of imaging sensor technologies.
There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural energy (radiation) that is emitted
or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common
source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film
photography, infrared charge-coupled devices and radiometers. Active sensor collection, on the other
hand, emits energy in order scan objects and areas whereupon a passive sensor then detects and
measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR is an example of active
remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location,
height, speed and direction of an object.
With the help of remote sensing technology it becomes possible to have advance information, data and
images pertaining to geographical and earth sciences that make planning, execution and real time
monitoring possible, especially so required at times of disasters. One can describe the role of remote
sensing technology in disaster in many ways, as it enables and facilities.
I. collection of data on dangerous and inaccessible areas;
II. monitoring of deforestation areas, effects of global warming on glaciers, and depth sounding of
ocean;
III. information that can help monitor trends such as eli nina and other natural short and long term.
phenomena;
IV. natural resource management, land usage and conservation of agricultural fields;
V. monitoring and surveillance or risk mapping of vector borne diseases;
VI. quick access and visual display of critical information by location that can facilitate the development
action plans that are printed or transmitted to disaster response personnel for the coordination and
implementation of emergency efforts;
VII. real time monitoring of floods;
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VIII. quick initiation of relief and health facilities;

IX. tracking of an epidemic and health infrastructure damaged during disaster;
X. planning before hand the mobilization of medical and health personnel, medical equipments,
drinking water, food, etc. This will improve the responsiveness to the vulnerable group;
XI. damage calculation and planning for rehabilitation and reconstruction of the health facilities ; and
XII. preparation of comprehensive landslide zonation map that can be helpful in planning the set up of the
health facilities, like the health centres and hospitals in vulnerable areas. Sensors with very high
spatial resolution can provide information on the urban environment.

7.4.9 Satellite Imagery

Satellite images are very crucial to meteorological studies. As the satellites are placed in the earth's
orbit they are above the clouds or any weather effects taking place in the earth's atmosphere. As they
are fitted with a wide array of instruments great number of images and measurements becomes
possible enabling effective weather predictions to a greater extent.
Self-Assessment Questions
1) Explain GIS
2) Explain Remote sensing
3) Explain Satellite Imagery

7.4.10 Internet
Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by
packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (I.P.). It is a “network of networks” that consists of
millions of smaller...... networks, together carry various information and services, such as electronic
mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide
Web. Ignou-Internet is a network that creates a global medium in which millions of computers can
connect to each other to share resources.
As internet can store huge quantity of data in a digital format and one can access and retrieve data-
banks worldwide at any time instantaneously and automatically with it, global dissemination of disaster
information becomes rapid. Lessons learnt on the basis of the characteristic and losses of past disaster
can be stored safely for future references.
Also being instantaneous and paper less, it becomes the most efficient and cost-effective technology that
can be used to communicate to the outside world about any disaster. External help for an affected area
can also be sought.
It also facilitates two very effective systems of health response, namely telemedicine and medical
transcription. With the help of telemedicine investigation, monitoring and management of patients located
in remote or such areas where specialist advice is not available, becomes possible. Expert and specialist
advice in diagnosis and therapy can be sought by sending the reports of a patient through the net or wire,
instead of the patient travelling that far in distances to seek the same. The same can then be sent back
through the same process thereby hastening immediate treatment. It enables connectivity via internet to
super specialty health centres or specialists. This allows expert opinion from any part of the world. This
facilitates time and cost saving and ensures quick expert based diagnoses and therapy.
On the other hand, in medical transcription the conversations of medical professional are recorded during
the performance of operations and later transcribed for review. This allows the medical professionals to
review their own activities in pressure situations and at the same time provides an easy access to
professionals in far off places about the activities of their fellow professionals.
Besides the above, satellite telephone communication system plays a crucial role in disasters when the
other conventional communication systems like telephone fails. These systems provide coverage over
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wide areas even the oceans. These wireless systems run on solar energy and play a very significant role
in disaster situations.

7.5 SUMMARY
I.C.T. plays a significant role in disaster management viz. information browsing, electronic publishing, online
discussions and Geographic Information System (G.I.S.). The latter is based on software system which
helps to process spatial date into useful information. Remote Sensing Internet and Satellite Imagery are
yet other useful devices of Disaster Management. Internet can store huge quantity of data in digital
format and one can access and retrieve data banks worldwide at any time or at any place. Thus
dissemination of disaster information becomes rapid and easy.

7.6 Model Question

Critically examine the Applications of I.C.T. on Disaster Management.

7.7 References
http:// www.encyclopaedia. thefreedictionary.com
Browser Market Share for Calendar Q2, 2006 in Market Share by Net Applications.com. November,
2007.
Imtiaz Ahmed : http://www.encyclopaedia.thefreedictionary.com
Estate Star-http : / / www.encyclopaedia.thefreedictionary.com/

7.8 Further Reading

http://www.encyclopaedia.thefreedictionary.com/remote+sensing
Disaster Medicine, 2005, MPA-006, IGNOU, SOSS, New Delhi.
E-governance, 2006, MPA-017, IGNOU, SOSS, New Delhi.

*****
 78

Lessons : 8
INTERSTATE COOPERATION AND INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Challenges for India
8.3 Interstate Cooperation for Disaster Management
8.4 SAARC Disaster Management Centre
8.5 Durgyog Nivaran (South Asian Network for Disaster Risk Reductions)
8.6 Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
8.7 Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC)
8.8 Asian Disaster Reductions & Response Network
8.9 Towards Disaster Risk Reduction
8.10 International strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction
8.11 Pro-vention Consortium
8.12 The Disaster Risk Reduction Hemisphere Conference
8.13 Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 - Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities
to Disasters
8.14 Second Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Reduction
8.15 Role of Major International Agencies in Disaster Management viz (i) UN General Assembly (ii)
World Bank (iii) U.N. Habitat (iv) UNOCHA, (v) F.A.O. (vi) U.N.D.P.
8.16 Summary
8.17 Model Questions
8.18 References and Further Readings

8.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to
• know the meaning of disasters, its relationship with development and challenges of India
for disaster preparedness
• understand interstate cooperation for disaster management
• Evaluate the various platforms for disaster management
• Discuss the international strategy for disaster risk reduction and role of various international
aperience inclusing UNDP and OCHA, World Bank and FAO
• Understand the various dimensions of Risk

8.1 Introduction
India is most vulnerable to both natural and human-made disasters. A tough mesh of poverty, rampant
and unplanned urbanization, chronic malnutrition, and nightmarish population densities have trapped its
people. It is said that in India the four seasons arrive and depart in tandem with four major kinds of natural
disasters floods, earthquakes, cyclones and droughts. Besides, there are other disasters such as
landslides, fires and epidemic that strike and threaten people (Sapir).

Since times immemorial, natural disasters have destroyed human, social and physical capital of India.
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Disasters have not only disrupted the normal life of the affected communities and the government but
have also put the development efforts in a standstill posture as the funds earmarked for new initiatives
were transferred to relief, response, and rehabilitation work. By and large, the focus of the major
stakeholders has been reactive rather than proactive. Consequent upon each disaster, the Government,
N.G.Os., Charities, Communities etc. in India have responded with relief and rehabilitation activities. The
concern to have such measures whereby the disaster risk could be reduced through structural and non-
structural measures did not gain much currency in India in the past. In consonance with the need of the
hour, some efforts are being made now all over the world including India for disaster risk reduction by
adhereing to detailed, comprehensive and participatory strategies. India has initiated certain steps towards
disaster risk reduction but still a long journey is to be covered, as the resultants have not been to the
required encouragement levels. There is substantial need for concerted and well-planned efforts for risk
reduction through risk identification, sharing and transfer.
Disciplines of "disasters" and "development" have almost always been dealt with separately from one
another. No possible linkages between the two sectors were understood or foreseen till recent times.
Disasters are taken as they happen in a vacuum, with no relationship to the social, economic or institutional
context. As a result, the course of action taken in dealing with disasters is largely one of emergency
management and relief with welfare orientation. Interventions are made once a disaster occurs, with the
objective of returning to the situation before the event. Each year the dent on national budgets on emergency
management is increasing and the people who are forced to live under the same conditions get deeper
into the trap of poverty and further degrees of vulnerability.
Responding to emergencies no doubt is an important part of disaster management planning. However,
the absence of other important components such as disaster preparedness based on root causes of the
event, or a sustainable approach towards relief and rehabilitation is cause for concern. The need to
move from an emergency management culture towards a culture of disaster preparedness has become
ever so strong in today's context.
In recent times there has been extensive discussion and debate on the relationship between socio-
economic forces and disasters.The discussions and the need for community centered disaster
preparedness have reached highest levels ; however the application yet remains at elementary levels.
The body of research and the documented evidence based on real experience is still small. It needs to be
stated here that a change over from a relief culture towards a foundation of preparedness is a mammoth
task. This move needs commitment, awareness at all levels, knowledge and capacity, and financial
resources.
Holistic development planning based on adequate analysis would not give space to leave out hazards
and disasters. Disaster risk management becomes an integral part of a comprehensive development
plan for any geographical area or a sector. Such an approach supports reducing the relief rehabilitation
costs, and investing the same on development ventures. Further, the currency applied approaches
towards relief and rehabilitation can also take a longer term, sustainable path. Analysis of root causes of
disasters, risk and vulnerability analysis are the keys towards reaching the goal of communities and
nations prepared to face hazards.

8.2 Challenges for India

Challenges for India are enormous in creating conditions for risk management instead of emergency
management, in achieving a culture of preparedness. This amounts to a major shift in conceptualizing, in
planning, and in action. Changes are required at all levels ; at community, planning and decision making
levels.

Gradual integration of disaster risk analysis into development plans is a must. In the plans, there is a
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strong need to change perceptions, for instance that the communities are not mere victims, they are a
resource since they possess enormous knowledge and d capabilities in coping and managing risk. The
change of perception is also required within the communities, who are burdened with a dependency
mentality for long years.
Emergency management, relief and rehabilitation plans can be made in to more fruitful initiatives with
sustainable goals instead of returning the communities into the same status where they were before.
Analysis and planning based in disaster-development linkages is fundamental in achieving this. One such
example is turning enormous amounts of drought relief distributed annually by the national governments
into drought preparedness investment by introducing measures such as well planned water harvesting
structures, water shed management merging with forestry programmes, reviving traditional methods of
water preservation.
The process can be bottom up. There is a need to create and set up as many examples as possible at
community level to demonstrate that organized communities with their capacities enhanced to meet the
challenges of nature and society can manage disaster risk effectively. Investments on infrastructure
such as, locally appropriate early warning systems, shelters, and flood management structures can
realize their maximum potential when the awareness levels and the capacities of the communities to
utilize them are high. The main players in this venture can be identified as the local governments, the
C.B.Os. and the N.G.Os. whose mandate is poverty eradication and sustainable livelihoods.
Advocacy and influencing aiming at taking lessons from such experiences in to the larger plans,
investments for making larger impacts, knowledge and capacity building required for this change are
some other steps in this process.

8.3 Interstate Cooperation for Disaster Management

Disasters need a special attention not only in relief and rehabilitation phases but also in pre-disaster period.
The union, state, and local, levels' capacities require to be appropriately strengthened in order to cope
with a disaster situation. By definition, disasters are dealt with effectively with the cooperation of
external agencies. Thus, a framework for inter-state co-operation needs to be comprehensive enough to
take into account the multifaceted nature of disaster management. A number of laudable initiatives have
been taken, in the recent past to concretize cooperation from various institutions, both governmental and
non-governmental for helping affected or likely to be affected countries. It was in 2007 when the Second
Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Reduction (http: //nidm.gov.in/amcdrr/draft.pdf, held in New Delhi
emphasized on regional mechanism and :
• Requested the regional stakeholders to work together more closely towards greater coherence and
harmonization of their efforts as a generic point of entry for enhanced regional cooperation;
• Urged the national governments, the donors, the International Financial Institutions and other partners to
further strengthen and work closely with existing regional mechanisms and organizations such as
the ISDR. Asia Partnership, the International Recovery Platform, the ASEAN Committee on
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Disaster Management, the SAARC Disaster Management centre, the SOPAC, the Asian Disaster
Preparedness Center, the Asian Disaster Reduction Centre, the International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development, the Asian Seismic Risk Reduction Centre, the Typhoon Committee and the
Panel on Tropical Cyclones, the International Centre on Drought Risk Reduction, the Pacific
Disaster Risk Management Partnership Network, the Asian Disaster Reduction and Response
Network, the Duryog Nivaran and others;
• Welcomed the forthcoming new regional initiatives, such as the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for
Humanitarian Assistance on disaster management, the Asia Emergency preparedness and
Response facility, the Disaster Management Centre in ECO Region and the Regional Research
Centre on Catastrophic Disasters in Asia;
• Called upon the expanded ISDR Asia Partnership to improve information exchange and the mapping of
regional disaster reduction initiatives of various stakeholders, to improve coherence, synergy and
effectiveness and address critical gaps in the delivery of activities in the region; and
• Called on the regional inter-governmental organizations and UNESCAP to work closely with UN /
ISDR in supporting the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action in Asia and the Pacific".
In the light of the move initiated by the Second Asian Ministerial Conference, it shall be appropriate to
mention in brief about the role played by some important structures towards cooperation for disaster
management.

Self Assessment Question (S.A.Q. 1)

What are the main recommendations of Second Asia Ministerial Conference Disaster Management ?

8.4 SAARC Disaster Management Centre

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established when its Charter was
formally adopted on December 8, 1985 by the Heads of State or Government of Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Afghanistan joined SAARC in 2007. It is a platform for the
peoples of South Asia to work together in a spirit of friendship, trust and understanding. It aims to accelerate
the process of economic and social development in Member States. It identified the Integrated Programme
of Action. It had formulated a number of Technical Committees. These got changed with the passage of
time and in accordance with the felt needs. At present, the Technical Committees cover issues pertaining
to Agriculture and Rural Development; Health and Population Activities; Women, Youth and Children;
Environment and Forestry, Science and Technology and Meteorology; Human Resources Development
and Transport (http://www/saarc.sec.org/main.php).
In accordance with its basic objective, SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) was set up at the
premises of National Institute of Disaster Management in New Delhi in October 2006. SDMC has been
created to advise on policy issues and strengthen capacity building in the areas of strategic learning,
research, training system development and exchange of information for effective disaster risk reduction
and management in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
SDMC undertakes activities concerning various dimension of disaster risk reduction and
management in Member Countries. It is the hub for networking through the National Focal Points of the
Member Countries. It coordinates with the various Ministries, Departments and Scientific, Technical,
Research and Academic institutions within and outside the Government working on various aspects of
disaster risk reduction and management.
It undertakes studies; conducts research; organizes workshops and training programmes; and
publishes relevant reports and documents. Besides, it provides various policy advisory services to the
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Member Countries. It works with the basis objective of ensuring effective disaster management in the
Member Countries. (http://saarc-sdmc.nic.in/index.asp).

8.5 Duryog Nivaran (South Asian Network for Disaster Risk Reduction)
A Network for building a platform for regional dialogue and interaction in the sphere of disaster
mitigation; facilitating information dissemination, effective regional cooperation and create more awareness
on the alternative perspective of disasters; and sharing information and to fill the obvious gaps in
communication and coordination within the region by effective advocary was established in the form of
Duryog Nivaran in 1995 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. It was created with the basic objective of fulfilling a gap in
cross border dialogue and experience sharing among organizations, governmental or otherwise, working
in the world's most disaster-prone region, that is, South Asia. It aims to pave the way for an alternative
perspective towards disasters, both natural and human induced. The alternative emphasizes that those
affected by disasters are not only victims but collaborators in future development to be ensured in a
sustainable way. South Asian countries are benefited by the working of Duryog Nivaran as it has repository
of some of the best example of community based disaster management practices in the South Asian
region. These are based on the micro operations pertaining to mitigation of flood, cyclone, drought,
earthquake etc.

The major aims and objectives of Duryog Nivaran include :

• Reducing communities susceptibility to disasters and conflicts.
• Stressing to get disaster mitigation guidelines included in countries development plans (just as
gender and environment issues have been incorporated) as an immediate and significant goal;
• Working towards creating better understanding of the alternative perspective through research,
advocacy and networking in the region; Focusing on role of media as media often precipitates the
existing social order and reinforces prejudices that hamper communities ability to change their
situation with regard to disasters.

In accordance with its objectives, Duryog Nivaran :

• “Provides an opportunity for national and regional organizations in South Asia to strengthen their
capacity and carry out effective disaster mitigation and development activities by sharing information,
learning from each other’s experiences and providing support to each others activities;
• Makes the case for the alternative perspective by analyzing existing interventions and demonstrating,
through research and action, other approaches that challenge the existing paradigm; and
• Carries out specific activities to influence decision makers in government, donor and non-
government agencies.” (http://www.duryognivaran.org.)

8.6 Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok. It
originally had five Countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand as its
members. ASEAN's membership was later taken by Brunei Darussalam on 8 January, 1984, Vietnam on
28th July 1995, Lao P.D.R. and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April, 1999.
With regard to cooperation on disaster management, the commitment of Association of South East
Asian Nations cooperation is as old as its year of origin, that is, 1967. It started with the creation of
dates back to the founding days of ASEAN in 1967 when the ASEAN Permanent Committee on Socio-
Cultural Activities to implement social and humanitarian projects including operations against natural
disasters by the Foreign Ministers of the member countries. It was in accordance with the ASEAN
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Declaration of 8 August, 1967 seeking to "promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on
matters of common interest in the economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields".
Further impetus was given to this issue of concern with the adoption of the Declaration of ASEAN
Concord (Bali Concord I), adopted on 24 February 1976. Accordingly, it stressed the importance of
cooperation in disaster management within ASEAN. The Declaration started that "natural disasters and
other major calamities can retard the pace of development of member states, therefore they shall extend,
within their capabilities, assistance for relief of member states in distress". (http://acdm-online.net).
ASEAN, through its Declaration on Mutual Assistance on Natural Disaster adopted on 26th June 1976
urged the Member Countries to cooperate in improvement in communication for early warning;
dissemination of medical supplies, services and relief assistance; and exchange of experts, trainees,
information and documents, ASEAN emphasized on disaster management in the Bali Concord II in October
2003. Its leaders pledged to achieve an ASEAN Community by 2020. The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
calls for intensifying cooperation in addressing problems associated with, among others disaster
management, to enable individual members to fully realize their development potential and to enhance the
mutual ASEAN spirit. To carry out the tasks effectively, the ASEAN Committee on Disaster Management
(A.C.D.M.) was established in early 2003 elevating regional cooperation on disaster management which
was earlier carried out by an experts group. The A.C.D.M. is guided by the ASEAN Regional Programme
on Disaster Management (A.R.P.D.M.) in implementing the regional activities. The ASEAN Agreement on
Disaster Management and Emergency Response (A.A.D.M.E.R.) provides a regional comprehensive
framework to strengthen preventive, monitoring and mitigation measures to reduce disaster losses in the
region.
ACDM comprises heads of national agencies/organizations assigned the responsibility for disaster
management of ASEAN Member Countries. It meets at least once in a year. The chairmanship of ACDM
rotates among ASEAN Member Countries every year. The ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Disaster
Management and the ASEAN Standing Committee provide policy guidance to the work of A.C.D.M. The
secretarial assistance to A.C.D.M. in formulating policies and programmes and implementing the various
activities is provided by the ASEAN Secretariat. (http://acdm-online.net).

8.7 Asian Disaster Reduction Center (A.D.R.C.)

For the purpose of enhancing disaster resilience of the member countries, building safe
communities, and creating a society where sustainable development is possible, the Asian Disaster
Reduction Center (A.D.R.C.) was established in Kobe, Japan in 1998. It has established networks among
countries through many programs including personnel exchanges for disaster risk reduction. (http://www.
adrc.or.jp/aboutus/index html).
ADRC attaches much significance to disaster management and works for addressing this issue from a
global perspective. It works is close cooperation with a number of United Nations agencies and
international organizations/initiatives, such as the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (I.S.D.R.),
the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific (ESCAP), the world Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the world Health Organisation
Regional Office for the Western Pacific (WHO/WPRO).

Major activities of ADRC include :

1. Learning from Disasters and Benefiting from Information
2. Capacity Building for Disaster Risk Reduction
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3. Ensuring Community Participation for Effective Disaster Reduction

Since the formation of the Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network by ADRC and UN OCHA
in 2002. ADRC has been making efforts to improve networking among such Asian NGOs, which play
an important role in disaster reduction and response. (http://www.adrc.or.jp/aboutus/ index.html).

8.8 Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network

There is hardly any major natural disaster that does not strike Asia. Asian continent is the most disaster
prone continent in the world. It has been home to more than half of the world's major disasters in the last
half century. Consequently, the political systems, social systems, administrative mechanisms and
economic systems have been worst affected in the continent.
In order to effectively works towards disaster reduction, response, rehabilitation, etc. the Asian Disaster
Reduction and Response Network (A.D.R.R.N.) was formed in February 2002, with headquarters in
Malaysia. It was created by bringing together more than 30 N.G.Os. from all over Asia to discuss the
need for a network of N.G.Os. for Disaster Reduction and Response in Asia by the Asia Disaster Reduction
Centre (A.D.R.C.) Kobe and the United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA)
in Kobe with the assistant of the ASEAN Foundation (http://www.adrrn.net/resources.asp).
ADRRN has been established with the purpose of making N.G.Os. network each other as well as with
other prominent stakeholders like government's agencies, international organizations, etc. for ensuring
disaster management in an effective manner.
In December, 2003 this network was strengthened and in the subsequent year the work plan of ADRRN
was framed and executed. (http://www.adrrn.net/resources.asp).
The brief about some of the important structures for disaster risk reduction and disaster management
in Asia, in the preceding text, reveals the significance of Regional or Interstate Cooperation for disaster
management. It establishes, without doubt, that proper attention and response to disasters for minimizing
its losses get into being due to interstate cooperation.

8.9 Towards Disaster Risk Reduction

There are now a number of leading agencies and forums around the globe, which are active in
undertaking efforts for disaster risk reduction. Some of the initiatives undertaken and plans made by such
agencies and forums towards disaster risk reduction are as follows :

8.10 International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction

It is fact that the hazards are inevitable and the elimination and / or reduction of all risk are impossible. Of
course, there are a number of technical measures, traditional practices, and public experience that can
reduce the extent or severity of natural disasters. Towards disaster risk reduction, the International
Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction programme aims at enabling all communities to become resilient to
the effects of natural, technological and environmental hazards, reducing the compound risks they pose
to social and economic vulnerabilities within modern societies. The major goals and objectives of this
programme include (I.S.D.R. Document).

GOALS
• "Increase public awareness of the risks that natural, technological and environmental hazards pose
to modern societies.
• Obtain commitment by public authorities to reduce risk to people, their livelihoods, social and
economic infrastructure and environmental resources.
• Engage public participation at all levels of implementation to create disaster-resistant communities
through increased partnership and expanded risk reduction networks at all levels.
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• Reduce the economic and social losses of disasters as measured, for example, by Gross Domestic
Product."

OBJECTIVES
Prominent objectives of I.S.D.R. programme are as follows :
• "Stimulate research and application, provide knowledge, convey experience, build capabilities and
allocate necessary resources for reducing or preventing severe and recurrent impacts of hazards, for
those people most vulnerable.
• Increase opportunities for organizations and multi disciplinary relationships to foster more scientific
and technical contributions to the public decision-making process in matters of hazard, risk and
disaster prevention.
• Develop a more proactive interface between management of natural resources and risk reduction
practices.
• Form a global community dedicated to making risk and disaster prevention a public value.
• Link risk prevention and economic competitiveness issues to enhance opportunities for greater
economic partnerships.
• Complete comprehensive risk assessments and integrate them within development plans.
• Develop and apply risk reduction strategies and mitigation measures with supporting arrangements
and resources for disaster prevention at all levels of activity.
• Identify and engage designated authorities, professionals drawn from the widest possible range of
expertise, and community leaders to develop increased partnership activities.
• Establish risk monitoring capabilities, and early warning systems as integrated processes, with
particular attention being given to emerging hazards with global implications such as those related to
climate variation and change, at all levels of responsibility.
• Develop sustained programmes of public information and institutionalized educational components
pertaining to hazards and their effects, risk management practices and disaster prevention activities, for
all ages.
• Establish internationally and professionally agreed standards/methodologies for the analysis and
expression of the socio-economic impacts of disasters on societies.
• Seek innovative funding mechanisms dedicated to sustained risk and disaster prevention activities."

8.11 Pro Vention Consortium

The Pro Vention Consortium comprising 43 governments, international organizations, academic
institutions, the private sector, and civil society organizations was launched in February, 2000. The member
organizations of this Consortium are : African Development Bank, Asian Development Bank; Inter American
Development Bank; The World Bank; Ministry of Construction, Japan; Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Norway; Organization of American States; Pan-American Health Organization; World Food Programme;
United Nations Development Program; World Meteorological Organization; United Nations Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs; United Nations Environmental Programme; The World Conservation
Union; Federal Emergency Management Agency; Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport, Japan;
World Institute for Disaster Risk Management; International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis;
Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Research Centre, Japan; National Research Institute for Earth Science
and Disaster Prevention; South West Research Institute; International Federation of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies; Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation; Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre;
Asian Disaster Reduction Center, Japan; Earthquakes and Mega cities Initiative - E.M.I.; International
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Strategy for Disaster Reduction; Global Fire Monitor Center, University Freiberg; Middle Eastern Technical
University, Turkey; Columbia Earth Institute, University of Columbia; University of Kyoto, Japan; Wharton
School, University of Pennsylvania; Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado; CESIR, University
of Stanford; Cenpred Mexico, The National Research Council; Lloyd’s; CESIR, Cemex; Voice; Munich Re
Group; Renaissance Re Insurances; Swiss Re, Global Reinsurer; Grameen Bank. The major aim of the
Consortium is to plan and undertake steps for reducing the impact of disaster in developing countries.
The modus operandi of the ProVention Consortium is to share knowledge and resources for reducing
disaster risks. Besides stressing on synergy, this Consortium emphasizes on coordination for efforts.
The major objectives of the consortium include (ProVention Consortium) :
• "To promote a culture of safety through education and training among leaders and citizens of
developing countries.
• To support public policy that can reduce the risk of natural and technological disasters within
developing countries.
• To support pilot projects and to disseminate information about "best practices" that have been
proven to mitigate the scope and frequency of disasters.
• To develop governments ability to minimize disasters and to respond effectively when they occur.
• To forge links between public and private sectors, between the scientific community and policy
makers, between donors and victims so that all stake holders work together to strengthen the
economy, reduce pain and suffering and promote the common good".

Self Assessment Question - S.A.Q. II

Mention the objectives of Pro Vention Consortium ?

8.12 The Disaster Risk Reduction Hemispheric Conference

The Disaster Risk Reduction Hemispheric Conference held at San Jose, Costa Rica, on December 4-6,
2001 has recognized the need to develop, implement and sustain shared comprehensive disaster
management strategies and programmes to reduce the vulnerability of the populations and national
economies to natural and man-made disasters besides maintaining or quickly restoring minimum levels
of consumption, income and production at the household and community levels in the aftermath of disasters,
including irregular population settlements. It has acknowledged the need to expand the community of
stakeholders at the regional, national and local levels engaged in the formulation of early warning systems.
While emphasizing sustainable development as an important facet for managing disasters, the Conference
has highlighted the following strategies for effectively risk management and response operations in the
event of disasters (Disaster Risk Reduction Hemispheric Conference, 2001) :
"Develop the capacity to forecast prepare for and mitigate the potential impacts of natural and man-
made hazards; promote vulnerability reduction; adopt and enforce better building codes and standards;
ensure appropriate land-use practices; inventory and evaluate the vulnerability of critical facilities and
infrastructure; estimate climate change variability and sea-level rise and assess their possible impacts;
and in pursuit of the above, create the requisite legal framework and establish the cooperative
mechanisms to access and share advances in science and technology and their application in the early
warning, preparedness for and mitigation of these hazards;
Promote the exchange of information on the vulnerability of infrastructure exposed to disasters as well as
the early warning capacity, particularly in the border areas of the countries of the Americas, in order to
design specific prevention measures in the fields of engineering and legislation with the aim of reducing
the socio-economic impact of natural disasters;
Establish or strengthen, where appropriate, partnerships with all relevant actors, including the private
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sector, technical professional associations, regional institutions, civil society, educational and research
institutions and other multilateral coordinating agencies such as the Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), in the development and implementation of disaster management policies
and programs at the national and community levels, and promote greater awareness and effective
integration of these policies and programs among national policy makers, local authorities, communities
and media, and promote the insurance and reinsurance of the social and economic infrastructure as
well as the decentralization of information and decision- making.
Promote the exchange of knowledge and experiences regarding the combat against inappropriate
practices in the exploitation of natural resources and unsustainable patterns of consumption, including
the problems of waste management, which increase the vulnerability of the people to natural disasters;
Promote the development of telecommunications for humanitarian assistance; actively encourage greater
use and interpretability of telecommunications and other technologies and information systems that
allow the abbreviation and monitoring of different natural phenomena; use early warning systems such as
remote sensing imagery, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) based data necessary to address and
prevent emergencies; promote the compatibility of these systems in the planning and response to
emergency operations among governments, specialized agencies, relevant international organizations,
and Non-Governmental Organizations (N.G.Os.);
Consider the creation of a hemispheric system for prevention and mitigation of disasters that would
include, among others, a specialized database containing the best information available on the
characteristics, experiences, strengths and weaknesses of national and regional agencies responsible
for disaster prevention and mitigation and provide a new framework for technical cooperation and
research aimed at creating a hemispheric culture of prevention and solidarity;
Adopt and support, as appropriate, initiatives aimed at promoting capacity building at all levels, such as
the transfer and development of technology for prevention-risk reduction, awareness, preparedness,
mitigation - and response to natural and other disasters, as well as for the rehabilitation of affected
areas;
Promote mechanisms that incorporate risk management and risk reduction methods in public and private
development investments.
In the earlier times more focus was on disaster relief and response. Not much attention was laid on
disaster prevention and preparedness. With the passage of times, it has been realized that disasters
could be managed better if the emphasis is more on preparedness and coordinated efforts of the concerned
stake-holders. Such change in the prespective of disaster management is by and large gaining currency
now. Initiatives are now being taken for disaster risk reduction through various structural and non-structural
measures. In consonance, with the need of the hour, some efforts are being made now in South Asia also
for disaster risk reduction by adhering to detailed, comprehensive and participatory strategies.

8.13 HYOGO FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION 2005 - 2015 : BUILDING THE RESILIENCE OF
NATIONS AND COMMUNITIES TO DISASTERS

The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held from 18 to 22 January 2005 in Kobe, Hyogo,
Japan and adopted the Framework for Action 2005 - 2015 : Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters. The Conference provided a unique opportunity to promote a strategic and
systematic approach to reducing vulnerabilities and risks to hazards. It underscored the need for and
identified ways of building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters.
The General Considerations emphasized upon in the Hyogo Framework for Action include (Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005 - 2015 : Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters) :
 88

• "The Principles contained in the Yokohama Strategy retain their full relevance in the current context,
which is characterized by increasing commitment to disaster reduction;
• Taking into account the importance of international cooperation and partnership, each state has the
primary responsibility for its own sustainable development and for taking effective measures to reduce
disaster risk, including for the protection of people on its territory, infrastructure and other national
assets from the impact of disasters. At the same time, in the context of increasing global
interdependence, concerted international cooperation and an enabling international environment
are required to stimulate and contribute to developing the knowledge, capacities and motivation
needed for disaster risk reduction at all levels;
• An integrated, multi-hazard, approach to disaster risk reduction should be factored into policies,
planning and programming related to sustainable development, relief, rehabilitation, and recovery
activities in post-disaster and post-conflict situations in disaster-prone countries;
• A gender perspective should be integrated into all disaster risk management policies, plans and
decision-making processed, including those related to risk assessment, early warning, information
management, and education and training;
• Cultural diversity, age and vulnerable groups should be taken into account when planning for disaster
risk reduction, as appropriate;
• Both communities and local authorities should be empowered to manage and reduce disaster risk by
having access to the necessary information, resources and authority to implement actions for
disaster risk reduction;
• Disaster-prone developing countries, especially least developed countries and small Island
developing States, warrant particular attention in view of their higher vulnerability and risk levels,
which often greatly exceed their-capacity to respond to and recover from disasters;
• There is also a need for proactive measures, bearing in mind that the phases of relief, rehabilitation
and reconstruction following a disaster are windows of opportunity for the rebuilding of livelihoods
and for the planning and reconstruction of physical and socio-economic structures, in a way that will
build community resilience and reduce vulnerability to future disaster risks ;
• Disaster risk reduction is a cross-cutting issue in the context of sustainable development and
therefore an important element for the achievement of internationally agreed development goals,
including those contained in the Millennium Declaration. In addition, every efforts should be made to
use humanitarian assistance in such a way that risks and future vulnerabilities will be lessened as
much as possible;
• The promotion of a culture of prevention, including through the mobilization of adequate resources for
disaster risk reduction, is an investment for the future with substantial returns. Risk assessment and
early warning systems are essential investments that protect and save lives, property and
livelihoods, contribute to the sustainability of development, and are far more cost-effective in
strengthening coping mechanisms than is primary reliance on post-disaster response and recovery;
and There is a need to enhance international and regional cooperation and assistance in the field of
disaster risk reduction through, inter alia :
1. The transfer of knowledge, technology and expertise to enhance capacity building for disaster risk
reduction.
2. The sharing of research findings, lessons, learned and best practices.
3. The compilation of information on disaster risk and impact for all scales of disasters in a way that
can inform sustainable development and disaster risk reduction.
4. Appropriate support in order to enhance governance for disaster risk reduction for awareness- raising
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initiatives and for capacity-development measures at all Ievels, in order to improve the disaster
resilience of developing countries.
5. The full speedy and effective implementation of the enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
Initiative, taking into account the impact of disasters on the debt sustainability of countries eligible
for this prograrnme.
6. Financial assistance to reduce existing risks and to avoid the generation of new risks. "

8.14 Second Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Reduction

The Second Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, held in New Delhi on 7-8
November, 2007 was attended by the Ministers and Heads of Delegations of the countries of Asia and the
Pacific. The text of the Delhi Declaration on Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia 2007 adopted at the Conference
included :
• "Recalling the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 : Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters;
• Recalling the Beijing Action for Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia 2005 to enhance regional cooperation in
the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action;
• Concerned at the recent supurt of disasters in the region, including the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan
and India and typhoon in Vietnam, the 2006 earthquake and floods in Indonesia, as well as the
series of typhoons in the Philippines, and the 2007 tsunami in the Solomon Islands and floods in
South Asia, which caused widespread loss of life and property;
• Aware of the threats of disasters due to unsustainable development including unplanned urban
settlements and the impacts of climate change. Recognizing the urgency of substantially reducing the
loss of lives and social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries at risks
of disasters in order to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and sustainable development;
• Appreciating the new global and regional initiatives like the Global Platform for Disaster Risk
Reduction, the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. International Recovery Platform, the
Pacific Framework of Action for Disaster Risk Management, the Comprehensive Regional
Framework for Action 2006-2015 in South Asia, the South Asian Regional Platform for Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management, the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency
Response, the A.D.P.C. Regional Consultative Committee and the A.D.R.C. Asian Conference on
Disaster Reduction, the A.P.E.C. Task Force on Emergency Preparedness, the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization Agreement on Disaster Reduction and the setting up of SAARC Disaster
Management Centre;
• Welcoming the initiatives taken by many national governments in Asia and the Pacific for setting up
legal and institutional mechanisms for disaster risk reduction and mainstreaming risk reduction in
development planning.
• Requested the regional stakeholders to work together more closely towards greater coherence and
harmonization of their efforts as a generic point of entry for enhanced regional cooperation;
• Urged the national governments, the donors, the International Financial Institutions and other partners to
further strengthen and work closely with existing regional mechanisms and organizations such as
the I.S.D.R. Asia Partnership, the International Recovery Platform, the ASEAN Committee on
Disaster Management, the SAARC Disaster Management Centre, the SOPAC, the Asian Disaster
Preparedness Center, the Asian Disaster Reduction Center, the International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development, the Asian Seismic Risk Reduction Centre, the Typhoon Committee and the
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Panel on Tropical Cyclones, the International Centre on Drought Risk Reduction, the Pacific
Disaster Risk Management Partnership Network, the Asian Disaster Reduction and Response
Network, the Duryog Nivaran and others;
• Welcomed the forthcoming new regional initiatives, such as the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for
Humanitarian Assistance on disaster management the Asia Emergency Preparedness and
Response facility, the Disaster Management Centre in E.C.O. Region and the Regional Research
Centre on Catastrophic Disaster in Asia;
• Called upon the expanded I.S.D.R. Asia Partnership to improve information exchange and the
mapping of regional disaster reduction initiatives of various stakeholders, to improve coherence,
synergy and effectiveness and address critical gaps in the delivery of activities in the region; and
• Called on the regional intergovernmental organizations and UNESCAP to work closely with UN /
ISDR in supporting the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action in Asia and the Pacific."

8.15 Role of Major International Agencies in Disaster Management

8.16 8.15(i) United Nations General Assembly
The General Assembly of UN acted on the universal need to counter the impact of disasters in 1971. It
resolved to create the Office of the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO) for the purpose of
ensuring better outcome with regard to "assistance in cases of natural disaster and other disaster situations",
including disaster mitigation. Realizing the need for special focus on disaster risk reduction, the General
Assembly launched IDNDR in 1989.
The Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP) brought in existence in 1990 by UNDP and
UNDRO was endorsed by the UN General Assembly in 1991. Its basic aim was to upgrade professional
skills in disaster management through inter-agency training programmes under the join management of
UNDP and UNDRO.
The creation of the I.S.D.R. in 2000 was a step forward to appropriately pave the way for disaster risk
reduction as an International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (Details about ISDR have been
mentioned in the earlier section of this Unit). It also laid emphasis on the element of cooperation on early
warning capacities of the UN system with regard to natural disasters along with mechanism for reducing
the impact of the EI Nino phenomenon. As a practice now, the UN Secretary-General presents ISDR
under the agenda item ‘Environment and Sustainable Development’ when disaster reduction is considered
by the General Assembly every year. (http://www.un.org/ga).

8.15(ii) The World Bank

The World Bank, through its Disaster Management Facility (DMF), has been active in reducing human
suffering and economic loss caused by natural and man-made disasters. It has been working for
ensuring that disaster prevention and mitigation are integral parts of development requiring action. The
DMF takes action by providing technical support to World Bank operations, promoting capacity-building
and establishing partnerships with the international and scientific community working on disaster issues.
The specific objectives of the DMF are (World Bank Mission Disaster Management Facility) :
• "To improve the management of disaster risk in member countries and reduce vulnerability in the
World Bank portfolio;
• To promote sustainable projects and initiatives that incorporate effective prevention and mitigation
measures;
• To promote the inclusion of risk analysis in World Bank operations, analysis and country assistance
strategies;
• To promote training in the areas of disaster prevention, mitigation and response; and
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• To identify policy, institutional and physical interventions aimed at reducing catastrophic losses from
natural disasters through structural and non-structural measures, community involvement and
partnerships with the private sector."
DMF undertakes the above activities through education, training, support and partnership. To this an
effect, the key functions of the D.M.F. include the following (ibid) :
• "Technical support and guidance to member countries and to World Bank staff in operations on
lending and on the preparation of Country Assistance Strategies and Economic and Sector Work to
reduce risks from natural and technological disasters.
• Partnership with the international and scientific communities. Partnerships are being established
with other international agencies, N.G.Os., and scientific organizations to promote dialogue on
disaster management issues, collaborate on activities, and receive input into world Bank activities. A
key partnership is the Pro Vention Consortium, launched in February, 2000 to reduce disaster risk
in developing countries and make disaster prevention and mitigation an integral part of
development efforts. The Pro Vention Consortium functions as a network to share knowledge and
connect and leverage resources aimed at reducing disaster risk.
• Examining the World Bank's disaster assistance portfolio to extract lessons for future operations.
• Identification and dissemination of World Bank and other agencies good, practices in disaster
management.
• Training in the areas of disaster prevention, mitigation and response."
It is appropriate to say that disaster risks emanate from culmination of "hazardousness and
vulnerability that vary over seasonal to decadal time-scales as well as geographically." Risks could
be managed through risk identification; risk reduction and risk transfer (World Bank Paper). These
below mentioned components namely Risk Identification, Risk Reduction; and Risk Sharing and
Transfer; have been referred to in the World Bank Paper entitled "What is Risk Management ?"

Risk Identification :
“Any effective strategy to manage disaster risk must begin with an identification of the hazards and what is
vulnerable to them. This involves information on the nature and extent of risk that characterizes a
particular location, including information on the nature of particular physical hazards obtained through
hazard assessments, as well as information and data on the degree of exposure of a population and its
built environment to such hazards. In this way informed decisions can be made on where to invest and
how to design sustainable projects that will withstand the impacts of potential disaster events. Hazard
mapping and the utilization of G.I.S. systems are among the ways in which risk information may be organized
for the benefit of potential users. A more complete understanding of the full economic, financial and social
impacts of disasters on a country also helps to demonstrate the importance of including risk reduction
measures in development plans."

Risk Reduction
"Disasters result when an extreme natural or technological event coincides with a vulnerable human
settlement. Reducing disaster risk requires that all stakeholders change their perceptions and behaviour
to place a high priority on safety in planning and development. Effective risk reduction involves mitigation
measures in hazard prone developing countries such measures include land use planning, structural
design and construction practices and disaster warning systems. In addition to employing scientific and
technical knowledge, risk reduction may also involve overcoming the socio-economic, institutional and
political barriers to the adoption of effective risk reduction strategies and measures in developing countries.
This may be accomplished thorough projects analyzing the possible roles of government, non-government,
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and private sector organizations in risk reduction, local and regional workshops and conferences aimed
at heightening the awareness of stakeholders to the threat of natural disasters and what can be done
about it, and educational and training activities that increase the understanding of policy makers, decision
makers and practitioners about disaster management."

Self Assessment Question (S.A.Q. III)

What is Risk and what are its dimensions ?

Risk Sharing and Transfer

"The private insurance sector contributes important funding for natural disaster reconstruction in
developing countries, but it has made fewer inroads in developing country markets. In emerging economies
the state and the individual carry much of the cost of disasters. As a result, ad hoc funds- transfers to
respond to disaster emergencies disrupt planned development activities. Such diversion of development
funding postpones progress towards long term economic and social improvement. Tools have to be
developed to assist the very poor to more effectively manage disaster risk. This includes micro finance
mechanisms that can deal with covariate risks such as disasters and that builds social capital and
encourages risk mitigation for the very poor. In addition to that, measures may include safety nets and
calamity funds and informal mechanisms."

8.15(iii) UN Habitat
UN-HABITAT acts as a lead agency within the United Nations System for the purpose of coordinating
activities in the field of human settlements. Besides, it is also the focal point for executing the Habitat
Agenda (the global plan of action adopted in June 1996 by the international community at the Habitat II
Conference in Istanbul, Turkcy). Major objective of UN-HABITAT is to work with other concerned Agencies
of UN System for reducing poverty and promoting sustainable development within the context of rapid
urbanization in different parts of the world. ‘Adequate shelter for all and Urban governance’ are the two
pointed areas of attention of the Habitat Agenda. It promotes concepts of inclusion, participation and
sustainability in the human settlements context by way of two Global Campaigns on Secure Tenure and
Urban Governance. These aspects are also attended to in the work of the Disaster Management
Programme for ensuring sustainable and people-focused solutions in disaster management. It is worth
highlighting here that UN-HABITAT's Post Conflict and Safety Section Urban Development Branch has
been assigned the responsibility for the operation of the Disaster Management Prograrnme. The main
aim for the creation of Disaster management programme was to generate enough resources from UN-
HABITAT and other international agencies to enable stakeholders like local government, civil society and
the corporate sector with practical strategies for mitigating and recovering from conflicts and natural
disasters in the context of human settlements. To be precise, DMP, with thematic areas namely Vulnerability
Reduction and Disaster Mitigation; Displaced Populations in Post-Disaster Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation; Relief to Development; Strategic Partnerships; Land and Property Management; Gender
Issues in Disaster and Post Conflict Situations; Safety and Security; Local Governance; and Millennium
Development Goals; has special focus on (http://staging.unchs,org/programmes/rdmu):
• "Protection and rehabilitation of housing, infrastructure and public facilities ;
• Provision of technical and policy support to humanitarian agencies before and after crisis in the
context of human settlements;
• Building partnerships and provision of complementary expertise in resettlement of displaced persons
and refugees;
• Restoration of local social structures through settlement development;
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• Rehabilitation of local government structures and empowerment of civil society;

• Land and settlements planning and management for disaster prevention."

8.15(iv) UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA)

OCHA is led by the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs /Emergency Relief Coordinator and
located in New York and Geneva. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (UNOCHA) is a body of the UN. It was formed in 1991 with an aim to strengthen the UN's response
to complex emergencies and natural disasters. It was established by creating the Department of
Humanitarian Affairs (DHA). It replaced the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator, formed
in 1972. It has been created to be the UN focal point on major disasters. Later on, the mandate of UNOCHA
was also expanded. Its activities were enlarged to lay focus on the coordination of humanitarian response,
policy development and humanitarian advocacy. Major services of OCHA are : Integrated Regional
Information Networks, a humanitarian news and analysis service ; International Search and Rescue Advisory
Group (INSARAG) ; Relief Web time-critical humanitarian information on Complex Emergencies and Natural
Disasters; Central Emergency Response Fund ; Humanitarian Information Centers, an emergency-specific,
data exchange platform supported by the Field Information Support Unit ; Humanitarian Reform, supporting
cluster information management; Who does What Where Database and Contact Management Directory.
To ensure that appropriate and timely humantitarian response is delivered during a disaster or emergency
situation, information must be managed efficiently. The key information that are important to assess and
ensure that humanitarian needs are met in any emergency/disaster are, to know which organizations
(Who) are carrying out what activities (What) in which locations (Where) which is also universally referred
to as the 3W (Who does What Where). The Who does What Where database (3W) is one product that is
universally agreed to be the most important priority for any co-ordination activity. The integrated Contact
Management Directory, complemented the 3W database, making it easy for the user to navigate through
the application; and Geo-network A large database of map information using eponymous Geo Network
open source software (http:// ochaonline.un.org). This office works with the UN resident coordinators, the
UN country teams and through its regional disaster response advisers, OCHA maintain close contacts
with countries prone to natural disasters both before and during crises. OCHA's Regional Disaster
Response Advisers provide technical, strategic and training assistance to governments, UN agencies
and regional organizations in order to improve natural disaster planning, response and post emergency
reconstruction efforts. At Headquarters level, OCHA, UNDP and the ISDR Secretariat share information
and engage in common plans and activities related to disaster reduction (http://www.reliefweb.int /ocha ol).

8.15(v) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations leads international efforts to defeat
hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations
meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge and
information. We help developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture,
forestry and fisheries practices and ensure good nutrition for all. Since its inception in 1945, it has focused
on developing rural areas, home to 70 percent of the world's poor and hungry people. Its basic objective is
to strengthen the capacity of communities to prepare for natural disasters. It deals with immediate food
issues, and plays an important role in reversing degradation and reducing vulnerability to hazards. This is
complemented by a special program for food security. The UN World Food Programme is focused on
emergency and post-disaster food relief and support for rehabilitation. The mandate of the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) is to improve agricultural productivity and raise the level of nutrition and
standard of living of rural populations. In 2000, as part of its strategic framework, FAO pledged to help
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achieve food security for present and future generations in the next 15 years. Based in, Rome, Italy. FAO
has five regional, five other sub-regional offices and 80 country offices. They work with member countries
and other development partners to coordinate activities including those involved with disaster management.
FAO is a member of the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction and participates in its working
groups. The world Food Summit of 1996 mandated FAO, among others, to assist member countries
develop national food security and vulnerability information and the use of mapping systems with a view to
reducing malnutrition by 2015, and overall in reducing food insecurity and rural poverty. (http://www.fao.org).
A key component of its strategy is to capacitate communities and local institutions in preparing for natural
hazards and addressing food emergencies or crisis situations. In order to reduce disruption of
agricultural and food systems, this strategy objective focuses on :
• "strengthening disaster preparedness and mitigation against the impact of emergencies that affect
food security and the productive capacities of rural populations;
• forecasting and providing early warning of adverse conditions in the food and agricultural sectors
and of impending food emergencies;
• strengthening programmes for agricultural relief and rehabilitation and facilitating the transition from
emergency relief to reconstruction and development in food and agriculture; and
• strengthening local capacities and coping mechanisms by, guiding the. choice of agricultural
practices, technologies and support services to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience."

8.15(vi) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

The headquarters of united Nations Development Programme is in New York. Its operational functions
are undertaken from Geneva. It provides most of its services through its country offices. These country
offices are supported by regional bureaus, specialized programmes and trust funds. Primarily, UNDP is
concerned helping its programme countries to build national capacity for achieving sustainable human
development. UNDP attaches top priority to the elimination of poverty and building equity by providing
development advice, advocacy and grant support. "As the primary substantive UN programme promoting
and supporting the implementation of risk and vulnerability reduction in developing countries, UNDP is
involved in a range of activities which contribute to disaster and risk management”. http://www.undp.org/
/erd/disred/index,htm.).
UNDP has operational responsibilities at national level for natural disaster mitigation, prevention and
preparedness. It works to ensure that disaster risk considerations are factored into national and
regional development programmes, and that countries take advantage of disaster recovery to mitigate
future risks and vulnerabilities. In 1997, a General Assembly decision transferred the responsibilities of the
UN Emergency Relief Coordinator for operational activities for natural disaster mitigation, prevention and
preparedness from OCHA to UNDP. OCHA retained its coordination function for international relief
operations.
Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) of UNDP is the in house mechanism created for
providing a prompt response in countries, wherever required, in special development situations through
the provision of services. BCPR's. The Disaster Reduction Unit (DRU) of BCPR is committed to attain a
sustainable reduction in disaster risk and sustainable recovery from disaster in programme countries.
The major responsibilities of Disaster Reduction Unit of UNDP include : disaster reduction strategies and
capacity building programmes ; sustainable recovery frameworks and programming; sub-regional
knowledge networks ; human resource development through programmes such as DMTP and development
of UNDP staff capacities; and policy and advocary through participation in the Inter-Agency Task Force on
Disaster Reduction and chair of the ISDR working group on risk, vulnerability and impact assessment.
The said tasks are undertaken by strengthening national and regional capacities. This involves
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ensuring that disaster risk considerations are factored into new development, that disaster impact is
mitigated and development gains protected and also that risk reduction is factored into rapid disaster
recovery. Accordingly, UNDP has been a key player in the implementation of the International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction.

8.17 Summary
The focus on disaster risk reduction through effective disaster management has gained enormous
currency in the immediate past. It so seems that there are mechanisms available now not only at the
national but also at regional and international are level for disaster management. These initiatives all
actions on the part of different organizations world over have open up new vistas paving the way for
disaster prone countries to strengthen the capacities and capabilities for coping up with disasters impact.
These organizations have brought forth the required paradigmatic shift in disaster management.

8.18 Model Questions :

Examine the role of major International Agencies in Disaster Management.

8.19 References and Further Readings

“Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 - 2015 : Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters", World Conference on Disaster Reduction 18-22 January, 2005, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan,
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, at www.unisdr.org.

Disaster Risk Reduction Hemispheric Conference, Costa Rica, December 4-6, 2001; at http://
www.summit-americes.org/eng/quebec-scummit1.htm
Food and Agriculture Organisation at http:/www.fao.orgISDR - A safer world in the 21st century :
Disaster and Risk Reduction, at http://www.unisdr.org/unisdr/safer.htm
ITDG : Disaster Reduction Strategy ; at http://www.itdg.org/html/disaster reduction/strategy.htm
Livelihood Options for Disaster Risk Reduction, ITDG - South Asia, Sri Lanka, 2002, Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ; at http://www.reliefweb.int / ocah_ol / Pro Vention Consortium; at
http://www.proventionconsortium.org/objectives,htm.
Sapir, Debarati Guha, Disasters in South Asia, at htt://www.punjabilok.com / india disaster-rep/
introduction/disaster southasia.htm.
Smith. K. Environmental Hazards, Assessing Risks and Reducing Disasters, Rutledge, 1996. UN -
Habitat at http://staging.unchs.org/programmes/rdmu/
United Nations Development Programme at http://www.undp.org/erd/disred/index.htm and http://
www.undp.org/capacity 21.
Van Oppen, Charls, The role of Insurance in disaster reduction, 2001 ; at http:/www.bghrc.com. World
Bank Mission : Disaster Mgt. Faculty ; at http://www.worldbank.org/dmf/mission,Htm.
World Bank paper, ‘What is Risk Management’ at http://www.worldbank.org/htm/fpd/dmf/risk
management.

*****
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Lessons : 9
ROLE OF NGOs, CORPORATES, CIVIL SOCIETY, COMMUNITY AND
ARMY IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Role of Civil Society
8.3 Role of the Community
9.4 Tools of Community Participation
9.5 Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM)
9.6 Community Based Organisations (C.B.O.)
9.7 Relevance of Community Participation : Some Case Studies
9.8 Role of N.G.Os.
9.9 Role of the Corporate Sector
9.10 Role of Army
9.11 Summary
9.12 Model Questions
9.13 References
9.14 Further Readings
9.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to :
• Understand the role of NGO, Civil Society, Community in Disaster Management.
• Discuss the Tools and Organisation of Community - Participation and its Relevance
• Evaluate the role of the Corporate Sector and Army in Disaster Management
9.1 Introduction
Disasters are catastrophic events, which rip apart each and every semblance of life when they hit a
region. They impact the haves and the have-nots alike, through the poor usually suffer more because
their coping capacities are much weaker than the rich. The problem is more glaring in India, as it has been
traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-climate conditions. Moreover,
human interference in environment has led to a multifold increase in man-made disasters. In many areas
of the country, disaster outweigh developmental gains; thereby making disaster management
interventions crucial and indispensable.
Many developments have taken place in the field of disaster management. The International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR, 1990 - 2000) culminated into various measures for effective
disaster mitigation around the globe. IDNDR envisaged that by the year 2000, all countries would have
had evolved :
• Comprehensive national assessment of risks from natural hazards
• Mitigation plans at national and local levels
• Ready access to global, regional, national and local warning systems
The Yokohama Strategy of 1994 made a plea for effective implementation of disaster management plans.
The objective was to develop a culture of prevention as a key component of integrated approach to
disaster reduction. The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR, 2000) aimed at providing a
global framework to foster the resilience of communities to the effects of natural and man-made hazards
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through risk management, hazard mitigation and sustainable development. World Disaster Report 2004
started that instead of misdirected plan of action, most of which does not reach the needy, building
community resilience for coping with disasters is the right strategy to adopt.
The Climate Change Summit (2007) at Bali has opened up a process of comprehensive dialogue
between the affected countries. It aims at developing strategies to combat global warming, cutting down
carbon emissions, strengthening corporate social responsibility, improving energy efficiency, promoting
innovation and finding alternative energy resources.
India has to take cognizance of these development and reposition its disaster management strategy
accordingly. This strategy has to be located within the framework of its administrative structures and
process. India, with its federal system of government has specific roles for the central and state
governments. The basic responsibility of undertaking rescue relief and rehabilitation measures in the
event of natural disasters, at present, is that of the state governments concerned. However, the subject
of disaster management does not specifically find mention in any of the three lists in the 7th Schedule of
the Constitution.
A High Powered Committee (HPC) was setup in 1999 in India to look into the problem areas in disaster
management. In 2001, it gave pertinent suggestions for bettering areas of disaster preparedness, quick
response, strategic thinking and prevention. Some of the suggestions have been incorporated in the
Disaster Management Act, which has been implemented in 2005. The picture now seems to be changing
for the better. The Act is expected to coordinate the disaster management activities at the central, state
and district levels, specifically in terms of legal, resource, logistic, personnel and financial support. The
Act envisages a legislative back up to coordinated action for disaster management. It entrusts the state
executive committees and district authorities with responsibility to advise and coordinate the activities of
all agencies working in the area of disaster management. In accordance with the Act, National Disaster
Management Authority, State Disaster Management Authority and District Disaster Management Authority
have been constituted.
The paradigm of disaster management is thus changing. In the past the government of India has been
reactive in its approach to disaster management. Over time, the emphasis has changed to proactive
preparedness and mitigation for disasters. In line with the Yokohama message 1994, there is a shift of
focus from limited response and post disaster relief to disaster mitigation and preparedness. Twelfth
Finance Commission in India has mentioned mitigation and preparedness apart from relief and rehabilitation
as its terms of reference.
The concept of disaster management is presently undergoing a change as the emphasis is on making it
more participatory, transparent, effective, accountable and community based. The top-down approach,
has not led to collective efforts towards reducing disaster. It is being felt that the interventions should be
more community based. The wrath of disasters, in most cases is experienced by the people at local
level and hence this needs to be the focal point for disaster mitigation, preparedness and response
activities.
The paradigm of disaster management is more inclusive now with many agencies such as Non-
governmental Organizations (N.G.Os.), Corporates, Self help Groups and Community Based Organizations
(C.B.Os.) participating in managing disasters. This multi stakeholder Approach is the focal point of this
Lesson. We must not forget that mere government bodies cannot provide rescue, relief and protection. In
the event of disasters, the hitherto passive recipients must do their bit to reach the desired goal of
minimization of adverse disaster impact.

Before going into the role of these agencies in disaster management, we should be very clear about the
different stages in disaster management cycle and also its guiding principles. Disaster management
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starts with the disaster preparedness and mitigation stage. Second stage is of disaster response
covering search and rescue operations. The third stage is disaster relief, which involves provision of food,
clothing and shelter for the affected. Disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction is the fourth stage, and the
final stage is long-term disaster recovery and development. The agencies working in the field of
disaster management should make their contribution at each and every phase of disaster management
cycle in order to make a dent into the problems faced by disaster managers.
The guiding principles of disaster management should also be clearly spelt out so that all those
involved in disaster management are able to comprehend the intensity of the problem at hand. These
principles are :
• Integrating social, economic and psychological rehabilitation
• Treating communities as heterogeneous
• Focusing on key issues
• Encouraging flexibility and adaptiveness
• Promoting systematic damage assessment
• Supporting transparency, efficiency and effectiveness
• Ensuring financial recovery
• Developing disaster-resistant buildings
• Building resilient communities
• Upholding the norms of equity and social justice
• Respecting traditional wisdom
• Disseminating good practices and lessons learned
• Endorsing sustainable development and alternative livelihood strategies
• Integrating recovery with the larger development process
Let us now focus on the role of different actors or agencies in disaster management and how they uphold
some of these guiding principles in order to manage disasters.

9.2 Role of Civil Society

Civil society plays a crucial role in disaster management. We generally confuse the term civil society
with N.G.Os. or voluntary agencies and hence do not deal with its functions property. This Lesson takes a
broader view of civil society and discusses the role of N.G.Os. and community not as separate heads,
but under the broad rubric of civil society. Civil society is the term that was widely used in the
eighteenth and nineteenth century literature. It has reemerged in twenty first century with a different
connotation and role. The concept is also receiving emphasis from the World Bank and other international
organizations.
Civil society comprises the collective of those social organizations that enjoy autonomy from the State
with an aim to influence the State on the behalf of its members. It refers to those groups, network and
relationships that are not organized or managed by the State. Civil society covers a wide range of
formal and informal networks and organizations including N.G.Os., C.B.Os. and networks of neighbours
and kin. These networks are called the Civil Society Organizations (C.S.Os.).

These C.S.Os. also include civic institutions, non-profit organizations, third party sector, self-help
groups, women's organizations, voluntary associations and independent advocacy groups, which engage
in collective behaviour or action to pursue their goals. The N.G.Os. are the most conspicuous form of
C.S.Os. and are an integral part of civil society in most of the third world countries. The N.G.Os. strengthen
civil society by focusing on bottom up democratization, promoting political rights and civil liberties, as well
as encouraging people's participation. Now we will highlight the role of civil society in disaster management
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by discussing the role of its crucial components. These components are the community and the N.G.Os.

9.3 Role of Community

Community needs to be discussed at length, as they are the, first responders in a disaster event.
Preparing the community for disaster management is the best way to manage disasters and reduce
losses. It is the most effective and reliable way of disaster management till help in the form of external
agencies appear on the disaster hit site. We all know that governmental relief, non-governmental
organizational support agencies, army, para-military forces come much later on the disaster scene. When
disaster strikes, community is the first to get into action to protect itself against its wrath. Within a community,
a certified first responder is a person who has completed 40 to 60 hours of training in providing relief in
case of medical emergencies.
Traditional trained first responders are the police and fire fighters, but non traditional responders in the
community like the lifeguards, park rangers, utility workers, teachers, childcare workers, school bus
drivers, volunteers, truck drivers, security guards, bodyguards, general aviation pilots, sports coach etc.,
also play an important role in disaster management.
We should be clear as to what is a community. It is the most loosely used word today. Whenever we talk
of a group of people, we tend to refer it as community, but this is not so. Communities are considered
"beneficiaries" of intervention by outside experts. In simple terms, it implies a group of people sharing
common ideas, resources, environment, aspirations, etc. From the point of view of disaster preparedness,
a community contains some or all of the following a territorial area, a complex of organizations within an
area, and a sense of ‘belonging.’ However, the most logical definition of a community has been provided
by the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) in which a community has been defined as "a group in face-to-
face contact having a harmony of interest and aspirations and bound by common values and objectives".
The numerous problems of survival and health resulting from a disaster are dealt with more efficiently by the
community. If the community is active and well-organized, it can perform a proactive role in disaster
management. It is also important for the community to understand the government's problems in providing
post-impact relief, especially the difficulties in stabilizing immediate needs. This would help them to
contribute more effectively in a disaster situation.
Involvement and participation of community means empowering people so that they can take their own
decisions - political, administrative, financial, etc., and also help the Government authorities and
N.G.Os. in implementing programmes relating to various facets of disaster management. There is a need
to have a proper match between goals and methods of these agencies and the needs and capacities of
beneficiaries. This is possible only through community participation. The advantages of community
participation are as follows:
• Systematic identification of problems.
• Innovative ideas/ solutions.
• Motivated participation.
• Sense of belonging.
• Better utilization of local resources.
• Faster communication.
• Participatory decisions at local level.
• Effective and speedy monitoring.
• Cost effectiveness.
• Less dependence on government.
• Involvement of all classes-strata in the community decisions.
It has been indicated that community participation is necessary as :
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• Most of the actions required for disaster management or preparedness are at individual or
community level;
• The State has limited resources and during disaster these are not sufficient, hence the need for
complete participation of the community is indispensable;
• The process of participation of the people motivates them to attain self sufficiency and to reduce
dependence on others;
• It facilitates regular review of the progress of each disaster activity and helps in guiding the disaster
response programme along the desired direction; and
• It helps the implementing agency to interact and exchange views with the community, identify their
problems and offer necessary assistance.
The following principles should be followed to ensure community participation :
• The development workers should be provided with appropriate training so that they can work as
motivators of the community.
• Motivated by development workers, the village community should identify their formal and non-
formal leaders.
• The formal and non-formal leaders should be supported to identify and prioritize options in pursuit of
their solutions.
• Local initiatives should be undertaken and local resources should be identified and mobilized as far
as possible.
The community must therefore prepare a checklist of things that they would immediately need in
disaster aftermath. They also should be aware of the Do's and Don'ts that need to be followed during
disasters. In addition to knowing what government has planned to do in terms of support measures for the
community in times of disaster, the community should also have a broad idea of the range and scope of
their rights, duties and responsibilities.

9.4 Tools of Community Participation

There are various means through which the community can contribute towards Disaster
management. Let us discuss them now :

9.4(a) Understanding the Disaster Development Interface

There is a significant relationship in the way disasters and development affect one another. In the
present context, disasters can no longer be viewed as random occurrences caused by the nature's
wrath. The distinction between natural and man-made disasters is getting blurred with time. The frequency
and intensity of disasters has recorded an all-time high, as the harmonious balance between human
beings and nature is being disturbed to almost irreparable proportions.
Faulty urbanization, population explosion, civil strife, lopsided industrial growth have led to serve
environmental degradation. Global warming, deforestation, soil erosion, and salinization echo the denuded
face of earth's environment. The degradation of environment and its mismanagement has aggravated the
frequency, severity, and predictability of disasters. The relationship between disaster management and
environmental protection thus needs to be examined against the backdrop of disaster-development matrix.

In order to promote environmental protection and create long-term vulnerability reduction conditions, a
"sustainable livelihood framework", is required urgently. The livelihood approach advocates an increase
in economic opportunities of work without degrading the natural environment. It seeks to understand the
many factors that influence people's choices of conventional and alternative livelihood strategies. Creation
of livelihood options is a crucial step towards disaster mitigation.
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The new perspective that is gaining relevance pertains to convergence of relief, rehabilitation, and
development. The basic premise for Linking of Relief and Rehabilitation with Development (LRRD) holds
the key to future strategies towards disaster rehabilitation. The community needs to understand the
interlinkages between environment and Development, so that they can look at disaster management from
a fresh viewpoint.

9.4(b) Recourse to Traditional Wisdom

It is being realized that communities do have their traditional ways of coping with disasters. The elders
in the community can forecast floods and cyclones by the colour of clouds and the flow of the wind. The
community preserves dry food to withstand droughts. They have their own indigenous water storage
system. However, with the passage of time, this traditional wisdom has got marginalized and thus needs
to be revived.
Sustainable living patterns have always been an integral part of rural community. There has been a long
tradition of living in harmony with nature. Traditional practices of water conservation such as "kuhls" of
Himachal Pradesh, "kundis", "rapats" of Rajasthan and "palliyals" of Kerala have held people in good
stead against low intensity droughts, The "sumers" and "chaukhats" of Rajasthan are inimitable earthquake
resistant structures from India's heritage and past. People have followed traditional practices of coping
with disasters, but are now increasingly becoming more and more dependent on external agencies in the
disaster aftermath. These traditional practices are being abandoned to make way for new technologies. At
a time when we earnesty need a thoughtful blend of the old and the new, we are slowly loosing our
traditional wisdom to a haphazard approach to modern development.
Many efforts in the direction of revival of these practices have borne fruit. The community needs to be
made aware of these efforts. Alwar district in Rajasthan has revived Arvari River by constructing check
dams called "johads". In Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, Mission Ground Water has been very successful.
Community land management has transformed the area. In Khaspur, Bihar, the "ahar" and "pyne" system
has been restored again. Roofted rainwater harvesting is an old technique of storing water, which has
been revived. The "kundies" of Rajasthan and the "temple tanks" in Tamil Nadu have been rejuvenated.
These success stories have to be strung together in such a way that the community can draw lessons
from them.

9.4(c) Promoting Effective Communication

Broadly speaking, communication is the means by which objectives of any programme are clearly
specified to ensure beneficial results. It is the tool by which special information inputs are fed into a
system. It is the means by which behaviour of the personnel engaged in the programme is modified,
change becomes effective, information is made productive and goals are achieved. There is a need to
build on the ideas, concepts and practices that people already possess. There is a necessity to repeat
and reinforce information through different methods. Use of existing modes of communication such as
lectures, songs, drama, street plays, story telling can facilitate this activity.
Communication in essence becomes the support system for Search and Rescue (S.A.R.). In crisis
situations, communication takes the form of Emergency Management Information System (E.M.I.S.).
Amateur (H.A.M.) Radio can also be utilized if available. Information, education and communication (I.C.E.)
is one of the key ways of preparing community to face disasters. Each of the three components of I.E.C.,
i.e. information, education and communication, has its own distinct significance, origin, perspective and
focus area. Creating awareness through disaster education, training and information dissemination are
necessary steps for empowering the community to cope with disasters.
Public education is another important aspect of communication. The objective should be to use
effective communication methods. The workshops of stakeholders can be organized for collaborative risk
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assessment in order to bring the stakeholders together to gauge risk levels in concerned locations, in the
light of the disaster profile of the area. The purpose behind such endeavours is to begin and sustain
stakeholders, collaboration and foster a ‘learning by doing’ atmosphere.
The role of media in information dissemination and generation of awareness is also noteworthy.
Community Based Early Warning System, which deals with the generation, interpretation, translation and
communication of flood warning information, requires an in-depth assessment of the role of local institutions
and community perceptions.

9.4(d) Networking Knowledge

Compilation of knowledge is as important as its generation. Networking Knowledge for best practices and
tools for disaster management is important. The objective is to network knowledge across institutions so
that organizations collaborate for information sharing in order to enhance their knowledge base. Many
disaster-hit areas have success stories to tell, especially on coping capacities, use of traditional wisdom,
and community resilience. These need to be woven together for ready reference, research and emulation.

9.4(e) Sustainable Livelihood Approach Networking

Networking is an important way of creating social capital (respository of knowledge, Expertise and
networking base), and budding people's capacities. Another determinant of a participatory development
programme is its sustainability beyond the period of investment and aid. The central premise of social
capital is that social networks have tangible value. Means of sustainability that have been tested and found
promising include formation of local task force, adoption of entrepreneurial model for operating community
programmes, linking livelihoods with disaster reduction programmes, and establishment of local
contingency funds.

9.4(f) Applying Participatory Rapid Appraisal (P.R.A.)

P.R.A. is a label given to a growing family of participatory approaches and methods that lay emphasis on
local knowledge and enable people to do their own appraisal, analysis, and planning. The prime objective
of the application of P.R.A. tools in community risk assessment is not data collection, but empowerment
of people. The other objectives being generation of self awareness, sense of responsibility, equity and
empowerment. P.R.A. for risk assessment is carried out in collaboration with community representative.
P.R.A. tools are mapping, seasonal diagramming, children's drawings, action planning, and awareness
campaigns.

9.4(g) Use of Participatory Learning and Action (P.L.A.)

P.L.A. is used interchangeably with P.R.A. Its main tools are : self esteem, associative, strengths,
resourcefulness as well as action planning and responsibility. Its purpose is to provide a multi-sector,
multi-level approach to team-building through training, encourage participants to learn from local experience
rather than from external experts, and empower people at the community and agency levels to initiate
action. A noteworthy achievement of community-based methods is that they enable participation regardless
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of the literacy levels. Three widely used Social Analysis Methods are: (i) social assessment, (ii) gender
analysis and (iii) social invention.

9.5 Community Based Disaster Management (C.B.D.M.)

The term Community Based Disaster Management (C.B.D.M.) received attention of disaster managers
in the 1980s. The process of C.B.D.M. can be : self-driven, led by local leaders, or based on
partnerships. The community can help in preparation of search and rescue or SAR kits, stockpiling,
warehousing, building temporary shelters, early warning dissemination, rapid assessment and formation
of quick response terms.
The Government of India U.N.D.P. Disaster Risk Management programme (D.R.M.) aims to build
capacities at all levels to institutionalize the DRM system in India. It is a component of O.B.D.M. and under
this community-based disaster preparedness is being popularized, C.B.D.M. should be able to help
communities work alongside local government, introduce methods of communication and create structures
for coordination. Public awareness it the first step towards popularizing the concept of C.B.D.M. and
creating a demand, locally for disaster reduction efforts, Research-documentation-learning process is
critical to the adaptive nature of C.B.D.M. The basic principles of C.B.D.M. are :
• Use of locally available resources, capacities and partnerships
• Enhancing the capacity of community to consider choices and take decisions
• Emphasis on disaster preparedness approach to disaster management
• Focus on sustainability as an underlying factor
• Mitigation of hazards with regard to special vulnerable groups
• Formulation of community action plans and contingency plans
• Constitution of Community Contingency Fund (C.C.F.)
• Forming Disaster Task Forces at the village and block levels
• Capacity building of the members of Task Force
• Review and analysis of past disasters
• Preparation of seasonality disaster calendar by the community
• Arranging mock drills at the village and block levels
• Networking with N.G.Os., C.B.Os. panchayat institutions and district authorities.
Three important means of achieving C.B.D.M. are through community capacity building, training and
community based risk assessment. Let us discuss them in detail :

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Write in short the role of community in disaster management.
2. Write two Tools of Community Participation in disaster management.
3. Explain two objectives of Networking Knowledge.

9.5 Community Capacity Building

Community resilience and capacity building implies upgrading the reserve capacity of the
communities, which gives them staying power during disasters. The capacities of the community need to
be enhanced in the areas of early warning and preparedness, effective leadership and communication,
cooperation during relief, assessment and monitoring of damages.

Twinning of Communities is another strategy for community capacity building. Recommended by World
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Health Organization, it involves the conclusion of an agreement between communities, providing for
activities such as :
• Collaborative or joint initiatives and exchanges for preventive activities, organization of a health
information network, mapping resources, training of staff, education of the population, and sanitation
plans.
• Determination and preparation of the resources to be sent in the event of a disaster equipment and
machines for clearing rubble, specialized personnel, health equipment and personnel,
communication equipment and personnel.
• Provision for means of transport and temporary accommodation in the event of evacuation
• Organization of joint exercises of governmental agencies and community
• Encouragement of exchanges and information sharing
• Facilitation of community action
• Understanding the causes of disasters and associated problems
• Assimilation of local cultural values, forms of social life and resources
• Inclusion of disabled and disadvantaged
• Development of assistance and mental-aid
• Resolution of community problems
9.5(b) Training
There is a need to develop a pool of trained disaster management personnel drawn from community who
can act as key resource personnel. It is requires that community knows how to operationalize community
preparedness plans, adhere to special instructions on warning and evacuation, mobilize community
members, distribute relief and so on. The community members thus need specific training in :
• Provision to temporary shelter
• Sanitation exercises such as installation and management of water supply and refuse disposal
points
• Mock drills and practice alerts ; and
• Information dissemination
9.5(c) Community Based Risk Assessment (C.B.R.A.)
Assessment is a participatory process undertaken in phases. It involves on-the-spot collection of data,
its interpretation and analysis from various sources. C.B.R.A. is beneficial, as it involves the entire
disaster vulnerable community. Since the community is in the know of geographical, economic and social
set-up of the area, it can help in preparation of social maps, physical profile, infrastructure inventory etc.

9.6 Community Based Organizations (C.B.Os.) Community Participation is possible

with the help of :
C.B.Os. are organizations that draw their support in terms of infrastructure, finances and personnel from
the community. C.B.Os. must offer mutual support and solidarity. They should strive to strengthen
people's consciousness and awareness levels on mutual concerns, C.B.Os. should enable people to
demand an access to resources, services and information by those involved in disaster management.
They must have an ability to organize collective acquisition of skills and knowledge in various disaster
related spheres.
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9.6(a) Resident Welfare Association (R.W.As.)

R.W.As. play an important role in creating awareness. Since they can help in information
dissemination to neighbourhood areas, they can be utilized to create awareness on disaster preparedness,
mitigation and response.

9.6(b) Disaster Task Force (D.T.F.)

D.T.F. is Another way of involving the community in disaster management. DTF members should be
from within the village. They should be young and healthy. They should be members of Gram Panchayat.
Above all, they must share strong commitment towards community service.
• Disaster Task Force should focus on :
• Early warning
• Shelter management
• Evacuation, search and rescue
• Identification of the dead and performance of last rites
• Medical and first-aid
• Water and sanitation
• Carcass disposal
• Trauma counseling
• Damage assessment
• Relief and coordination A Disaster Manager's role is to :
• Identify the key issues involved in disaster preparedness
• Integrate disaster prevention and preparedness into development
• Protect the vulnerable
• Ensure the involvement of community
• Provide disaster assistance as far as possible in an equitable and consistent manner
• Establish transparency, commitment and involvement in implementing the ongoing disaster
management Programme

Preparation of Community Action Plan

An Action Plan can be formulated keeping in view the social profile, economic set-up and
geographical vulnerability of the disaster-prone areas. Its objective is to reduce vulnerability and risk of the
concerned community. It involves outlining data pertaining to human population, livestock, local resources,
housing pattern, cropping and occupational profile. The action plan should be based on social mapping
(natural topography, common infrastructure) resource mapping (mapping of natural resources), vulnerability
and risk mapping (inventory of vulnerable houses, defunct infrastructure, vulnerable areas) and safe and
alternate route mapping. The plan should be implementable, flexible and dynamic, so that it does not
remain on paper only. These plans come in handy in a disaster event.

9.7 Relevance of Community participation : Some Case Studies

There are many instances from within India as well as outside the country, which speak of community
participation and community resilience. In China, for instance, the entire population of the town of Haicheng,
around 1,00,000 people, were evacuated in matter of hours before it was utterly destroyed by an extremely
violent earthquake in 1975. More than one million people live in the affected area, yet the number of victims
did not exceed 200. This remarkable feat came about, thanks to and extremely well organized early
warning system and a highly developed civic spirit exhibited by the community. Teams of volunteers took
change of helping the sick and handicapped and checked every house to make sure that no body was left
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in the town. This example teaches us that prevention of adverse disaster impact is genuinely possible to
some extent.
Similarly, in village Rampur in Okhatdhunga District, Nepal, monsoon rains while contributing to
agricultural productivity the main livelihood; also bring the threat of soil erosion landslides and flooding.
Villagers have worked out techniques to "manage" or "trap" adequate quantities of monsoon rains for
agricultural purposes and to let the excess out. Stone works have been used to stabilize slopes and to
make diversions to check gully erosion. Grass and tree planting has been done to reduce soil erosion
during the monsoon. All construction and resource management work in the village has been done by the
community to let the flood water escape without much damage.
In India, during the 1990s, the people of Samiapalli, Orissa, embarked on a long process of
development, one element of which was to construct disaster-proof homes with the help of a local non-
governmental organization. When the ‘super cyclone’ of October 1999 struck the villages, these houses
saved both lives and livelihoods, while tens of thousands of people in weaker homes perished in the
neighbourhood.
In the village of Andhra Pradesh, the Forest Department has started the institution of Vana
Samrakshana Samithi under the Joint Forest Participatory Management process. The State Government
has launched a training programme covering the staff and around 75,000 V.S.S. members. Zaheerabad
region of Andhra Pradesh, since mid-l990s, has been suffering an ongoing disaster of chronic food
insecurity, driven by drought and the failure of pest-prone cash crops such as wheat, rice and cotton.
However, inspired by a local development agency, some of the state's poorest and most marginalized
communities have rediscovered traditional drought-proofing seeds and farming techniques. This initiative
has spread to more than 65 villages.
Similarly the post-earthquake Gujarat has many success stories to its credit. The villages from Patanka
have rebuilt their homes stronger than before, with the help of a partnership of local and international aid
organizations. Farmers, rendered unemployed by three years of intense drought, have been given
employment as masons. They have helped build earthquake-resistant houses for every family in the
village. Building on this successful initiative of theirs, villages have been able to access government.
funds to create a new rainwater harvesting system to improve both their health and crop yields. In the
Saurashtra district, around 10,000 check dams have been built responding to the State Government's
"Build Your Own Dam" (B.Y.O.D.) scheme. Under the project, the government bears 60 per cent of the
total cost of the dam while the villagers shoulder the remaining costs through voluntary labour.
After the Sumatra-Andaman - Earthquake and Tsunami (2004), Plan International (India) joined hands
with a group of local NGOs and community in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh for immediate relief work
to provide food, culturally appropriate clothing, temporary shelters, water and sanitation facilities,
counseling, child care centres and basic health needs through health camps to the affected people. Plan
International is still forming new partnerships to address long-term issues like permanent housing, livelihood
and skills training in the disaster rehabilitation phase.
Many cases of community participation can be found in the areas of community-level disaster planning
drought mitigation, public awareness and information campaigns, first responder training, medical
preparedness, weather and food forcessing ; and early warning systems, The successful efforts on the
part of the community go to shop that an aware and equipped community can minimize the adverse
impact of disasters to a significant extent. They also show that many a time the community needs the
support and cooperation of governmental agencies and N.G.Os. to pursue its goals. Let us now discuss
the role of N.G.Os. in managing disasters and building community capacities.

9.8 Role of N.G.Os.

There are many NGOs working in the area of disaster management. These can be classified into the
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following :
• N.G.Os. with dedicated field operations and resource backup, e.g., International Red Cross Society
• N.G.Os. related with development technology e. g. Sulabh International
• Local Resident Welfare Associations
• Religious Bodies
• Educational Institutions
NGOs can play a key role in disaster management by extending assistance in rescue and relief, first
aid, sanitation, hygiene, and damage assessment, During the disaster phase, they can provide technical
support for safe construction, revive educational facilities and restore means of livelihood as well as
assist government in monitoring and evaluating disaster management programmes.
Networking among N.G.Os. is an important strategy for increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of
disaster risk reduction and. response activities, e.g. training, sharing of information of best practices,
transfer of technology. In order to measure and establish a more permanent type of linkage and coordination
between N.G.Os, we have to understand the need and relevance of communication in the event of disasters.
N.G.Os. facilitate the process of decision making in disaster aftermath by contributing towards
communication with community, human resources, finances and materials, professional and technological
services. A number of international agencies are also involved in decision making such as the Department
for International Development, U.S. Agency for International Development, U.N. Development prograrnme,
U.N. Children's Fund, World Health Organization, International Labour Organization, Asian Development
Bank, United Nations, International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
These agencies support many national and international N.G.Os. working in the area of disaster
management in India. Many N.G.Os. such as Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere
(GARE India), OXFAM India Trust, Ramakrishna Mission, Catholic Health Association of India (CHAI),
Voluntary Health Association of India (VHAI), Action Aid, sustainable Environment and Ecological
Development (SEEDS) draw help from these agencies and are seriously involved in disaster mitigation
exercise.

Role of Non Governmental Organizations

• Preparation of skeleton disaster management plans
• Training of personnel
• Establishment of alternative means of communication
• Mobilization of fire extinguishing equipment
• Provision of hospital, medical staff
• Removal of debris
• Emergency sanitation, water supply, garbage disposal
• Provision of welfare for homeless
• Disposal of dead
• Arrangement of transport
• Requisition of vehicles
• Publicity
• Prevention of panic
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• Restoration of communication
• Liaison work

There have been many instances of N.G.Os. involvement in disaster mitigation and response, either as
a single provider or as one of the multiple providers of rescue and relief in the field. So N.G.Os. activity
cooperate with national, international, governmental agencies as well as the affected people. After the
Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat, realizing the need to rebuild capacities of people in a manner that it
reduces their vulnerability to multi hazard situation, the U.N.D.P. has dovetailed rehabilitation programmes
towards an integrated livelihood approach. Immediately after the relief phase was over, U.N.D.P. has
partnered with "Abhiyan" network of N.G.Os. to repair the small water harvesting structures in Kutch
district, which were posing a threat to the village habitat. And with the help of Italian Government, 34 water
bodies such as check dams, minor irrigation dams have been repaired or partly reconstructed in some
talukas of Kutch district.
U.N.D.P. has also been supporting a Drought Proofing Project with assistance from Government of
Netherlands. As a part of Project, U.N.D.P. in association with the government of Gujarat, Environmental
Planning Collaborative and Kutch "Nav Nirman Abhiyan" has set up a Kutch Ecological Fund. The Project
aims at supporting and facilitating the planning and implementation of initiatives towards long term recovery
and drought proofing of the region.
Self-employed Woman Association (S.E.W.A.) provides micro finance and safety nets to increase
disaster resilience among rural poor of Gujarat. As a long term response to the earthquake, S.E.W.A.
along with International Fund for Agricultural Development, World Food Programme, Government of India
and Government of Gujarat, has launched "Jeevika". It is a 7 year livelihood programme security
project for earthquake affected households in rural areas of Gujarat. The objective of the programme is
to look beyond provision of mere relief and rebuild livelihoods of the affected through the provision of micro
finance. The aim is to introduce financial management as an effective disaster mitigation strategy in
project area. The programme's object is to inculcate a culture of savings among rural poor as a form of
self insurance.
OXFAM, supported by the European Union, has launched a "Livelihoods and Employment Restoration
Programme", which aims to restore and nutritional status of vulnerable groups in cyclone- ravaged
Orissa. The programme involves targeting of 15,000 vulnerable households that were to be provided
food for four months, integrating it with the distribution of family survival kits, food items, fishing nets and
blankets. It has made a provision for preservation of traditional livelihoods of affected population,
facilitation of the work of community based rehabilitation and revival of Food for Work Programme.
A Disaster Risk Management (D.R.M.) programme has been started in some district of Orissa in 2002.
It is a joint initiative of the Government of India and U.N.D.P. The programme aims to develop the
capacity of the local community and the Panchayati Raj Institutions for disaster mitigation, preparedness
and recovery. The D.R.M. programme runs in 169 multi-hazard districts in 17 states. It specifically targets
the woman. The objective is to raise the capacities of woman to withstand disasters. In all the 17 states,
woman have shown remarkable enthusiasm during first-aid training as well as search add rescue drills.
Involving women means recognizing the human face of disasters and relevance of vulnerability minimization.
Some trained women are a part of Disaster Management Committee which supervises relief, training and
recovery in disaster aftermath.

9.9 Role of the Corporate Sector

Another sector that is making its presence felt in disaster management is the corporate sector. The
critical role of corporate sector in management of disasters is being slowly recognized. It has become an
integral part of Corporate Social Responsibility (C.S.R.) and needs to be mainstreamed in corporate
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sector functioning. Corporate Social Responsibility means a company that complies with the laws of the
land in a way that is socially responsible. The perspective on C.S.R. focuses on responsibility towards
stakeholders (shareholders, employees, management, consumers and community), rather than sheer
maximization of profit.
As a part of corporate responsibility, the companies are encouraged to conduct business responsibly.
They are expected to contribute towards economic health and development of communities in which
they operate. They are also supposed to maintain healthy and safe working conditions, uphold highest
ethics in conducting business, strive for dialogue and transparency and be accountable to the
environment by minimizing negative impact.
The involvement of corporate sector in disaster management is being considered appropriate for
disaster risk management and needful structural and non-structural mitigation strategies, This also includes
Risk Assessment, which involves Hazard Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis. The new approach
stems from the premise that development in any sector, more so in the corporate world, cannot be
sustainable unless risk reduction and mitigation measures are built into its everyday production processes.
In India, the role of corporate sector in disaster management has been most visible in the post- super
cyclone and Bhuj earthquake period, However, it does not mean that corporate responsibility toward
disaster mitigation is, by and large, a post -1999 phenomenon. The need for C.S.R., in the words of
Jamshetji N. Tata, is very strong. He said almost a century ago that "In a free enterprise, the community is
not just another stakeholder in business, but is in fact the very purpose of its existence”. The intent of
C.S.R. by design should encourage inclusive growth like it happened in the days of Jamshedpur, which
became a model township.
Historically, CSR itself has gone through several phases from mere philanthropy in the 1950s and 1960s
to the concept of conscience cleaning and giving back to society. It is no longer about positioning, it is
about, as has been observed, taking a position C.S.R. must aim at promoting growth and impacting the
quality of life.
The industrial and corporate organizations like the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) the Federation
of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) have adopted villages and contributed towards
the development of social and community assets. Apart from addressing natural disasters, CII has
established an Environment Management Division involved in research and propagation of
environmentally sound industrial systems and processes. It has been involved in advising and developing
systems as well as methods for safer and disaster free handling of chemicals and hazardous substances.
CII has also partnered with United Nations Development Programme (U.N.D.P.) for effective
implementation of disaster risk reduction activities and promotion of Public Private People (P.P.P.)
partnerships for natural disaster risk management. The objectives are to create awareness, conduct
training and sensitization programmes, mock drills and involve the trained personnel in disaster
management. The broad objectives are :
• Development of on-site disaster management plans
• Preparation of inventory of resources for disaster management
• Enforcement of an appropriate techno-legal regime
• Recognition of the connect between development and disaster risk management
The CII has also launched the India partnership Forum with U.N.D.P. to promote stakeholder dialogue on
Corporate Social Responsibility. The aim is to envisage an industry - led voluntary force for search,
rescue and first aid. Then there is the Ankleshwar Environment Preservation Society in Ankleshwar, Gujarat,
which along with Ankleshwar Industrial Association, has set up joint effluent treatment plants for medium
and small-scale chemical industries in the industrial belt, and has taken up disposal and treatment of solid
and hazardous waste. Thus, we can see that the corporate sector is trying to minimize the adverse
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impact of disasters. Corporate social responsibility and introduction of Environment Impact Assessment
in corporate sector are steps in the right direction.
Recently, real estate giant D.L.F. has divided the company's C.S.R. initiatives into six different
categories ; rural development, urban community development, capacity building, health, education and
environment management. The components of health, capacity building and environment would have a
key role in disaster management.
The notion of corporate philanthropy needs to be promoted so that corporations take an active interest
in developing the society. This can be done through provision of goods and services in disaster affected
areas. Collective corporate philanthropy and corporate conscience can create social and economic
infrastructure needed to withstand disasters. This infrastructure is still unavailable in disaster-prone areas,
where poor as it is suffer from lack of basic essentials, health and education. If each industry decides to
look after the area around it in this way, disaster vulnerability can considerably come down.

9.10 Role of Army

The Armed Forces are at the core of the government's response capacity and tend to be the
first responders in a major disaster. The specialized nature of the structure of Armed Forces
enables it to perform the tasks of disaster management in an effective and organized manner.
Armed Forces are well- trained in individual skills, necessary to perform their professional and
functional activities, and work in collaboration and coordination with other agencies under an
integrated and flexible management system. Armed Forces arc also a useful tool in disaster
management on account of their immense organizational strength, high sense of discipline and
enormous manpower.
The three wings of the fumed Forces, namely the Army, the Navy and the Air Force have been activity
involved in containing various disasters despite their primary commitment to defence of the country. The
Army being the largest force, with its repository of expertise in human and technical resources, provides
support and assistance in a disaster situation. Its manpower is used for all kinds of support and control
needed to restore infrastructure damaged by a disaster. The Air Force leads in providing the helicopters
and other aircraft needed during a disaster for transporting people, aerial dropping of essential food and
clothing, locating distress areas and aerial assessment of crisis situation. The Navy is called upon for
providing divers, boats and other assistance in coastal areas.
It is believed that the Indian Armed Forces are supposed to be called upon to intervene, and take on
specific disaster-related tasks, only when the situation is beyond the capability of the civil administration.
Thus, the Armed Forces are supposed to have only a secondary role to assist the civil administration in
handling internal threats and maintenance of essential services during natural and other calamities. However,
an analysis of any ground level disaster situation shows that the role of the Army, Navy and Air Force is
integral to disaster management.
Broadly, the Armed Forces, especially the Army, are expected to perform the following roles :
• Evacuation : This is the most common contingency. Army is called upon to evacuate people from
marooned villages from the areas affected by cyclones, floods and earthquakes. The earth moving
equipment of the Army is invaluable for debris clearance tasks.
• Maintenance of Essential supplies: There is enormous defence organizations to serve as an
additional instrument potential inherent in for effective delivery of emergency assistance. People in
marooned areas could go without the basic necessities for days on end, but the Army reaches them
before any other external agency.
• Transportation of Relief Material : The military resource of any country are those best organized
and managed to provide support to a full range of public services such as public works,
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transport,rescue and support activities. They can react quickly and respond rapidly in a self
contained, self sufficient and mobile fashion. Transfer of relief material can be done effectively
through Army trucks and jeeps. The Army can reach any rocky terrain to provide relief material with
ease.
• Restoration an Maintenance of Communication : The Army has state of the art communication
network which can be utilized in case of breakdown of the civil communication network. This was
exemplified during Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999, Gujarat Earthquake of 2001, Tsunami of 2004
and Musheerabad Earthquake in 2006. During these calamities, the Army's IMMARSAT phones or
mobile telephone network have acted as the major means of communication between the
headquarters and disaster sites for crucial initial hours.
• First aid and Medical Support : Provision of medical aid by constituting small teams is another area,
where Armed Forces are called upon to provide their expertise. The Army's fleet of ambulances and
helicopters including those of the Air Force are vital for timely evacuation work. The Army has also
shown a vast capacity for establishing field hospitals for treatment of the victims during Orissa Super
Cyclone. It plays a key role in provision of emergency medical treatment to the injured and sick, and
also in their evacuation to civil hospitals.
Army, thus promotes what could be termed as advocacy planning, in disaster management. Through
advocacy planning, the Army acts as a catalytic for :
• Analyzing options for local self-government, NGOs and other community based organizations
• Seeking a cost-effective approach to bring maximum benefits to a wide range of beneficiaries at an
affordable cost
• Allocating responsibilities to various agencies and coordination
• Understanding psychology of victims and human behaviour
• Assessing the response of communities and various institutions to disasters
• Generating community participation, public awareness and management of information
• Managing relief measures
• Examining assessment techniques and monitoring methodologies
• Conducting search and rescue
• Improving community health and casualty management
• Reviewing post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction, including its social and economic aspect.
The critical task before the Army has to eliminate worst alternatives cautiously to arrive at the right
decisions during calamities. An efficient army officer has to be an excellent Ieader. He must be able to
effortlessly direct, command, motivate, persuade, participate and delegate in crisis situations.
Indian Army plays a very dynamic role in disaster situations. Their role during disasters is challenging,
unexpected, long-term and to a large extent analytical, Broadly, the concept of Operational Command
best describes their role in disaster situations. This role would thus include the following activities:
• Assuming formal responsibility
• Making decisions
• Setting goals
• Setting priorities
• Assigning work and duties
• Allocating resources
• Directing
• Coordinating
• Monitoring
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• Assessing follow up
Since the Armed Forces have to work with the civic authorities and community by maintaining
cooperation, planning systematically and showing financial prudence, they are always in a state of readiness
to move quickly to any disaster affected area. Their ability to work under ground and in adverse climatic
conditions is of immense help to any civil authority during disasters. The effectiveness of disaster response
largely depends on swift alacrity to which the response and relief measures are directed. A trigger
mechanism for response, which demands alertness and active mind-set, are considered to be the essential
elements.
The Armed Forces are not alone in their disaster management tasks. The paramilitary organizations are
also deployed to assist the local police whenever necessary. These para-military forces support the
army in the, aftermath of disasters. some of the specialized paramilitary organizations are : Border Security
Force, Indo Tribetan Border Police, Territorial Army, Coast Guard, Central Reserve Police Force, Central
Industrial Security Force, Rapid Action Force, Railway Protection Force, National Security Guard and
Home Guards. The district collector or local administration can request the commander of the para military
organizations for help in a disaster situation.
Assistance is provided by the Armed Forces with the approval of central government, as the use of forces
is a function of the central government. Whenever troops are called in for such tasks, the state
government or civil authority through the state government, should Report the fact to central government
without delay, The sanction of central government must be obtained within 10 years of employing the
troops.
Then there is Territorial Army, which is a voluntary part-time civilian force, having departmental units
and non-departmental units. Their role is to relieve the regular army when required of the static duties,
provide aid to the civic authorities in dealing with natural calamities, maintain essential services. Their
railway units help in running essential rail traffic. There are medical units of territorial army for
supplementing the military hospital personnel. The ecological battalions have the task of restoring the
ecological balance of degraded areas due to natural and man-made disasters. Help also comes in the
form of Border Roads Organization, National Security Guards and National Cadet Cops.
There is also a large contingent of ex-servicemen in India. They constitute a vast human reserve that is
disciplined and trained. This potential force needs to be brought into the national disaster management
structure and assigned an appropriate role in the overall response mechanism. The High Powered
Committee (H.P.C.) had recommended that this be carried out at the stage of preparation of state, district
and local level disaster management plans. Ex-servicemen could also be employed for creating disaster
task force at the local level.
There are certain problems-areas, which need attention, to smoothen the tasks of operation by the Armed
Forces during disasters. The civic authorities must understand that the role of Armed Forces only
supplements their tasks in managing disasters, and not substitutes it. The Armed personnel should help
in forming Community Based Disaster Task Force in affected areas. Regular training of Armed Forces in
techniques and methods of disaster management is imperative. The requisitioning of the Armed Forces
specify identified tasks rather than the quantum of tasks. If the district and state plans incorporate the role
expected from armed forces and there is a continuous flow of information, the procedure for deploying the
forces would be quick and smooth.

Summary
Thus, we can say that disaster management is an inclusive exercise, which involves multiple actors to
manage a crises situation. These actors have a stake in disaster management as their participation in its
accrues sustained benefits to them. This is the reason why actors like the civil society organizations,
corporates and army are called stakeholders in the process of disaster management. It has to be seen
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that these agencies are able to overcome the problems underlying disaster management and evolve a
comprehensive strategy to mitigate disasters. This strategy should be participatory, fair and sustained.
The problem areas in disaster management generally relate to :
• Haphazard planning
• Lack of adherence to legislative controls
• Inadequate transparency and accountability
• Low levels of people's participation
• Lack of sensitivity
• Local area problems
• Duplicity of tasks and inadequate coordination
• Lack of education training and awareness
• Insufficient research and networking of disaster related knowledge and experience

These problems or issues need to be addressed through community based efforts that draw support
from N.G.Os. and corporate agencies. It is generally believed that C.B.D.M. is the responsibility of
grassroots organizations and N.G.Os. C.B.D.M. initiatives have not yet found place in the government
policy. Community efforts still are being underutilized due to tack of resources, access to information,
technology awareness etc. This calls for strengthening their capacities in the areas of assessment,
monitoring early warning and preparedness systems. Accurate and effective communication strategies in
the implementation of disaster preparedness and response programmes are urgently required. Capacity
building of government functionaries and professionals is also necessary. Every situation demands specific
intervention in accordance with its vulnerability and capacity levels. These situations need to be periodically
studied and monitored. It is important to constantly research and document social processes and group
practices in order to establish a pool of theoretical concepts that are implementable and sustainable.
As per World Disasters Report (2004) there is a need to focus on :
• Systematic assessment of what enables people to cope with, recover from and adapt to risks and
adversities, at the household and community levels
• Strengthening social capital
• People centered approaches to disaster mitigation
• New institutional strategies and cross cultural conditions
• Good governance
• Vulnerable sections of people
Participation of multiple stakeholders in disaster management will go a long way in addressing these
key concerns. It is important that a proper coordination is established between the different agencies
working for disaster management. We should remember that disaster management is not a one time
intervention. It is an on going process that is an integral part of the sustainable development framework.
1. Model Questions
2. Discuss the role of NGOs in disaster management.
3. Discuss the role of community and Army in Disaster Management ?
9.11 References
Dhameja, Alka, “Droughts and floods” : A Case for Dying Wisdom in Pardeep Sahni
Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation : Experiences and Reflections,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi
Kaul, Malvika, “Trained to Survive” in the Hindu, December 30th, 2007
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Masters Programme in Public Administration (M.P.A.), Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
Course Material, Course 018 on Disaster Management

9.12 Further Readings

Post Graduate Diploma in Disaster Management (PGDDM) Material of IGNOU, MPA-007 PGDDM
Material of IGNOU, MPA - 003
Sahni, Pardeep, 2001, Community based Disaster Management Report.

*****
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Lessons : 10

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Negative and Positive Aspects of Disaster
10.3 Meaning of Risk
10.4 Major Elements of Risk
10.5 Method / Tools of Risk Reduction
10.6 Disaster Versus Development
10.7 Summary
10.8 Model Questions
10.9 References
10.10 Further Readings
10.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to:
 Know the meaning of Risk and negative and positive aspects of Disaster.
• Understand the major elements at risk.
• Evaluate the methods of Risk Reduction
• Examine the relationship between Disaster and Development

10.1 Introduction
Elemental forces keep no calendar and nature's relentless fury is always unpredictable. In this regard,
few things are more dangerous than the bureaucratic and community complacency. The official
machine should know and be prepared to do what needs to be done. One thing is certain that the dislocated
life structure of the maimed humanity has to be put on the lines with all infrastructure damaged or dislocated.
India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic conditions.
Floods, droughts cyclones earthquake and landslides have been recurrent phenomena. About 60% of the
landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensifies, over 40 million hectares is prone to floods about
8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 58% of the area is susceptible to drought.
People in the disaster areas are not sufficiently integrated in the intervention process in general
although they have displayed examples of considerable mobilisation capacity leading to collective mitigation
actions. The top down approach to disaster mitigation has given rise to external positions and agency
driven activities at a scale that could be harmful in that long run. Elements of participation that can generate
a dynamics of its own are still weak, affecting government and non-government activities. This has
happened mainly due to lack of any coherent national or stale policy on disaster management. Also,
whatever exists in the name of policy has tended to benefits the socially powerful.
Pro-active actions are to be identified and less effective interventions must be critically reviewed to enable
policy makers and agencies involved in disaster management to make appropriate decisions. The final
responsibility of disaster preparedness devolves upon the government, it should create enabling
environment by including interventions with social and cultural components and at the same time mobilizing
these at a greater pace. The emphasis has to be on a people centered approach with non-structural
measures as against structural measures that are expensive and non-sustainable.
The concept of disaster management has undergone a change with the growing need for it to be
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community based. In the past, the concept of relief was to save lives primarily focusing on rescue operation,
and subsequently, the major objective was also to prevent physical deterioration in the living standards of
the victims enabling them to resume their normal life. This required encouraging the village communities
in making concerted and continuous efforts to fight the common misfortunes. The extent of preparedness
and response to the affected communities can only determine the success of these measures. Well
planned steps to meet natural disasters and to establish institutional framework are a new concept requiring
deliberations at all levels.
Disaster management occupies an important place in this country's policy frame work as it is the poor
and the under privileged who are worst affected on account of the calamities / disaster. Disaster
management is no more a piecemeal strategy but has turned to be an integrated process and approach.
The anatomy of the word "DISASTER", as stated below reveals both negative as well as positive connotation
of each alphabet of the word.
10.2 DISSASTER: NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ASPECTS

Negative Aspects Positive Aspects

D Damage Development

I Interruption Innovation

S Severe Sharing

A Antagonistic Awareness

S Scourge Self-sufficiency

T Traumatic Transformation

E Emergency Education

R Risk Resilience
It is becoming imperative on the part of stakeholders in general and public administration in particular to
work towards mitigating the negative aspects of disaster, referred to above and work towards better
application of the Positive aspects of the disaster in the ultimate interest of the community economy and
polity not only this, in fact the public administration is obliged to provide such services to the various
components of the social-political and economic systems which contribute towards their betterment.
Disaster management has undergone serious changes in the past. Especially after some major disaster
in India since 1999, the focus on disaster management has been ‘ideographic’ to nomothetic’ that is from
individualistic to universal, and from ‘normative’ to empirical’, that is, from what is should be ? To what it is
? Such paradigmatic shift in disaster management has called on public administrators, in particular, to lay
more emphasis on pro-active approach for disaster management to substantially mitigate the losses, if
not completely eliminate the chances of destruction.
The economic-social and psychological dimensions of the wrath of disasters adversely affect the
environment around. There are elements at risk with regard to each disaster. Thus, the local communities
are required to be prepared to face the aftermath of the disasters effectively. The first step in this direction
is to undertake vulnerability analysis which brings to light the elements at risk such as the population,
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buildings and infrastructure. The most vulnerable members of the community are the expectant and
lactating women-single women, children, and old, disabled-handicapped, sick and ailing people. Their
special needs have to be kept in view in vulnerability analysis. Likewise, the physical vulnerability of elements
has to be recognized by the community for the purpose of imitating specific measures to reduce the
extent of losses in their regions. It is imperative to take formal and non-formal measures to equip the
community to identify the potential threats in order to cope with the intensity of future disasters (Sahni and
Dhameja 2003).

10.3 Meaning of Risk

In general terms, the work Risk means an apprehension or a threat of something untoward is
happening. In the words of James Neill, the concept of "risk" usually refers to the probability of loss of a
valued resource. In the specific context of disaster management, risk implies application of specialist
knowledge on the part of professionals to forewarn of disasters accurately and anticipate the risk involved
in citing, land use management and project planning decisions in hazard prone areas so as to Prevent /
reduce impact of impending disaster(s).
Thus disaster terminology, Risk is defined as the likelihood of a specified undesired event occurring within
a specified period or in specified circumstances. It may be a frequency or a probability. Often it is
expressed in mathematical terms as :

Risk = f (frequency or Probability, consequence)

A clear understanding of the risk is not through the meaning of the risk but to appreciate how the risk
defines a particular situation. According, the understanding of risk in disaster management literature has
gradually become more precise in those phenomena that were previously referred casually as hazards,
dangers, or uncertainties.

10.4 Major categories of "elements at risk" from all types of disasters are : 10.4(i)
Infrastructure
Disasters cause tremendous damage. It affects the life lines essential for the people, livestock,
agriculture, industries, roads, etc. A disaster badly hits the infrastructure, which comprises communication
network, namely electrical poles, telephone lines, connecting wires, roads, bridges, etc. Buildings, including
housing infrastructure, small businesses, industrial houses and critical facilities like hospitals, important
government offices, and non governmental set ups are also affected by the disasters. Damage or loss to
hospitals, railway lines, railway stations and roads, etc. is much more critical because these installations,
if affected, put the life out of gear especially when the surroundings are already disrupted due to disaster's
affects on people and their day to day needs and necessities. In case, the electrical wiring is disrupted by
a disaster, there is possibility of many more people getting affected due to electrocutions. Likewise, if
drainage pipes break down, or essential services like hospitals are affected, disaster situation would be
harder to control. Adverse affect on infrastructure could lead to add on the miseries through release of
potentially harmful substances like release of oil, radioactive materials or hazardous chemicals into the
air, water and or land. Similarly, agricultural land being affected cause great amount of loss to the farming
community and especially so in country like India where around six hundred million (people depend on
agriculture. In the like manner, industrial houses or installations getting affected have adverse impact on
livelihood of people and also on developmental endeavours of the nation. For example, the elements at
risk in case of cyclone are : thatched houses ; mud houses ; weak houses ; lightweight houses; loose and
poorly attached building elements (chips and boards, etc.) ; sign boards, fences, trees, etc. and fishing
boats. Risk is not an inherent property of a hazard alone. The weak structures are otherwise also more at
risk. It depends on the fury as well as vulnerability.
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10.4(ii) People
A large majority of people in India live in rural areas. They primarily have agriculture, forestry, dairies,
poultries, and fisheries, etc., for their livelihoods. It has been pointed out by a recent report that in case of
water shortage, around four hundred million people living alone in Ganga Basin will be affected (Reid,
et.al, 2007). It establishes that disasters have negative affects on the life and property of people.
Further more, it has been observed that growth in cities has been capital- intensive. It has led to increased
population pressure, commercial considerations, and inadequate legislation to prevent improper land use
in hazard prone areas. Such scenario has only compounded hazard situation where many factors have
interacted to put populations at risk from natural and man made hazards. In major cities, water bodies are
sharply depleted and it has caused a serious concern for the planners and people as water level is
steadily getting down and the life is becoming difficult. In a situation like this, development itself has
become a cause. of vulnerability of people. More buildings are likely to suffer damage, which would mean
more loss of life, property from natural hazards. Even otherwise, people are vulnerable to climate change
induced health risks consequent on general environmental degradation, global warning due to unchecked
emission of green house gases, deforestation and loss of flora and fauna. Air pollution has led to increased
incidents of respiratory diseases and typical forms of cancer, particularly, lung and skin cancer apart from
reported incidents of dengue fever brain fever cholera, malaria, diarrhea, malaria and food poisoning.
Women, old aged persons, children, marginalized segments of the society, etc. are more prone to disaster
risks, It is due to a variety of reasons and thus, it requires special attention to be paid to take extra
precaution for such elements at risk in disasters, Poor persons are also more vulnerable to disasters.

10.4(iii) Environment
The ecosystems in India are in the state of burdened, much more than their capacities. Primarily, it has
happened due to pressure enormous on environment resulting from hard commercialization, unplanned
and excessive resource use and dumping of agricultural land less industrial waste. The disasters are related
to environment. It is estimated that two third of disasters in India are climate and weather related.
Unplanned growth without giving due attention to the protection and conservation of environment has led
to increased vulnerability of environment, which paves the way for more disasters. Thus due to climate
be change and other challenges related to it, the environment itself has been at risk. Unless required
steps for protecting environment in the times to come are initiated, the situation will be more grim and
threatening.

