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WASTEWATER SLUDGE 861
PRODUCTION OF USABLE MATERIALS
Many other methods to recover usable materials from
sludge are available. The recovery of nitrogen (separated
by stripping or as struvite) and phosphorus (generally by
chemical/physical processes) is becoming of great interest,
together with that of the organic fraction as a raw material
for activated carbon. Other significant alternatives include
the production of (1) slag, char, and Portland cement
from dewatered sludge cake and (2) slag, brick, tile, and
artificial lightweight aggregate (ALWA) from incinerated
ash. Use as animal feed can also be mentioned.
CODISPOSAL WITH MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
The combined management of sewage sludge and munici-
pal solid wastes allows, in most cases, overcoming specific
technical problems arising from handling them separately,
and obtaining significant economic advantages and envi-
ronmental benefits.
In composting, the different characteristics of solid
wastes and sewage sludge can be integrated usefully
to obtain a final product of better quality because the
relatively higher solids content and carbon to nitrogen
ratio of solid wastes can counterbalance the lower solids
concentration and carbon to nitrogen ratio of sludge.
In co-incineration, sewage sludge drying can take
place by using the excess heat recovered from solid
waste combustion, but greater attention in designing and
operating furnaces and exhaust gas abatement systems
is required.
Co-landfilling provides faster waste stabilization, better
leachate quality, and higher biogas production, but the
operating procedures must be carefully planned.
WASTEWATER SLUDGE
IZRAIL S. TUROVISKIY
Jacksonville, Florida
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUDGE
Types of Sludge
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has defined
sewage sludge as any solid, semisolid, or liquid residue
removed during the treatment of municipal wastewater
or domestic sewage, including solids removed during
primary, secondary, or advanced wastewater treatment,
scum, septage, and sewage sludge products. Instead of
using the term sludge, some specialists have used the
terms residual, sediments, solids, slime-solid, or biosolids,
depending on its condition or its usefulness and whether
it meets the applicable criteria for that particular term.
Sludge is a suspension including solid and semisolid
materials separated and generated from the liquid
wastewater stream of a treatment plant during purifi-
cation of municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater, or
natural water in mechanical, biological, or physicochemi-
cal facilities.
Depending on the type of wastewater plants and
facilities, the following sludge can be generated:
—primary raw sludge: settleable solids separated from
the wastewater stream during sedimentation in
clarifiers (primary settling tanks);
—activated sludge: a complex of microorganisms of the
colloidal type with adsorbed and partially oxidized
admixtures, precipitating in the secondary clarifiers
in the biological treatment of wastewater;
—sludge generated in industrial wastewater purifica-
tion. This sludge has a different chemical composi-
tion, quantity, and moisture content, depending on
the type of industry and wastewater treatment pro-
cesses, some levels of radionuclides may be present;
—sludge from the treatment of natural water (ground-
water, surface water) that is generated during the
production of potable water: the composition of this
sludge depends on the composition of the natural
water and the types of reagents used to purify
the water.
The wastewater sludge (biosolids) products can also be
classified by the type of treatment process as the following:
—aerobically digested activated sludge or a mixture of
it with primary sludge;
—anaerobically mesophilic or thermophilic digested
primary sludge or its mixture with thickened
activated sludge;
—dewatered sludge from mechanical dewatering
devices;
—dried sludge from sludge beds;
—thermally treated or dried;
—biothermally treated (compost).
The main and more useful process of municipal and indus-
trial wastewater purification is the biological activated
sludge process. The by-products of this process are two
types of sludge, such as primary and waste activated
sludge, containing up to 99% of contaminants removed
from wastewater.
Primary Raw Sludge
Definition. Primary raw sludge is the sediment from
clarifiers whereby wastewater and solids are separated
to produce clarified effluent and sludge. The main raw
sludge components are proteins, nitrogenous compounds,
cellulose, sugar, carbohydrates, grease, fats, macronutri-
ents (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium), micronutrients,
bacteria, and viruses. It has high moisture and poor dewa-
tering ability. Fresh sludge is a gray or light brown colored
suspension; its particles are of different sizes and compo-
sition, and it has a less intense sour odor than septic
sludge. Because of the high content of organic material,
it decays rapidly, the sludge condition becomes septic,
its color changes to dark gray or black, and it gener-
ates an objectionable sour odor. Sludge is a hazardous
862 WASTEWATER SLUDGE
waste which must be stored, disposed of, or reused, in
accordance with hazardous waste regulations. Sludge reg-
ulations limit sludge disposal alternatives based on the
treatment level provided, pathogen removal, and the heavy
metals content. Treatment processes include condition-
ing, dewatering, stabilization (control of odor, pathogens,
biodegradable toxins, and vectors), and disinfecting result-
ing in a valuable land application and soil conditioning
product that has many useful properties.
Quantity and Moisture. The mean moisture content of
the sludge discharged from primary clarifiers is 95%
for gravity-flow removal and 93.8% for removal by
plunger pumps. The quantity of raw primary sludge is
approximately 0.4–0.5% of the volume of wastewater
treated. The quantity of municipal wastewater primary
sludge with 95% moisture can be estimated by assuming
that 39.0 cu ft/1000 persons is produced daily.
Chemical Composition. The composition of sludge from
primary settling tanks (clarifiers) depends on the nature of
the wastewater being treated and particularly the type and
quantity of industrial wastewater treated together with
municipal wastewater. The dry solids of sludge consist of
organic matter (60–75%) constituted of protein, fats, and
carbohydrates. The ultimate composition of the dry solids
of sludge includes carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, and
oxygen. The typical composition of raw primary sludge is
as follows (% of dry solids): grease and fats 6–30, protein
20–30, nitrogen 1.5–8.0, phosphorus 0.8–2.8, potassium
0.1–1.0, and cellulose 8–15. The mineral constituents
include SiO2 , Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , CaO, MgO, K2 O, