Reproduction

Reproduction is the most important characteristics feature of living

organism, which is an essential life process that helps in continuity
of their species from generation to generation.

The essential biological process in which the organisms give to

the young ones of their own kind (and species is continued).
Or
Reproduction is the process by which living organism produce young ones of their own kind/ species.
Or
It is the creation of new life form by similar pre-existing or older life forms.

Significance of reproduction:-
1) Replacements of dead
organisms.
2) Maintains the continuity of
Race/life.
3) It helps in transmission of
characteristics form one
generation to another.
4) Maintains population of a
species.
5) Plays important role in evolution.
6) Addition of new species.

NOTE:- Reproduction at its most basic level will involve making copies of the blueprints of body design.
Life Span: - The period from birth to natural death of an organisms is known as life span of an organisms.
 As the life span of different organism varies from few minutes or hours to thousand years.

Life span of an organism depends upon 4 stages

1) Juvenility :- It represent the stage before the organism develop the capacity to reproduce.
2) Maturity: - In this stage the organism mature & start to reproduce.
3) Ageing & senescence: - Progressive deterioration in body of living organism is called ageing.
& terminal irreversible stage of ageing is called senescence.
4) Death :- The permanent or final stoppage of all life process & vital actives is called death which
represent end of life.
Organism Average life few hour
1) May fly 1 day
2) Butter fly 1 – 2 weeks
3) Fruit fly 0ne months
4) House fly 1 – 4 months
5) Rice plant 4 months
6) Crow 15 years
7) Dog 25 years
8) hoarse 30 – 40 years
9) human beings 70 - 80 years
10) banyan tree 300 – 500 years
11) sequoia (red wood tree) 3000 – 4000 years
12) Larrea triden – tata 11300 years
Types of Reproduction:-
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION (APOMIXIS OR UNIPARENTAL).
2. Sexual reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
(APOMIXIS OR UNIPARENTAL OR MONOPARENTAL)
The process of development of new individual by a single parent without the formation and fusion of
gamete is known as asexual reproduction.
 It is very common in unicellular organisms & simple multicellular animals(like Hydra & Planaria).
 It is the simplest type of reproduction.
 E.g. :- Budding in hydra and vegetative propagation in plants , etc.
Basic features of asexual reproduction are:-
1) It involves a single organism/parent.
2) It involve only mitotic division.
3) Since there is no gamete formation hence no fertilization.
4) The young ones are generally identical to parents.
5) Multiplication is rapid and enormous.
NOTE :- Clone:- Carbon copy of single patent( morphological & genetically).

Advantage of Asexual Reproduction :-

 It is simple and fast.
Disadvantage of Asexual Reproduction:-
 Since the offsprings are genetically identical so it there is any defect( diseases) in parent organism then it
also get inherited by the offsprings.
 Since there is no variation therefore there is no evolution hence organisms cannot adapt itself according to
the environmental changes.

Types of asexual reproduction:-

1) Fission: - Division of parent body into new individual is called fission.
Types of fission:-
i) Binary fission (Binary – two, fission –division):-
Parent’s body divides into two individuals.
Eg. Amoeba, paramecium, Euglena, Planaria,
Leishmania ( causative agent of kala-azar). Etc.

Karyokinesis:-
The process in which the nucleus divides into two nuclei by mitosis.
Note: - In Amoeba direction of nuclear division and into division is not
fixed hence it is called irregular.
While in case of Leishmania splitting of parent’s body takes places in a definite plane (longitudinally) with respect to flagellum at
its end.
Cytokinesis:- The process in which cytoplasm divides perpendicular to the nucleus division.

ii) Multiple Fission (multiple – many, fission - division):- Parent’s body divides into many individuals.
e.g. Plasmodium (malarial parasite) , monocystis , amoeba (during unfavourable condition) &
some algae like |chlamydomonous , etc.

Binary fission in Leishmania Multiple fission in Plasmodium

Q) Write the difference between Binary & multiple fission. [NCERT]
Answer :-
Binary Fission
1) At once only two offspring (new individual) are
produced.
2) Parents nucleus divides into two daughter
nuclei, during reproduction.
3) It takes place during favourable condition.
4) No formation of cyst during reproduction.
5) E.g. Amoeba, paramecium, Euglena &
Leishmania & planaria.
Multiple fission
At once many offsprings (new individuals) are produced.
Parent’s nucleus divides into many daughter nuclei.
It takes place during unfavourable condition.
Formation of cyst takes place.
Amoeba (during unfavourable condition) & plasmodium
etc.

2) Budding: - The formation of new individual from a small projection or outgrowth (called “bud”,
arising from the parent body) is known as budding.
E.g.:- Hydra, yeast, corals & sponges.

Budding in Yeast
Q) Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in : NCERT
a) Amoeba b) Yeast c) Plasmodium d) Leishmania

3) Spore formation: - Development of new individual by germination

of spores is called spore formation. Eg :- Rhizopus fungus(bread
mould), Penicillium fungus,mosses , Ferns & Mucor etc.
 Spore: - Spores are the microscopic’ asexual reproductive bodies/ unit
which are covered by a hard protective coat.
- Which protect it during unfavourable condition.
 The thread like structures that developed on the bread are called
Rhizopus Fungus
hyphae of the bread mould.
 The tiny blob(blob-on-a-stick) structure are called sporangia.
- Which contains the reproductive structure called spores.
Q) How will organism be benefited it reproduce through spores? [NCERT]
Ans :- An organism has following benefit if it reproduce through spores :-
 Spores can remains dormant till favourable condition become available.
 Spores are too light and they can be carries by various factors like wind etc.,( so they can start growing in different
places) so they help in dispersion of seed.
 Spores are tiny, spherical, asexual reproductive bodies and they are covered with a hard protective wall.
Which enable them to survive during unfavourable condition (like, lack food, lack of water & extreme temperature).
 Multiple and many spores can be produced at once so the population of the organism will increase.

4) Regeneration :- Parents body if cut/broken into multiple pieces, each of which gives rise to a new
s ee
individual. E.g., Hydra, Planaria & Tapeworm
 Regeneration is carried by specialised cells.
 Regeneration is not same as reproduction. Most organisms do not normally depend on
being cut up to be able to reproduce. For e.g. Hydra also reproduces by budding.
Q) Can you think of reasons why more complex organism cannot give rise to new individuals through
regeneration ? [NCERT]
Ans:- More complex organism cannot reproduce cell – by - cell because they are not simply random collection of
cells. They have complex tissue which forms organs and organ form organ system and finally all organ system
form a complex organism. Therefore complex organism cannot reproduce through regeneration and they need a
more complex way of reproduction (i.e sexual reproduction).
But in case of simple multicellular organism like planaria , possess special type of cells which have ability/potential
to grow into a new organism.

4) Fragmentation :- Parent’s body break into multiple pieces/fragments on maturity, each of

which gives rise to a new individual.
E.g.:- Spirogyra , sea anemone & star fish

Regeneration in Planaria Fragmentation in spirogyra.

NOTE:- i) The breaking up of the body of an organism, in fragmentation to form new organism occurs naturally (on its own)
ii) The main difference between fission and fragmentation is that in fission , a unicellular organism breaks up to form two
( or more ) daughter organisms , whereas in fragmentation, a multicellular organism breaks up to form two ( or more )
daughter organisms.

Q) Write some difference between Fragmentation and Regeneration.

Fragmentation
1) It occurs in multicellular organism with simple
body organisation.
2) In fragmentation an organism breaks with
pieces and each piece develops into new
indivisible.
3) No specialised cells are involved in this process.
4) In this process no time is required.
5) After splitting development is not necessary.
e.g :- Spirogyra , sea anemone & star fish
Regeneration
It occurs in fully differentiated multicellular organism
with complex body organisation.
In regeneration an organism if breaks into pieces, each
piece may or may not develop into new individual.
It this process specialised cells differentiate and form
mass of cells.
In this process time is required to develop the lost part.
After splitting development is necessary to gain the lost
part.
Hydra , planaria & tapeworm

6) Vegetative Propagation (Reproduction):-

The type of asexual preproduction in in which a new plant is formed from the vegetative parts of the
plant like root stem & leaves.

Types of vegetative propagation:

(I) Natural vegetative propagation :-
1) By root – e.g. Guava Sweet
Potato & dahlia.
 By Stem – Runners: - Stem that
grow horizontally above ground.
Runner in case of strawberry is
called stolon.
E.g.:- Grass, & Strawberry.
 2) By Underground stem:- potato & onion.

3) By leaves :- Buds are formed along leaf margins which later gives rise
to a new pant.
Eg:- Bryophyllum , kalanchoe & Begonia.

(II) Artificial vegetative propagation :-

a) Cutting
b) Grafting &
c) Layering
a) Cutting :- A small part of a plant is cut from the parent & put into the soil which later
give rise to a new plant.
e.g.:- Rose, Sugarcane, potatoes, Banana, Grapes, cactus & money plant, Bougainvillea,
etc.
Note :- The shoot should be more than one year old. The cutting should have nodes and
internodes.

b) Grafting:- The process of joining together of two different plants in such a manner that they live
as one plant is known as grafting.
 It is a method of obtaining a superior plant from two different plant taking root of one plant and
shoot of other plant.
 In this process a small branch of a plant is inserted into a rooted plant of some or related species.