10.4(iv) Livestock
India has the largest cattle population in the world. Almost every rural household in India, whether landed
or landless, owns livestock. A large number of farmers depend on livestock for their livelihood.
Thus, animal husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy. It has been often witnessed that
livestock are more at risks whether it is a cyclone, flood, earthquake, landslide, bushy fire, drought, or
epidemic. It is primarily due to the fact that in the event of a disaster, the owners of the livestock leave the
area and the livestock is not taken to safe places.
Disasters are unwelcome guests and they affect not only the present generation but also the
successive one in a state of shock and great economic and personal loss. It is not easy for the people and
the systems to cope up with the adverse affects of disasters. It becomes imperative to adopt all such
measures whereby disaster risk reduction could get in place. Invariably, it is seen that disaster risk reduction
is not made an integrated component of development planning. It is more so in the developing or poorer
nations in comparison to the developed or richer nations. A study entitled Disaster Risk Reduction. A
Development Concern conducted by the Department of International Development (D.F.I.D.) highlights a
comparative illustration to this effect relating to varies types of countries. It is as mentioned below :
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Comparative examples of disaster reduction capacities in richer and poorer countries

Richer Countries Poorer Countries

• Have regulatory framework to minimize •
disaster risk which are enforced.
• Have effective early warning and
advance information mechanisms help
to minimize loss of life.
• Have highly developed emergency
response and medical care systems
Regulatory frameworks are weak or absent, and / or
the capacity to enforce them is lacking.
• Lack of comprehensive information systems linked
to pre-emptive response
• Divert funds from development programs to
emergency assistance and recovery

• Insurance schemes spread the burden • Those affected bear full burden of property losses
of property losses and may lose livelihoods

It calls for the political matters and others involved in the governance of the systems in poorer countries
to work on the measures for reducing disaster risk. Disaster risk reduction takes into stock such
mechanisms whereby social and economic losses of disasters could be curbed. It is essential to relate
disaster risks with measures like disaster planning sustainable livelihood options, proper education and
awareness of stakeholders, and participation of all concerned in disaster management. The following
strategies for disaster risk deduction could prove to be useful.

10.5 Methods or Goals of Risk Reduction

10.5.1 Risk Reduction through Disaster Planning
There is a strong and felt-need for timely and appropriate planning for disasters. It would lead to
creation of prevention culture as well as initiating structural and non-structural mitigation steps besides
referring to effective response activities to be in place in the event of a disaster and also for post-disaster
rehabilitation and recovery activities. It implies securing administrative arrangements involving unity of
command, span of control line and staff coordination, delegation of authority, decentralization, etc. To be
precise principles of organization theory are a must to provide the administrative arrangements to prevent
small scale, frequently occurring disasters, which keep on disrupting growth and put development back
by a number of years. It is also required for fostering a culture of preparedness for such disasters that
have greater intensity. Disaster planning is to be conducted both at the micro (at the level of an institution,
involving instituting fire protection systems, electrical systems, plumbing and protection against
environmental hazards etc.) and the macro levels, the objectives of which are outlined follows by Anil
Sinha (2002) Forecasting, forewarning of disaster threat and providing the institutional and organizational
setup and logistics, personnel, inventory, finances, etc. to achieve desired, level of preparedness.

• Mobilisation of resources from internal and external sources

• Taking organization and administrative steps, including disaster action plans regular and periodic
updating of plans and projects securing institution wherewithal to implement it, providing for a
horizontal and vertical coordination through a network of official and non-official agencies involved viz.
government department, civil defence, military and paramilitary organizations running through the
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central, state and field levels;

• Placing on ground, well equipped modern forecasting and warning system reliable fast
communication system ;
• Generating capabilities for prompt and rapid rescue, relief and rehabilitation work;
• Proper planning for medical assistance and health cover would be a critical requirement ;
• Providing for other miscellaneous needs like stocking and distribution, food, medicines, shelter,
clothing, evacuation, transportation and long term resettlement and rehabilitation of affected
communities.
• Securing water management practices since provision of clean water is often problem and a
necessity post disasters ;
• Government initiatives implying long term measures identified by the central government instituting
intensive training programmes, building data based on documentation of disasters and lessons to be
learnt there form, and dissemination of information.
• Integration of disaster management with overall development planning ;
• Improving public awareness ;
• Investment in R and D, use of modern technology and remote sensing technologies

10.5(ii) Through Information, Education and Public Awareness

Recently much emphasis has been put on community based proactive approaches towards risk
reduction. The aim is to improve the ability of vulnerable communities to cope with disasters through
developing their coping capacity by building on existing practices skills and local structures such as
panchayats and community based voluntary action groups. According to a policy statement Red Cross
2001, adopting a community-based approach is the best guarantee that disaster preparedness will be
implemented and sustained. Therefore, people must participate in planning and preparing for disasters.
All activities and programmes should be sensitive to issues of gender and the special needs of vulnerable
groups such as the disabled and backwards sections. Such projects are being undertaken successfully
in the Carribbean, South and South East Asia (Jigyasu, 2002). It calls for a concerted approach to be
followed by the educational institutions, N.G.Os., civil society organizations, media, etc. to work for generating
community awareness on disaster management.

10.5(ii) Through Livelihood Concerns

Poor developing countries are largely primary producing economies that are largely, dependent on
agriculture and related support activities for sustenance. Agriculture includes farming and also animal
husbandry, pastoral activities, fishing and harvesting the forest. (Bhatti, 2003). The best way to inculcate
resilience in disasters prone communities is by ensuring livelihood opportunities, which help affected
people, cope better in the aftermath of a disaster. It has been observed that loss of livelihood cause people
to migrate to other places particularly adjoining metropolises in search of employment options which
create problems of urban congestion and possibilities of conflict (Bhatti, 2003).

10.5(iv) Through Stakeholders Participation

All involved stakeholders in disaster policy formulation and implementation should put in concerted effort
towards disasters preparedness. Meaningful involvement and participation of community is concerned with
achieving the power to influence with individuals livelihood. Precisely meaningful participation means
empowering people so that they can take their own decisions, political, administrative, financial, etc. and
also help the Government authorities and N.G.Os. in implementing programmes relating to various facets
of disaster management. There is definitely a felt need to have a proper match between goals and methods
of these agencies with the needs and capacities of beneficiaries. This is possible only through participation
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of all (Vayunanadan, 2003). Participation stimulates and encourages people of all social standards and
officials as well as other stakeholders to be aware of their expertise, power, usefulness, responsibilities
and resources so as to "ensure their spontaneous contribution. Although spontaneous participations is
ideal, the N.G.Os. and community based organizations are the best external agencies to motivate and
encourage them to initially participate in the process. Once the people take the initiative, they begin to
participate spontaneously.

10.6 Disaster Versus Development

Disasters and development are correlated. It is a fact that development is a must for any Political
system. It is also a fact that over the period of time, disasters have occurred due to negativities or failures
of development because unplanned development paves the way for increased vulnerability and thus more
disaster risks.
The greatest factor(s) in main streaming disaster risk into development planning is political will and
considerations of geographic equity or balanced regional development. Development policies have to be
both generic and disaster specific in that vulnerable communities face multiple threats owing to socio-
economic deprivations, which can be rectified through generic development strategies with the new
perspective of disaster risk reduction. As per Hosseini (Hosseini, Mahmood), governance for disaster risk
reduction has economic, political and administrative aspects / elements economic governance implies
rationality of policy in terms of resource allocation decisions and its distributional impacts. Political
governance requires inclusiveness and comprehensiveness of policy involving all concerned stakeholders
in the deliberative process, while administrative governance implies effective implementation through
interagency coordination, community participation official accountability, periodic review and updating,
Specific activities involved would be enforcement of building codes, land use planning, factoring
environmental risk into policy and human vulnerability monitoring and required safety standards. Gradual
integration of disaster risk analysis into developmental plans is a must to affect the paradigm shift from
emergency management to disaster management involving prevention, preparedness and mitigation
components. Concomitant attitude change is also imperative in that communities should not be looked
upon as mere victims but as resource since they possess enormous knowledge and capabilities for
coping with and managing risk. (Sahni and Ariyabandhu, 2003)

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain Risk Reduction through Disaster Planning.
2. Write two elements at risk.
3. Explain Disaster versus Development.

If it is assumed that disaster risks are increased due to development, then what are the possible ways
to go in for development that disaster risks are reduced. It could be done through the following :

• Development projects should be thoughtfully designed. Every possible care needs to be undertaken to
select such alternative that could be sustained for a longer period and don't hamper existing
environment and culture.
• Proper planning highlighting role of executors need to be in place.
• Efforts in planning are required for using outputs from one field / activity as an input for other
activities.
• Planning exercise to take stock of prevailing conditions at the micro levels. In fact, it should be
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undertaken with a bottom-up-approach rather than a top down approach.

• Traditional knowledge available with people at local levels needs to be harnessed and supplemented
with developed and tested scientific knowledge.
• The political leaders and administrators have to be vigilant of risk reduction mechanisms and should
not as earlier focus on post disaster emergency response and actions.
• Various stakeholders at different levels of operations need to be involved in formulation and execution of
policies / prograrnme.
• Steps through non-governmental organizations, community base organizations, media, etc. need to
be initiated and followed up for generating and sustaining community awareness on disaster
management.
• Funding agencies are to initiate mechanisms for rather best development of human resources at
various levels in the society and organizations, both public and private.
• More stress should be laid on achievement/result oriented public private people partnerships.
• Rules / Bye laws need to be strictly adhered to.
• Best practices in any given field need to be documented and disseminated for adoption in different
sectors at all possible places.
• Partnerships at national, regional, and international levels need to be encouraged to learn from
each other.
• Emphasis needs to be on initiation of poverty reduction schemes and for strengthening livelihood
options.
• Risk transfer measures through instruments of insurance, etc. need to be focused upon.
• Achievable performance targets are to be fixed and evaluation of the same needs to be done
objectively.
In a nutshell, the nation as a whole should be on path of development but it must ensure that
haphazard development does not take place so that disaster, risks are reduced. The need of the hour for
the country is also for such measures and initiatives whereby development is sustainable.
Disaster is defined as "any serious disruption in the functioning of the society, caused by a hazard having
wide spread human, material, environmental and other losses which exceed the ability of the affected
society to cope using its own resources." On the other hand development is a comprehensive social,
economical and political process that aims at the constant improvement of the well being of the
population and all individuals. It is often stated that one rupee spent on preparedness and prevention is
equivalent to twenty rupees spent on relief and rehabilitation. Prevention is possible only when mitigation
aspects are incorporated in the development planning process. Disasters resulting from natural hazards,
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such as flood, cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, etc. impact development in several ways. Disasters
damage infrastructures, lifeline and critical facilities this resulting inhuman, financial and environmental
losses. Thus, natural disaster risk is intimately connected to the processes of development. Disaster
limits Development and causes destruction of fixed assets; damage to transport, communication, and
infrastructure; erosion of livelihood, etc. besides destruction of health or education; infrastructure; loss of
life and migration of key social actors leading to an erosion of social capital. Likewise, development
causes disaster risk as unstable development practices that create wealth for some at the expense of
unsafe working or living conditions for others or degrade the environment. Besides, development path
generates cultural norms that prompt social isolation or political exclusion. Development reduces disaster
risk by providing to people better access to adequate drinking water, food and waste management, etc. It
also provides a secure dwelling to people and thus increasing their resilience. Further more, trade and
technology through development help in better livelihood options, which reduce poverty. Development
based on investment in financial mechanisms and social security can cushion against vulnerability besides
building community cohesion, recognizing excluded individuals or social groups. It facilitates opportunities
for greater involvement in decision making enhanced educational and health capacity to increases resilience.
In keeping with the relationship between disasters and development, four different dimensions to this
relationship could be identified. These are :
• Disasters can set back development;
• Disasters can provide development opportunities;
• Development can increase vulnerability; and
• Development can reduce vulnerability.
It is not only enough to have development and also disaster risk reduction but the focus should also be
on sustainable development. It would be useful to cherish the benefits of the development and that too for
a longer period and without destructing environment or paving the way for disasters and thus the risks
involved in it. It is therefore imperative to have sustainable development. Sustainable development, as
defined by the Brundtland Commission (1987) is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It has also been defined
as ... a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation
of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with the future as well as
present need. (http: // www.wchsty.com).
It goes without saying that the focus of sustainable development is to re-connect with nature and to
develop a clear understanding of the concepts of care that ensures long term ecological, economic and
social development. The basic foundation of sustainable development flexibility, diversity and stability
(ecologic, economic, socio-cultural), consideration of unintended consequences (change the norm, not
the exception) and notions of enough ness and reversibility (http://www.eeeee.net/index).
It would be in place to mention that both qualitative and quantitative growth and progress can be
attained through disaster risk reduction if focus is laid on disaster preparedness, prevention, and mitigation.
Development planners and executors need to formulate such development oriented policies / programmes
/ project that are sustainable and instead of increasing disaster risk rather aim at reducing the same in a
significant manner.

10.7 Summary
Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It would be useful to the cherish
the benefits of the development and that too for a longer period and without destructing environment or
paving the way for disasters and then the risks involved in it. Disaster risk reduction with emphasis on
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preparedness, prevention and mitigation can help to attain both qualitative and quantitative growth and
progress.

10.8 Model Questions

1. Can Development reduce Disaster Risk ? Explain.
2. Discuss major categories of "elements at risk" from all types of disasters.

10.9 References
Bhatti, Amjad, 2003, "Disaster Risk Reduction through Livelihood Concerns and Disaster Policy in
South Asia, Pardeep Sahni, Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandu (Eds) Disaster Risk Reduction in South
Asia, Prentice, Hall of India; New Delhi.
Disaster Risk Reduction : A Development Concern at http://www.dfid.gov.uk)
Hosseni, Mahmood, The Relation Between Disaster Risk Management and Quality Management, at
http://www.qmconf.com/Docs/0170
Jigyasu, Rohit, 2002, Ph. D.Thesis, Reducing Disaster Vulnerability through local knowledge and
Capacity, The case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal".
Trondheim, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art,
Department of Town and Regional Planning at http:/www.ntnu.no/rohit/Rohit%20 Dr.ing%20 final.pdf.
Neill, James,’ The Concept of Risk : Perceptions of the Likelihood of Loss (R-) or gain (R+) in outdoor
and Adventure Education and Recreation at http://www.wilderdom.com/JamesNeill.htm
Reid, Hannah, el.al. 2207, Up in smoke ? Asia and the Pacific nef and IIED, London

10.10 Further Readings

Sahni, Pardeep and Alka Dhameja, 2003 Disaster Risk Reduction through Capacity, Building of the
Community and Panchayati Raj Institution, Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi Ariyabandhu (Eds), Disaster
Risk Reduction in South Asia, op.cit, Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandhu (eds), op.cit.
Sinha, April, 2002 Disaster Management : Lessons Drawn and Strategies for the Future Paper
Presented in the Training Programme on Disaster Management at the Department of Public
Administration, University of Lucknow, Vayunanadan, E. 2003 Stakeholders Response in Disaster Risk
Reduction, Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandhu (Eds), op.cit.

*****
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Lesson – 11

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS RELIEF AND REHABILITATION

Structure

11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Disaster Preparedness
11.3 Disaster Preparedness Strategies
11.4 Disaster Preparedness Plan
11.5 Community Based Disaster Preparedness Plan
11.6 Use of Science & Technology for Disaster Preparedness
11.7 Strengthening of Disaster Preparedness Capacities and Capabilities
11.8 Relief
11.9 Rehabilitation
11.10 Summary
11.11 Model Question
11.12 References
11.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson you will be able to :

• Understand what is disaster preparedness, its strategy and Plan
• Use of Science and Technology in Disaster Preparedness
• Discuss Relief and Rehabilitation
• Know the forms of Rehabilitation

11.1 Introduction
Disasters, natural or human induced have a devastating impact on the human lives, property, livelihood
and livestock. The sharp increase in the catastrophes, world wide impedes development and consumes
recourses which are earmarked for growth and development. The approach towards disasters and its
management all along has been fatalistic and reactive. But in the present times, the knowledge,
capacities and capabilities are being harnessed to lessen the adverse impact of disasters. The nature
and complexion of disaster management is undergoing a metamorphosis. The prevention, preparedness,
mitigation, relief and rehabilitation activities are being integrated to foster sustainable development. Disasters
are being looked at as being opportunities to bring about long term development than just concentrating on
relief and rehabilitation.
In this lesson, an attempt is made to formalize the learners with the changing complexion of disaster
management and make them conversant with the various aspects of the important components of
disaster management, namely preparedness, relief and rehabilitation.

As we have discussed in our previous lessons, disaster management involves :

• Reduction of risks that are associated with disaster through appropriate and timely short term and
long term measures.

• Responding to disasters through relief and assistance

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• Ensuring recovery and rehabilitation in the aftermath of disasters

Prevention aims to impede the occurrence of any disaster, while mitigation tries to reduce the effects of
certain disasters. Preparedness attempts to equip the governments at various levels, different
organizations, communities and individuals respond to disaster situations. The phase of response which
succeeds any disaster encompasses activities to handle the needs of the people and livestock in those
situations. Recovery comprises restoration and rehabilitation and reconstruction activities that would
relocate people to the new environment.

The key components of disaster management activity can be indicated in the figure below :

Source : Carter, Nick, 1991 Disaster Management : A Disaster Manager's Handbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila
Prevention aims to impede the occurrence of any disaster, while mitigation tries to reduce the effects of
certain disasters. Preparedness attempts to equip the governments at various levels, different
organizations, communities and individuals respond to disaster situations. The phase of response which
succeeds any disaster encompasses activities to handle the needs of the people and livestock in those
situations. Recovery comprises restoration and rehabilitation and reconstruction activities that would
relocate people to the new environment.
The responsibility for managing disasters which earlier was the primary responsibility of the government
is now being shared with the non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations community,
training and educational institutions, media and several other stakeholders.
The new culture of disaster management that is evolving is the result of several measures taken
globally and also by several countries beginning 1990s. As you have read in the earlier lessons of this
Course the United Nations General Assembly in 1989, through its resolution launched the international
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR, 1990 - 2000). It was then envisaged that the decade
would enable governments to focus on hazard vulnerability and risk assessment, disaster prevention,
sustainable development, sharing of knowledge and transfer of technology.
In May 1994, a major conference of the IDNDR programme was held and a plan of action for disaster
reduction called the Yokohama Strategy/was brought out. This emphasized on evolving a global culture
of prevention as a key component of the integrated approach to disaster reduction. The strategy
reiterated the need to increase awareness on the importance of disaster reduction policies, support to
states from the international community and evolving all integrated approach to disaster management in
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all spheres. The strategy emphasized on a comprehensive prevention, mitigation and preparedness
strategy, formulating and maintaining preparedness and response plans at the National, State and District
Levels and enhancing the capabilities of those involved at all levels through education and training.
Later in 2O00, the United Nations formulated the international Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction
(ISDR). This aims at providing a global framework to foster the resilience of communities to the effects of
natural hazards through the implementation of risk management, hazard mitigation and sustainable
development.
In the management of disasters, preparedness is assuming an increasing significance. Disasters are
events that expose the vulnerability of individuals and communities and in the process their lives are
threatened and damage is caused to the property, infrastructure, livestock and in a way the whole economy
devastated. Gradually it is being realized that concentrating on disaster preparedness can save lives, and
property and this leads to reduction in relief costs.
We shall now recapitulate the institutional mechanisms for disaster management in India which had
been discussed in the earlier lessons. These mechanisms and instrumental in disaster preparedness and
relief. The subject or the area of disaster management is not mentioned in any of the three lists of the
Indian Constitution Union, State and Concurrent lists. The Disaster Management Act 2005 have been
passed by the Union Government that contains several provisions pertaining to the management of all
aspects of disasters, presently the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal ministry for the coordination of
activities relating to disasters except the following:
Type of Disaster Nodal Ministry
Drought Ministry of Agriculture
Air Accidents Ministry of Civil Aviation
Railway Accidents Ministry of Railways
Chemical Disasters Ministry of Environment and Forests
Biological Disasters Ministry of Health
Nuclear Disasters Department of Atomic Energy In addition, there are
certain important groups and committees such as :
The National Disaster Management Authority headed by the Prime Minister
• National Crisis Management Committee (N.C.M.C.) headed by the Cabinet Secretary. The other
members of the committee are the Secretary to the Prime Ministry, Secretaries of Ministry of Home
Affairs, Defence, Research and Analysis wing. Agriculture and Cooperation. Director, Intelligence
Bureau and an officer of the Cabinet Secretariat.
• Crisis Management Group (CMG) headed by Joint Secretary, Disaster Management in Ministry of
Home Affairs. This group consists of senior officers from the various ministries and department for
review and coordination of disaster preparedness plans.
At the State level, activities pertaining to management of disasters are the responsibility of the
Department of Relief and Rehabilitation. The Chief Secretary along with the Additional Relief Commissioners
is responsible for the relief operations. But of late some states have set-up separate Departments of
Disaster Management Uttaranchal is the first State to have established a Department of Disaster
Management. Some states such as Orissa and Gujarat have set-up State Disaster Management Authorities
to oversee the disaster management activities and bring about coordination amongst all departments.
Similar to the National Disaster Management Authority at the Central level, the Disaster Management Act,
2005 provides for a State Disaster Management authority consisting of the Chairperson and such number
of other members not exceeding nine as may be prescribed by the State Government.
At the District level the Collector/Deputy Commissioner is the focal point of all disaster management
activities. He/She maintains liaison with the district and state governments, units of armed forces, central
police organizations and other concerned organizations. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides
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for the setting up of a Disaster Management Authority in each district consisting of a Chairperson and
members not exceeding seven as determined by the State Government. The Collector of District Magistrate
or Deputy Commission shall be the ex-officio Chairperson.
The armed forces, police, para-military forces, National Service Scheme (NSS) volunteers, also have
an important role to play in supplementing the efforts of other stake holders in managing disasters. The
international agencies such as UNDP, USAID, World Bank etc. also render assistance at several stages
from pre-disaster to post-disaster and recovery. You have already discussed about these aspects in the
earlier lessons of this Course.