Note:-
 The cut stem of a plant having roots is called ‘stack’ &
 The cut stem of another plant having shoot is called ‘scion’
 E.g. Apple , Mango, Grapes, Lemmon, Pears & Apricot etc.
Significance of Grafting:-
 Improve quality of certain plants.
 It enables us to combine the most desirable characteristic of the two plants
(scion & stock) in its flowers & fruits.
 It enables us to obtain flowers and fruits having different desired
characteristics by grafting scions from different varieties of plant on the same
stock.(many varieties of mango have been produced by grafting method).
 By using this method, a very young scion (shoot part of a plant) can be made
to flower and produce fruits quite fast when it is grafted to stock (stem having
roots) of a mature plant.

c) Layering: - In some plant the lower branch is bent down close to the soil and the portion below
the shoot tip gets covered by moist soil in such a way that after some time the root develops and
the branch turns into a new plant.
E.g.:- Jasmine, strawberry, Lemmon, Guava & China rose (Hibiscus).

Significance of vegetative prorogation:

1) The new plants produced by artificial vegetative propagation is genetically similar to the
parent.
2) It is used to propagate a plant in which seeds are not viable( seeds are not formed or very few
seeds are formed). (e.g. Banana ,jasmine,Grapes, rose, orange & Pineapple etc.)
3) Vegetative propagation is more rapid and cheaper method of multiplication of plants.
4) Many plants can be grown from just one parent.
5) The traits or characters of parent plants are preserved by this method.
6) By this method a very good quality of race or variety can be preserved.
7) It helps us to introduce plants in new areas where the seed germination fails to produce a
mature plant due to environmental factors and soil.
8) The plants grown by vegetative propagation usually need less attention in their early years
than the plants grown form seeds.
Q) WHY VEGETATIVE PROPAGARTION PRACTISED FOR GROWING SOME TYPES OF PLANTS ? [NCERT]

Tissue Culture (Micropropagation)

The production of new plants form a small piece of plant tissue (or cells) removed from growing tips of a
plant in a suitable growth medium is called tissue culture.
The process of tissue culture is –
1) A small piece of plant tissue is taken form the growing tips of
the plant and placed on a sterile jelly of agar which contains
nutrients and plant hormones. Where formation of callus takes
place.
2) Then the callus transferred to another jelly stimulate the
develop of roots.
 3) Then the callus with root is transferred to another jelly or agar containing different hormones
which stimulate the development of shoots.
4) The callus have roots and shoots separates into tiny plantlets.
5) Then, plantlets are transplanted into pots or soil.
 The tissue culture technique is being used for the production of ornamental plants like orchids,
dahlia, etc.
Note :- The production of new plant by the method of tissue culture is also known as micro propagation
(due to the extremely small amount of plant material used).

Significance of Tissue culture

1) Tissue culture is very fast technique.
2) The new plants produced by tissue culture are disease
free.
3) By this method plants can be grown throughout the
year.
4) By this method very little space is needed for
developing/tiny plantlets.

DNA Replication/DNA copying

DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in growth,
development – functioning and reproduction of all living organism and many viruses.
 It is the blue print of all basic designs of organisms.
 DNA present in the nucleus of the cell acts as the information source.
- It helps in making different proteins and cellular machinery of cell, which makes up the
different body designs.
 DNA Replication or Replication or Duplication of DNA or Synthesis of DNA is the process by
which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division by certain biochemical reaction which
synthesizes more genetic material.
Or
It is the most important and unique property of DNA by which it governs its own synthesis so the
copying process of DNA to produce additional DNA molecule is called replication or duplication.
 The new organism produced by one parent through asexual reproduction are called clones.

Note :- No biochemical reaction can reproduce 100% same result so, even in the asexual reproduction or
in clones there is little variation.
Importance of DNA copying :-
i) It is responsible for transmission of characteristic of parents to the offspring.
ii) It is responsible for variations produced in the offspring.
- Which forms the basis of evolution.
iii) It is responsible for continuity of a species.
 iv) Since DNA is the blue print of all basic body design of organisms so, if DNA is not copied
during reproduction then correct structure of the new organism will not be formed.(because
correct protein will not be formed).
v) It makes the organisms look similar to each other.

Q) What is the importance of DNA coping in reproduction ? [NCERT]

Q) Why is DNA coping an essential part of the process of reproduction ? [NCERT]
Ans:- DNA coping an essential part of the process of reproduction because DNA present in the nucleus
of the cell acts as the information source.
- It helps in making different proteins and cellular machinery of cell, which makes up the
different body designs.
- It is responsible for transmission of characteristic of parents to the offspring.