11.2 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

Disaster preparedness basically involves efforts towards reducing the Vulnerability of households and
communities in disaster prone areas and improving their capacities to cope with the effects of disasters. The
United Nations Disaster Relief Office (UNDRO) defines disaster preparedness as "(a series of)
measures designed to organize and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation operations
in case of disaster. Measures of preparedness include among others, scaling up disaster relief machinery
formulation of emergency relief plans, training of specific groups (and vulnerable communities) to undertake
rescue and relief, stock piling supplies and earmarking funds for relief operations."
Disaster preparedness involves varied activities and tasks to be taken before, during and after the
disaster. Let us discuss them now :

11.2(a) Preparedness Activities before the Disaster or pre-disaster stage

• Formulation of disaster preparedness plans at the national, state, local and community levels
• Generation and dissemination of information to the community through mass media about the
potential-hazards their frequency of occurrence and the related risks
• Establishing appropriate forecasting and warning systems
• Strengthening of physical infrastructure
• Evacuation of people to safer areas

11.2(b) Preparedness Activities During the Disaster

• Provision of food, shelter and medical services
• Ensuring the safety and security of the people
11.2(c) Post-disaster preparedness Activities
• Search and Rescue (SAR) operations
• Proper relief distribution including food, clothing and medicines
• Restoration of communication system
• Damage assessment and provision of immediate financial assistance
11.3 Disaster Preparedness Strategies
The current trend is to give emphasis on appropriate disaster preparedness measure Disasters, it is
being realized are unavoidable, but the frequency, intensity and impact can be lessened with investment in
preparedness. Globally, there are sustained efforts to arrive at alternatives to cope with the crisis and
thereby prepare for and respond to disasters. Some of the measures or strategies being embarked upon
include.

11.4 Disaster Preparedness Plan

Planning is an important activity of administration it enables anticipating future situations and
requirements mobilize the required resources and achieve the laid down objectives. In case of disasters,
planning is a combination of short-term and long-term measures that helps in preparing people as well as
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the administrative machinery cope better with the situation. A Disaster preparedness plan is a plan of
action that indicates the objectives to be attained, the preparedness and mitigation measures to be taken
before, during and after the occurrence of disaster. It is comprehensive in nature as it provides a checklist
of activities, and responsibilities of all stakeholders including government agencies, community-based
organizations non-governmental organizations international agencies and community. A disaster
preparedness plan is significant as it

• Clarifies the authority and responsibilities

• Establishes the control system
• Provides for monitoring and evaluation of activities
• Lists preparedness, mitigation and response measures mechanisms, and
• Indicates baste information about the demographic profile, and administrative set up at the state,
district and local levels.
In India, the Disaster Management Act 2005 lays down that there shall be a plan for disaster
management for the whole country to be known as the National plan. This is to include measures for
prevention of disasters, mitigation, integration measures in the development plans and capacity building
to respond to the disasters. The Act also provides for setting of a State Disaster Management Authority
and District Disaster Management Authority with multifarious responsibilities.
Efforts are being initiated at the State-level, for having a State Disaster Management Action Plan to
support, and strengthen the efforts of district administration. The emphasis presently is on preparation of
Community based disaster preparedness plans.

11.5 Community-based Disaster Preparedness Plan

The concept of disaster management is undergoing transformation as it is being felt that the
interventions during crises are to be participatory and bottom-up instead of top down. This is important
because it is the community which is the first to bear the disaster impact and they generally take the
initiative in relief and response activities. Hence it is essential to enhance their resilience in coping with
disasters. A community based approach is required in not only responding to disaster situations, but also
prepare them with provision of human, material and financial resources. This empowers them and enables
them assets the real needs of the community, make them own the several phases of the disaster
management process and strengthens their collective management skills.
The community has to be prepared at different stages i.e. pre, during and post disaster phases. In the
pre-disaster phase, the community needs to be oriented towards the nature and effects of disasters to
which they are vulnerable, assess the risks, vulnerabilities and existing resources at the community or
local level, and formulate preparedness plans relevant to the local level with the help of Panchayati Raj
institutions functionaries, non governmental organizations (N.G.Os.) and community based organizations
(C.B.Os.).
During the disaster, the community needs to be involved in search, rescue and evacuation activities, relief
supply that includes food, water, shelter, clothing and medicines and clearing of debris, disposing of dead
and assessing the immediate damage.
In the post-disaster phase, the community is to be associated in the task of detailed damage
assessment, drawing up comprehensive rehabilitation plan encompassing, social economic and
psychological components.
Any community based disaster preparedness is to be quite comprehensive indicating the needs,
requirements, resources and strategies that are to be adopted by the local people. It has to include the
above mentioned components along with the ways of enhancing the awareness, capacities and capabilities
of the community members. This can take the form of organizing local people in disaster task forces,
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disaster management committees and training of people in rescue and relief and activities.
The Government of India UNDP Disaster Risk Management Programme (DRM) aims to popularize the
community-based disaster preparedness and the preparation of Community based Disaster
Preparedness Plans (CBDP), in nearly 17 states. The programme comprises activities such as mapping
the risks, vulnerabilities and capacities of the village by the community, constitution of disaster management
teams, village disaster management committees, creation of community contingency fund etc. For instance,
under this programme, in Lahotighat Block of Morigaon District in Assam, local residents expressed their
concern for adopting preparedness and mitigation techniques during floods. It was decided to construct a
raised platform with a flat-bank cum community fishery to be used during flood and non-flood season. The
site for this was donated by the village members. The Gram Sabha was entrusted the task of approving
the purchase of machine boats and maintenance. Through community sensitisation meetings, communities
have been able to prepare the CBDP plan as at integral part of a development plan for the community
(Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2004).
Disaster preparedness plan made at state, district and local levels is an important tool for bringing about
co-ordination between the efforts of several agencies including government, community-based
organizations, non-governmental organizations, international agencies and community. The High Powered
Committee set up in India in 1999 about which we have referred to in the earlier lessons also recommended
the formulation of plans at community, family and individual levels and developing individual kits for survival.

11.6 Use of Science and Technology for Disaster Preparedness

Science and technology is a key input in disaster preparedness. Developments in this area namely remote
sensing, geographical information system, aerial photography, Ham radio are being extensively applied
for effective preparedness, response and recovery. Geographical information system (GIS) is an
effective tool that provides information about hazard zoning, disaster mapping, damage assessment etc.
It also helps in assimilating compiling, storing, linking and analyzing the data. This data can be utilized to
get information about a particular area, its resources, vulnerability profile and assessment that helps in
drawing up suitable preparedness and mitigation strategies.
Remote sensing is another technique that analysis satellite images through digital image processing and
information. It provides extensive information about past disasters of any particular area that provides a
base for predicting any onset of disaster in future. The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) is
located at Dehradun and it is a premier institution in resource identification, analysis and operationalisation
of remote sensing.
Aerial photography is of use in damage surveys, evacuation planning and assimilation of data relating
to physical damage of the aftermath of major disasters.
The significance of communication especially in emergency situations such as disasters cannot be
under emphasised. Wireless and Radio has an important role in disaster preparedness. Presently
community radios are also being operated. For example, Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan (K.M.V.S.) in
Gujarat operates a community radio and information relevant to the people residing there is communicated.
This is also popular in some districts of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. In a village of Veerampattinam in
Pondicherry, in 2004 the use of radio at the village level, helped in disseminating information about the
onset of cyclone and high water level in the sea. This is a part of the info village programme developed and
run by the M. S. Swaminathan Foundation (M.S.S.F.).
Amateur or Ham radio is another important communication tool that facilitates information
dissemination during crises. The persons who operate this are amateurs or H.A.Ms. and they are provided
amateur radio license by the government. These are given by the Wireless Planning and Coordination
Wing of Ministry of Communication Government of India, to those who qualify a test and under this they
can build or own radio transmitter receiver or antennas and use them for communication. Ham-radio have
been very useful and Tsunami (2004) during Latur Earthquake (1993), Orissa Super Cyclone (1999),
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Gujarat Earthquake (2001) and Tsunami (2004).

11.7 Strengthening of Disaster Preparedness Capacities and Capabilities

Any preparedness strategy falls short of expectations if it does not focus on community
empowerment. This task can be quite daunting but through sustained efforts, it can be made possible.
Through adoption of locally appropriate preparedness practices, the community's capacities and capabilities
can be harnessed and strengthened. The major areas in which these can be focused include :
• Basic knowledge pertaining to disasters and their profile
• Vulnerability assessment and risk analysis
• Preparation of community resource maps, risk maps and disaster response plans ·
• Methods and techniques of community resource mobilization
• Evolving ways of cooperation, collaboration and partnership; and
• Building effective leadership in the implementation of preparedness programme.
Information, Education and Communication (I.E.C.) activities can play an important role in this area. In
many States in India several initiatives are being taken in this direction. In Orissa, an N.G.O., Church s
Auxiliary for Social Action (C.A.S.A.) has set-up a Disaster Mitigation Training Centre at
Banamalipur in Khurda district. The community is given training on disaster awareness, capacity building
and income generation programmes etc. in Andhra Pradesh also village task forces have been formed in
some villages.
Training in preventive, preparedness and mitigation aspects of disasters aimed at developing the
competence and expertise of the target groups can go a long way in making them alert, aware and adjust
to the disaster impact. In Tamil Nadu, training came to the rescue of the further folk of Samiyarpettai in
Chidambaram Taluka of Cuddallore District. The government provided training in fescue operations to the
fisher folk. Due to this on one such occasion when there were floods, the members of local disaster relief
committee were able to save nearly one hundred lives. The rescue operations were carried out promptly
and all the injured survived, preparedness was emphasized in training. The women were more enthusiastic
in learning methods demonstrated by the Fire Department personnel. Groups were also trained in shelter
management and in distribution of relief material (The Hindu, 2005).
Disaster preparedness is a multi-faceted activity. It has to be participatory in nature, a sustained
process and community specific. It can be a success if it is done with the people rather than for the
people. Though the government has the primary responsibility for any disaster related activity, the local
communities who are prone to the risks are to be the key initiators of preparedness and prevention
measures. Building networks and partnerships to reduce risks and strengthen the communities can go a
long way in the mammoth task.

11.8 RELIEF
The occurrence of a disaster calls for effective relief measure. These constitute the immediate response
mechanisms and processes. The first step in this is the evacuation of people to safer places and then
undertakes the search and rescue operations (S.A.R.). This is the process of identifying and evacuating
those disaster victims who could have been trapped and bring them to safer places and provide medical
aid. Generally these are done by teams constituted of local people with the help of army, navy and air
force personnel. The equipment used to carry out such operations varies from disaster to disaster. For
example in case of floods and cyclones, boats, rafts and helicopters are used for moving people to safer
places, and delivery of relief material such as food, water, clothing and medicines.
The provision of medical and health services to the victims is one of the essential activities. Triage’ is to
be done to assess the severity of the injuries to the victims. Triage’ implies sorting of patients. This helps
in categorizing the patients as per the intensity of injuries, and ensures corrective action. For example, there
might be some, who may require first aid or a minor surgery and so on.
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Food distribution is another important component of relief management. There are two methods of food
distribution namely (1) Dry Ration and (2) Wet Ration. Dry ration comprises generally the food items,
utensils, fuel and containers given to the disaster victims as this enables them to prepare food as per their
requirements and needs.
Under the wet ration food distribution people are given food in ready to eat or cooked form.
Provision of clean and safe drinking water is a key aspect of relief operations. Unsafe water and poor
sanitation facilities can cause severe public health concerns. Disinfection through boiling of water,
treatment with iodine, lime water and potassium permanganate could be some of the cheap and easy
methods of water treatment.
The relief operations are coordinated at the Union level by the Relief Commissioner in the Disaster
Management Division and at the state level by the state Relief Commissioner. The latter acts as the link
between the Union and District Coordination Committee. There is a control room set up both at the Central
and State levels that transmits information about the disaster .and ensures coordination between all
concerned agencies for interaction and response :
Any expenditure for meeting the relief operations is met from two funds namely (a) Calamity Relief Fund
(CRF) and (b) National Calamity Contingency Fund (N.C.C.F.). The C.R.F. was created as per the
recommendations of the ninth Finance Commission, for each state for meeting the expenditure for providing
immediate relief to the persons affected by cyclone, drought, earthquake, floods, fire etc. In this fund, of
the total contribution, 75 per tent is provided by the central government and the remaining amount is
contributed by the respective State governments. The N.C.C.F. was formed on the recommendation of
the Eleventh Finance Commission to meet the expenses arising out of natural calamities of severe nature.
This expenditure is for disasters of severe nature that requires state governments to spend in excess of
the money available in the C.R.F. towards relief.
The Union Cabinet recently, to unify the funding mechanism for disaster response and relief under one
fund, announced the constitution of National Disaster Response Fund and merger of NCCF with it, with
effect from April 1, 2010. The fund would be under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home
Affairs an amount of Rs 100 crore is to be provided in the fund. The proposal, it is considered will meet the
statutory requirements of the provisions of the Disaster Management Act 2005. It will unify the funding
mechanism for disaster response and relief under one fund to be constituted under the Act.
In India the State governments have formulated the Relief Manuals (or codes) that consist of provisions
for management of relief. This includes organization of relief work, gratuitous relief, programmes and
estimates for various relief works, powers and duties of supervising officers etc.
The Government of India in August 1999 had set up a High powered Committee headed by Shri
J.C. Pant and it had members drawn from different ministries, various states, NGOs and experts from
relevant fields. The Committee made an attempt to provide a new conceptual framework of disaster
management by focusing on preparedness, prevention, reduction and mitigation. The Committee was of
the opinion that when addressing the relief requirements of the disaster victims, emphasis should be on
the special needs of the vulnerable population that is, children, women, aged and the differently abled. At
the same time, equity of relief distribution amongst beneficiary groups must be maintained. The minimum
standards of relief not only addresses the food requirements of the victims but also provides for the health
and immediate first aid facilities, looks at the water and sanitation needs, shelter requirements, and making
food available that confirms with the nutritional standards as laid down by the WHO and other such
agencies.
In this context, the High Powered Committee propagated the concept of ‘Trigger Mechanism’. This is an
emergency quick response mechanism. It attempts to put in place in the form of a plan all the identified
activities for responding to any disasters; various levels at which these are to be performed,
identification of resources including personnel, material and equipment, and constitution of quick response
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teams. The trigger mechanism has been envisaged as a preparedness plan whereby the receipt of a
signal of an impending disaster would simultaneously energize and activate the mechanism for response
and mitigation without loss of crucial time. This helps all those involved in the task of dealing with disasters
to know in advance the tasks assigned to them and the manner of response.

11.9 REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation is an important phase of the disaster management cycle. It is a process that attempts to
restore normally in the disaster struck areas, and resume the development process. It is very
comprehensive in nature and includes economic, social environmental and psychological components.
The communities are enabled to restart their lives and resume their livelihoods. The priorities in a situation
of disaster rehabilitation are :
• Provision of emergency relief to be operationalised by way of mobilizing human and material
resources on a war footing comprising food security, construction of temporary shelters and other
basic needs.
• Rehabilitation of all the displaced people in permanent cyclone resistant habitations, restoration of
baste and alternative means of livelihood along with community based infrastructure and institutions
• Initiation of long-term development intervention, with would lead to sustainable community based
actions (Medury and Dhameja, 2005).

Rehabilitation can take the form

• Economical Rehabilitation
• Social Rehabilitation
• Psychological Rehabilitation
11.9(i) Economic Rehabilitation
This takes the form of provision of sustainable livelihood options, development of physical infrastructure
that includes disaster resistant housing, buildings etc. This also includes :
(i) Provision of roads to facilitate transportation of persons, Iivestock and goods
(ii) Maintenance of communication facility such as postal services.
(iii) Putting in place appropriate drainage and sewerage systems.
Provision of sustainable livelihood options is another significant aspect of economic rehabilitation. It
encompasses a wide range of options such as growth of agricultural industrial and tertiary sectors of the
economy, creation of employment opportunities alternative cropping patterns, agricultural and irrigation
systems, afforestation, social forestry etc.
In Gujarat, in the aftermath of 2001 earthquake, the Self Employed Women's Association (S.E.W.A.) along
with the International Fund for Agricultural Development (I.F.A.D.), the World Food Programme (W.E.P.),
launched a seven year livelihood security programme Jeevika. This attempts to strengthen livelihood
reconstruction through micro finance. Women are organized into Swashrayee mandals and they are
provided loans for undertaking income generating activities. The objective of this effort is to achieve
greater livelihood security. International organizations such as U.N.D.P. are also initiating and
supporting the efforts of state governments in developing livelihood options U.N.D.P. in association with
the Government of Gujarat, Environmental Planning Collaborative (E.P.C.) and Kutch "Nay Nirman Abhiyan"
has set up a Kutch Ecological Fund (K.E.F.). The project aims at supporting and facilitating the planning
and implementation of measures towards long term recovery and drought proofing.
In 2005 the International Labour Organization (I.L.O.) as part of the United Nations Country Team
(U.N.C.T.) launched the Recovery Framework in Support of Government of India for a Post-Tsunami
Rehabilitation and ‘Recovery Programme’. In the affected coastal areas of the state of Tamil Nadu skills
development training especially for fishermen was initiated. Some sections of women and youth-either
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unemployed or earning meager incomes were also actively involved in exploring alternative employment
options. All activities under the initiative were chosen after consultations with the affected communities,
workers, and employees organizations, and the local government. Women were given training in several
activities such as tailoring, production of handicrafts, making of license sticks etc. Several skills development
beneficiaries have also organized themselves into Self Help Groups (S.H.G.). Resultantly, these workers
in the informal economy have been able to enhance their productivity representation and negotiating power.
Even as they cope with the trauma of the tsunami and attempt to rebuild their lives, affected peoples
empowered through knowledge and organization are finding a voice of their own. Owing to their holistic
development approach of the initiative within a rights-based framework, responses from the affected
communities have been extremely positive. (www.disasterwatch,net/Response).
Another important aspect pertaining to economic rehabilitation relates to building and strengthening of
buildings and physical infrastructure through adhering to well laid down codes and standards. The
codes provide for following a certain assign that enables the building structure possessing the strength to
withstand the hazards. This ensures the quality of the built-up environment. For example the National
Building Construction Corporation (N.B.C.C.) has developed a new technology for cyclone resistant
construction. It involves the case of pyramidal roofs and well-spaced walls and foundation to provide the
required flexibility to the buildings that could be hit by strong winds.
The Housing and Urban Development Corporation (H.U.D.C.) also imparts skills in tradition building
techniques that use local materials. The Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S.) has initiated several projects
in disaster reduction building construction. There are efforts being put in by the government N.G.Os.,
community based Organizations, international agencies and community itself in reconstruction and
rehabilitation efforts.
For Example in 2001 Gujarat earthquake Patanka, a village, suffered extensive damage where nearly
170 houses collapsed and several were badly damaged. During the rehabilitation phase the community
with the help of a Delhi based disaster management organizations, Sustainable Ecological and
Environmental Development Society (S.E.E.D.S.). Initiated a unique community-led and community-
managed attempt at house reconstruction and rehabilitation. The S.E.E.D.S. team helped the villagers
procure building material and the masons, labourers and villagers were taught the earthquake -resistant
technology through hands-on-training and workshops. The communities decided the location, size, design
and material of their new houses. Two expert masons from the Nation and Society of Earthquake Technology
(I.N.S.E.T.), Nepal taught the villagers about safe house construction. This effort helped the people
understand the advantages of do-it-yourself, low-cost, earthquake resistant construction (Sharma and
Palakudiyil 2003).
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Write two objectives of Disaster Preparedness Plan.
2. Write in short the use of Science and Technology for Disaster Preparedness.
3. Explain Social Rehabilitation.

11.9(ii) Social Rehabilitation

This encompasses efforts towards strengthening of existing health care-facilities, and infrastructure
education and activities and rehabilitation of women and children. The existing health care institutions
need to be strengthened new ones to be created for effective calamity management. This includes not
just physical facilities, medicines, and personnel, but provision of psychiatrists to handle the people's
trauma.
Educational activities are to be resurrected in terms of schools, text books, equipment etc. This needs
to be supplemented by counseling teachers and children to avail the facilities.
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Women and Children are the most vulnerable in disasters. Anganwadis and Community Centres need
to be set up or reactivated to cater to the needs especially of women and children. Another important
aspect is provision of economic activities for the women. Vocational training must be given through the
network of Industrial Training Institutes and self help groups also play a key role in the creation of economic
assets.
In the aftermath of super cyclone in Orissa, transit homes by the name of Mamata Gruhas were set up
by N.G.Os. to take case of destitute women, elderly and children. Gradually later, own villages. Under
the Integrated Child Development Scheme, a number of N.G.Os. had set-up creches to look after the
young children and provide them a degree of normality in a situation of trauma and devastation (Thukral,
2003).

11.9(iii) Psychological Rehabilitation

It is a very important activity in the disaster management process. People undergo trauma during
disasters and the anxiety and fear continues to remain for a long time. Some come out of the traumatic
experience quickly while same may take time. The Psychological rehabilitation requires the collective
efforts of family, local support groups and experienced professionals Children especially are to be prepared
psychologically to resume the school and through games, songs and dance, drama, and other activities
can be made to relax and get back to the routine.
There is a need for integrating psycho-social care in the rehabilitation process. For example, the
tsunami of 2004, caused a lot of trauma to the families that required psycho-social support. There were
families which faced several deaths and loss of livelihood that resulted in stress and psychological problems.
Situations like these call for a congenial atmosphere for giving a hearing to the problems of distressed,
counselling and motivating people to get back to their routine and participate in community institutions.
Such an approach will facilitate their accepting the realities of the situation and attempt to re-building their
lives.
Disasters, impact people and livestock in several ways. It requires appropriate preparedness,
mitigation, response and rehabilitation measures. The most important aspect that has to be a part of
these processes is to relate these to the needs of the community. The ultimate goal is to make the
community disaster resilient. It is the community that is the first responder to the disaster situations.
Hence they need to be made aware, capable, and resilient to face the disasters. The activities initiated
either by the government, N.G.O. or an international agency should in a way empower the communities to
act in a proactive manner. They should not instil in them a dependency syndrome.

Any preparedness, mitigation and rehabilitation activity needs to take cognisance of local milieu, the
traditional wisdom, the local needs and resources. The Yokohama Strategy and I.S.D.R. also emphasized the
need create disaster resilient societies aid prevent human, economic and social losses through public
participation at all levels of implementation of the strategy. The World Conference on Disaster Reduction
held in January 2005 at Hyogo Japan reiterated the need for building the resilience of nations and
communities to disasters. This is an onerous responsibility and requires a long-term approach that calls
for :
• Analysing the causes of vulnerability that the community is exposed to and attempt to tackle them.
• Takings cognizance of local livelihoods and capacities.
• Bringing change in the cultural perceptions about risks, hazards and disasters; and
• Fostering collaboration and networking amongst the concerned stakeholders.
The efforts towards strengthening the processes of managing the disasters are an ongoing process. Risk
reduction is the core disaster management strategy. This is holistic in nature that encompasses several
aspects such as strengthening national systems and capacities, improving governance
mechanisms at all levels, addressing and reducing the vulnerabilities of the communities at risk as well as
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building their capacities. Community is the repository of resources, ideas, skills, capacities and capabilities.
What is required in ensuring sustainability in any disaster management activity is to ensure the continued
participation of people in all its components and processes, Bottom-up processes need to be evolved and
institutionalized and replicated in tune with the local environment Systems, processes practices and
communities are to be strengthened to cope with disasters of any nature, natural or man made.
The path ahead for managing disasters is to usher in people centered development strategy. This has to
be supplemented by :
• Systematic assessment of what enables people to cope with, recover from and adapt to various
risks, and adversities at household and community levels.
• Strengthening social capital as the key objective of all disaster interventions, whether in relief,
recovery or risk reduction rather a by product.
• People centered approaches to development provide models that can improve humanitarian aid and
disaster risk management.
• New institutional strategies and cross sectoral coalitions to boost the resilience of local livelihoods in
the face of multi dimensional risks
• Good governance to create environment in which more resilient communities can thrive.
• Scaling up strategies based on the aspirations and capacities of people at risk (World Disasters
Report, 2004).

11.10 Summary
Disasters over whelm the capacity of nations and communities by causing sever hardships and losses.
The increasing realization that the severity of disasters can be lessened through appropriate risk
reduction strategies has given a new dimension to the process of managing disasters. Globally efforts are
initiated towards evolving strategies for disaster risk reduction by the national governments, non
governmental organizations international agencies and community. The sustainability of any new measure
needs to be ensured and this calls for awareness and shared responsibility for risk reduction.

11.11 Model Questions

1. Evaluate Disaster Preparedness plan in India. Give suggestions.
2. Evaluate Disaster relief and rehabilitation process in India. Suggest measures to strengthen it.

11.12 References
Uma Medury and Alka Dhameja, 2005, Rehabilitation of Cyclone Affected People in Amita Singh (Ed)
Administrative Reforms towards Sustainable Practices Sage, New Delhi
Palakudiyil Tom and Anshu Sharma, 2003, The Orissa Super Cyclone Lessons from a Calamity in Tom
Palakuthyil an Mary Todd (Eds) Facing upto the storm How local communities can cope with disaster
lessons from Orissa and Christian Aid London

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Lesson : 12
DISASTER MANAGEMENT TRAINING

Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Stages of Disaster Management Training
12.3 Designing a Training Course in Disaster Management
12.4 Disaster Management Training of Leaders : Characteristics
12.5 SAARC Disaster Management Centre
12.6 Disaster Management Training Contents
12.7 E- Learning
12.8 Online Delivery of Disaster Management Education and Training
12.9 Digital Libraries
12.10 Edusat : India’s First Dedicated Satellite for Distance Education
12.11 Conclusion
12.12 Model Questions
12.13 References
12.14 Future Readubgs

12.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson you will be able to:
 Know the meaning and stages of disaster management training
 Understand the designing and characteristics of training course
 Discuss Disaster Management Centre of SAARC
 Evaluate Disaster Management Training Contents
 Explain e-Iearning online training, digital libraries and Edusat

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Training in disaster management is essential to enhance the capacity of identified institutions and
functionaries in government and outside to respond to mitigation professionally. Training strategy,
therefore, should focus on reaching the un-reached functionaries and communities especially, at the
grassroots by:
 Incorporating disaster management Modules in the monthly meetings of functionaries Iike patwari,
village health worker, constables etc.;
 imparting strategic inputs of varying duration a wide range of government functionaries by add on
modules;
 building awareness and enhancing the coping capacity of the communities at risk through
appropriate training and technical information; and
 creating critical mass of trainers at the village, block, district and state levels, which involves
designing and conducting of Programme
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12.2 STATES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT TRAINING

There are five stages for effective disaster management training. They are:
Stage 1: Training Needs and Resource Assessment (TRNA)
Stage 2: Preparation for Training design of materials, adaptation of materials, planning etc.
Stage 3: Development of Training Capacity
Stage 4: Application of the Lessons from Training
Stage 5: Evaluation of the Effectiveness and Feedback Lessons
The entire procedure for development of training has to be cyclic, beginning from:
• assessment
• evaluation
• application
• Conduct
• Preparation and
• Feedback

12.3 DESIGNING OF A TRAINING COURSE IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

In the design of a training course:
 Skills are developed through tasks and groups/individual assignments with feedback;
 Knowledge is developed through training sessions/reading/conversations/video/films/visits/ lectures
etc. and
 Attitudes are developed by example of the other participants and facilitators, in addition to teaching,
individual, group task and feedback.
The content of disaster management trainers necessarily involves attitudes, skills, knowledge. The
basic lessons to be learnt are:
The basic lessons to be learnt are: .
 Skills normally take years to develop -but they can be introduced and simulated in disaster
management training.
 Knowledge is a key element in training -especially basic knowledge needed for everyday work, and
knowledge of where to find information.
 Attitudes Cover a wide range of issues -some ethical, some practical concerns to c(.,pe under
pressure.

12.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT TRAINING OF LEADERS: CHARACTERISTICS

 The following characteristics are required to disaster management training:
 communication skills involve listening skills, verbal communication skills, visual skills, written
communication skills and promotion of interaction learning;
 management experience/skills such as planning skills, preparation of course/training materials
assessment of training needs and resources and monitoring evaluation skills;
 leadership capacity pertaining to inspiration vision, enabler/facilitator flexibility and empathy
with participants;
 creativity encompassing brainstorming skills, lateral thinking skills, skills in making new
connections, ability to improve and innovate and capacity to stimulate creativity in trainers; and
 disaster management experience pertaining to experience of varied hazard types, pre and post
disaster knowledge, cause and effect experience, social/technical
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12.5 SAARC DISASTER MANAGEMENT CENTRE

SMRC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC was set up in October, 2006 at the premises of National
Institute of Disaster Management in New Delhi. The Centre has the mandate to serve eight Member
Countries of South Asia Association of Regional Cooperation (SMRC) Afghanistan, Bangladesh
Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka by providing policy advice and facilitating
capacity building services including strategic learning, research, training, system development and
exchange of information for effective disaster risk reduction and management in South Asia.
The Centre is a sleek body of professionals working on various dimensions of disaster risk reduction
and management in South Asia. The Center is networking through the National Focal Points of the
Member Countries with the various Ministries, Departments and Scientific, Technical, Research and
Academic institutions within the outside the Government working on various aspects of disaster risk
reduction and management.
The Centre conducts studies and research, organizes workshops and training programme, publishes its
reports and documents and provides various policy advisory services to the Member Countries.
The Centre has the vision to be recognized as a vibrant Centre of Excellence for knowledge, research
and capacity building on disaster management in South Asia and in the rest of the world.
The SMRC Disaster Management Centre conducts training programme on "Basic Course on Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management". The course design, module and study materials are developed
according to the hazard-risk vulnerability profile and training need analysis of the SAARC countries.
These can subsequently be adopted by the designated training institutions of the country for further
down end training programmes. The programme is of one week duration and is attended by a minimum
of twenty five and maximum thirty participants who would be drawn from various government or non-
government organizations engaged in the task of disaster risk reduction and management. The
programme shall be hosted in a reading training institute in the concerned country.
Also, a five-day long Training Workshop for Senior Government Functionaries of all the South Asian
Countries was held in New Delhi in 2007 that focussed mainly on the issues of regional cooperation on
disaster risk reduction and management.

12.6 Disaster Management Training Contents

Module 1 : Disaster Risk Management
Objective: Familiarize participants with concepts and methods of disaster risk management, enabling
them to understand risk situations in a global way, and offering new ways to manage risks.
This module focuses on the notion of risk one day will be devoted to an introduction to the concepts of
Disaster Risk Management. Different approaches will be presented and analyzed offering participants a
critical and complementary vision of the state of the art. Another day will be dedicated to the new
challenges and issues involved in DRM against a background of globalization.
Lecturers will be from both the scientific and academic environments and the world of international
organization Participants will also have an opportunity to spend a day in Geneva visiting several
international organizations active in the DRM domain, and meet their key members.
Module 2: Climate change and hydro meteorological risks
Objective: Understand the phenomenon of climate change in order to better anticipating the resulting
hydro meteorological risks.
This module proposes an assessment of current knowledge Scientists (climatologists, hydrologists,
engineers) will discuss changes in precipitations impacts on ecosystems and at the hydrological level
Reflection will then centre on hydro meteorological disasters (floods, drought, landslides. etc.~, and
their prevention. Some examples of research projects conducted in Switzerland will be presented to
 140

stimulate this reflection. A field outing will enable participants to visit research and project sites, and
have discussions with key local figures.

Module 3-A : Vulnerabilities and capacities

Objective: Familiarize participants with the concept of vulnerability enable them to identify risk factors
and target populations, and offer them a certain number of tools intended to strengthen capabilities and
improve preventive measures.
The theme of this module will be the link between disaster and development and its jmpact on Southern
countries. After studying the hazards and environmental factors, attention will be focused on the
concept of Vulnerability. Social vulnerability is a key component it every disaster risk assessment
earned out at local level. Risk factors such as urbanization will also be studied. The module advocates
a global and multi-risk approach to the issue.
Various methodological tools for assessing and strengthening capabilities will be presented and
analysed (community based DRM in particular). As backup to the theoretical part, seminars will be
organized to allow participants to use these methods during real case simultaneous and assume a
proactive role.

Self Assessment Questions

1. Explain Vulnerabilities and Capacities
2. Explain Disaster Risk Management.

12.7 E-LEARNING
Information and communication technology has become an integral part of the entire learning system
by facilitating information dissemination and communication in all areas education and training on the
basis of needs assessment and contextual or situational requirements. It is enabling distance learning.
It is also providing for online assessment, besides courses, online delivery of courses, computer-aided
teaching, online networking and managing a large number of educational and training institutions,
Software CD based courses, digital libraries, discussion forums digital portfolios, teleconference etc.
has made e-learning that is, e-education and e-training possible today.
E-Iearning is based on computer and communication technology it refers to the of computer based
electronic technologies and applications of internet, websites information systems in enhancing both
formal and informal learning and knowledge sharing from any place at any time. The communication
devices can also include radio, digital television, wireless devices like PDAs, mobile sets etc.
Therefore, e-Iearning is effective and efficient in a significant way in imparting sharing knowledge and
learning, complementing efforts of the conventional system education and training. This is going to
benefit all sectors and organizations, where continual updating and enrichment of the personnel is
required through refreshers orientations, and training programmes. This is also true of disaster
managed organizations and personnel E-Iearning (e-education and e-training) plays a vital role disaster
management education and training in many ways.
• enables training and educational institutions in disaster management to impact skills in the basic
and advanced courses of disaster management to its clientele anywhere;
• facilitates collaborative internet and web-based learning opportunities stakeholders including
communities who can avail such facilities either at home, office or nearby kiosk;
• Internet can be used not only in accessing resources but also in creating producing and expanding
disaster management related information resources and later adding it to the information repository
or knowledge.
• E-training is imparted through synchronous and asynchronous communication modes, permitting
the learner the convenience of flexibility. Synchronous activities allow all participants to join in at
 141

once with a chat session virtual classroom or meetings. This facilitates just-in time learning for
stakeholders communities. Flexible learning is possible, as people and concerned Can abrupt
themselves with education and training modules online or offline (with access and pace being
determined by them);
• distance learning through wide area networks gets supported that communities in remote and
geographically disadvantaged areas to benefit with aspects pertaining to first aid, do's and don'ts at
times of disasters;
• practical side of learning is made possible by organizing the topics to be and creating multi-media
CD-ROMS or websites, especially with virtual Learning Systems Hyper linking is possible and
having interactive parts illustrating difficult things or for doing exercises is also possible? Virtual
Learning or e-Iearning systems;
• education and training is made interesting, especially to the community through a wide range of
learning methods, such as educational animation
• specialized training is rendered through customized software that can address the particular needs
of clientele mostly through synchronous mode dedicated broadband internet connectivity. This can
help in developing role competencies of the personnel engaged in emergency management;
• renders training to the community and others through generic software displaying universal
elements in asynchronous mode through a shared network with limited internet access or on World
Wide Web, and;
• enhances teaching and training skill of the faculty through training on usage ICT. E-Iearning
systems like World Links enable the trainers to integrate technology into teaching and thereby
create dynamic trainee centred learn environment. It helps the faculties to interact with their peer
groups in the world and exchange ideas and notes on the subject, very vital at times of disasters.

12.8 ONLINE DELIVERY OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Webopensource.com lists the entire available open source online learning system in the market today.
The trainers and instructors can use it under GNU Software License. One of the best open source
online learning systems is Moodle Web Class com is a professional hosted online learning system
 142

based on Moodle. Moodle is a software package designed to help educators create quality Online
courses. It advocates social constructivism as a pedagogical, Perspective, whereby learners construct
their knowledge through disc thereby enhancing, their thinking skills.
Internet forums web forums message boards, discussion boards, bulletin can facilitate free. exchange
of ideas and opinions and academic and professional expertise in disaster management. A virtual
community of teachers, subject experts, professionals learners and instructors can be developed d they
can discuss a number of related themes and topics, Facilities like bulletin boards allow them to dial into
the computer system over a phone line and using a terminal programme perform functions, such as
downloading software and data, uploading data and exchanging messages will trainees and teachers.
Plug-ins, auxiliary programmes can provide more interaction for users, as it can work with a major
software package to enhance its capability: They can also be added to web browsers to enable them
into support new types of contents such as audio, video etc. that can be very useful to depict
documentaries and clippings pertaining to disaster management.
Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) also known as Learning Management Systems ~LMS) and e-
Iearning systems can be used for launching almost all the courses offered universities and other
institutions of higher learning. It makes possible for a course designer to present to students through a
single, consistent and intuitive interface, all the components required for a course of education or
training. It makes extensive use of computers and internet to implement all the elements pertaining to
learning that may pertain to the syllabus for the course or administrative information or a notice board
for up-to-date information or student registration and tracking facilities or basic teaching material the
complete content of the course, in ease VLE is being used in a distance learning context or copies of
visual aids used in lectures or other classes, where it is being used to support a campus based course.
It can also provide for additional resources, including reading materials and links to outside resources in
libraries and on the internet. Web page depicting a VLE will have electronic communication support
including email, threaded discussion and a chat room. Also, easy authoring tools for creating the
necessary documents including insertion of hyperlinks is provided. In India we have conceived an e-
Iearning system, known as e-vidyapeeth.
It has been developed with a Vision to transform the internet into a powerful environment for teaching
and learning. This system can be for launching almost all the courses offered by education and
institutions. This system makes it easy to publish documents, lectures and exercises for faculty
members and get the most up-to-date information for the students on lectures and exercises.

Self Assessment Questions

1 Explain E-learning.
2. Explain E- Education

12. DIGITAL LIBRARIES

Digital library is a library in which a significant proportion of the resources available in machine-
readable format accessible by means of computers. The digital content may be locally held or accessed
via computer networks. As it has a larger space, greater digital information can be stored in computers.
Innovations in technology can be immediately adopted to provide users with improvements in electronic
and audio book technology. As there is no physical boundary, it can be accessible around the globe
with internet. Multiple users can access the same resources at the same time and at any hour of the
day. It enables structured access to much richer content in a more structured manner, that is, we can
easily move from the catalogue to the particular book then to a particular chapter and so on. Also a
seamlessly integrated resource sharing be achieved.
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Rich e-resources, such as c-books, e-articles, e-journals, e-editorials relating to disaster management,
disaster medicine and also of successful projects and experiments can be accessed on Web links,
thereby making it easy for disaster managers to access and learn.

12.10 EDUSAT INDIA'S FIRST DEDICATED SATELLITE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) launched a communication satellite called GSAT=3 for
exclusive use of education sector. Edusat, the Indian Satellite in Education Programme launched in
September 20, 2004, is India's ambitious programme to harness satellite technology to reach learners
in remote corners of the country. It aims to provide connectivity to schools, colleges and institutions of
higher learning and support non formal education including developmental communication.
Universities and educational and training institutes will have a studio where the class or session will be
taken.The reaching can be with a blackboard or even with power point presentation. The" lecture or
training session is filmed live and up linked to the satellite, which then broadcasts it to the ground
terminals. All related centres linked to the institution are provided with two sorts of reception systems-
interactive and non-interactive. The interactive terminals provide a voice channel for students to ask
questions. The non-interactive ones allow the talk with all ,the Audio-visual material to be received.
However, questions from the students to the lecturer have to be sent by alternate means, such as
telephone, shone message service, fax or email.
With this facility education and training can be taken to remote areas where there is dearth of such
institutions. This is especially so required in mobilising people and building and strengthening their
capacities in activities relating to disaster prevention, preparedness, response and recovery as that can
to a great extent lessen the adverse consequences of disasters. Again, edusat provides lot a single
teacher or trainer to reach thousands of students, trainees across the country at the same time.
Teleconferencing mode renders expert and specialist knowledge pertaining to disaster management to
those concerned across the nations by high profile academicians, IT companies, technological
institutions etc. from one place/studio/headquarters. This can ensure quality reaching and training
environment. Likewise, contents of a lecture talk, discussion or debate can be stored in a computer file
and the trainees can acccess it at any time. The content can be made available in CD to the students or
learners. The satellite system can be used to run programmes for soft skills, such as, leadership
training, techno-entrepreneurship and career planning. It also enables training of teachers and trainers.
Keiala has launched eduserve project to create a large centralised repositories of education and
multimedia material. This will enrich the content of education material and can be shared by other
states, saving duplication, time and money. Such repositories can be helpful and useful in enriching
knowledge on disaster management.
The nation wide beams are being harnessed by Indira Gandhi National Open Universit\;' National
Council of Educational Research and Training and All India Council for Technical Education to reach
hundreds of learners located in schools and colleges, many in remote areas. Such a facility can be also
useful in imparting disaster management education and training at the school, college and university
levels.

12.11 CONCLUSION
There have been at times some disagreement towards the benefits of e-Iearning found missing owing
to virtual teaching and training classrooms. However, now there are web-conferencing programmes
such as Macromedia Breeze that facilitate face to face interactions between the trainer and the trainee,
thus enabling feedback and expert subject matter to the learners. Again blended learning cal be made
available by either combining distance learning with direct contact close at hand human educational
resources or combining software driven resources with human intervention such as computer mediated
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through email or chat; or non-computer mediated through face-to-face or telephone; or combining

software driven resources with any other educational resource such as TV, radio, books, tapes etc.
E-!earning, that is education and training through ICT tools and applications have enhanced
information, education and communication in the field of disaster management Through satellite mode
it has enhanced distance learning and has done away with constraints of time, cost and reach. The
community in far flung areas are, able to access qualitative learning environment from anywhere and at
anytime. E-Iearning has proved to be cost effective for both learners and institutions and has enabled
the disaster managers to render efficient and quality services.

12.12 MODEL QUESTIOS

• Write a detailed note on Disaster Management Training.
• Disaster Management Training. In India. What are its short comings? Give Suggestions

12.13 References
• http://www.Encyciopedia.thefreedictionary.com
• Gupta; N. and R, Singhal, Appropriate Strategy for ES-training in Government, paper
presented in Eastern Regional Organization of Public Administration,Nineteenth General
Assembly and Conference, New Delhi, 6-9 October, 2003.
• N. Gopal, Raj, A Satellite to serve Students, The Hindu, Sept. 22, 2004.
• Parthasarath, Anand, Are these the Virtual Classrooms of the Future? The Hindu, n.d.
• The Hindu, Haryana Government to Launch Satellite aided Education, 2 October, 2005.

12.14 Further Reading

• R. S. Peters, quoted in site http:www.encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com
• http://www.ndminida.nie.in/workshop_ppt/HR%20PLAN-%20SANTOSH_filesframe.htm
• United Nations Development Programme 1995, Disaster and the Environment Disaster
Management Training Programme, Geneva.

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