VARIATIONS:- The small differences in the character/ traits among the individual of a species is called
variation.
It is responsible for the diversity of a population. The reasons for variation are
1) Sexual Reproduction
2) Inaccuracies during DNA copying or replication (Mutation).
Note:- The significance / importance of a variation shows up only if it continues to be inherited by the
offspring for several generation.
Significance / importance of a variation:-
1) They are the raw material for evolution &
2) Development of a new species.
3) It increases the chances of its survival in changing environment.

Q) (1) What is copy error?

Ans:- A mutation that occur during Deoxyribonucleic Acid replication as a result of an error in base
pairing.
Q) (2) Why is variation is beneficial to species, but not necessary for the individual? [NCERT]
Ans :- Variation allow organisms to exist in diverse habitats (or niche). In its absence, a species may
remain restricted to a particular area. If this area gets drastically altered due to various natural or artificial
cause , then species may be wiped out . However, if some variants are present in few individuals, it would
help them to colonise other habitat and survive.
But , if variation are present in a single organism, there would be a very little chance for it to survive.

Q 3) Why the amount of DNA does not get doubled during Sexual Reproduction ?
The gametes are special type of cells called reproductive cells which contain only half the amount of DNA
(or half the number of chromosomes) as compared to the normal body cells of an organism.
For e.g:- A human sperm has 23 chromosomes and the human egg (or ovum) has 23 chromosomes. So
when a sperm & egg fuse together during fertilization, then the zygote formed will have 23 + 23 = 46
chromosomes, which is the normal number of chromosomes.
Sexual Reproduction (Amphimixis or Biparental):-
The type of reproduction in which two individuals are involved, where formation and fusion of gametes
takes place is known as sexual reproduction.
 It occurs in multicellular organism.
 It involve male and female to produce new generation.
- E.g. :- human beings, cat & dog etc.
NOTE
 Formation of gametes is called GAMATGEOGENISIS and fusion of gametes is called
FERTILIZARION.
 Gametes are haploid and on fusion of two gametes results in the formation of diploid ZYGOTE.
Characteristic of Sexual Reproduction:-
 It involves two organism/parent.
  It involves meiosis cell division (during gamete formation).
 Gamete formation and fusion of gamete takes place.
 Multiplication is very slow and complicated process.

Significance of sexual reproduction –

1) It promotes diversity of traits/ characters in the new generation.
2) New combinations of traits are formed due to gametes from two individual.
3) Variations induced in a species are the raw material for evolution.
4) It plays a prominent/important role in the origins of a new species.
NOTE :-
The sexual mode of reproduction involves two major processes:
(i) Formation of gametes by meiosis
(ii) Fusion of gametes
Q) What are the advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction. NCERT
Ans :- The advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction :-
i) In sexual reproduction the offspring has lot of variation (due to gametes form two different
parents) which helps the offspring to adapt itself according to the changing environment.
ii) The new individual has characteristic of the parents.
iii) Since the sexual reproduction is complex & slow so, the size of the population is not
overcrowding.
iv) In sexual reproduction complex & better organism is formed
v) Since there is lot of variation which helps in evaluation.
vi) Since there is lot of variation which helps in origin of a new species.
Q) How are the modes of sexual reproduction different in unicellular & multicellular organism ? NCERT
Ans:- i) Unicellular organism reproduce mainly by asexual method while multicellular organism
reproduce by sexual & asexual methods.
ii) Most of the unicellular organism (like protozoa & bacteria) reproduce by the asexual process
of “fission” .
While simple multicellular organism reproduce by asexual methods such as budding ,spore
formation, fragmentation, & regeneration etc. but in case of complex multicellular organisms,
reproduction takes place by sexual method.
Q) How does reproduction helps in providing stability to population of species ? NCERT
Ans:- Reproduction helps in providing stability to population of species in the flowing ways :-
i) The process of reproduction introduce some variation in the individual organism of a species.
& theses variation enable them to survive even in adverse environmental condition (like
excessive heat or cold or shortage of water/food, etc.).
ii) The process of reproduction helps in replacement of dead organism which maintains the
population of a species.

. Some Thing More .

 Hydra is simple multicellular animal.
 Yeast is tiny , unicellular, non- green plant (which is fungus).
 Fill in the blanks

Approximate life spans of some organisms

SUCCESS CONSISTS OF GONING FROM FAILURE TO FAILURE WITHOUT
LOSS OF ENTHUSIASM.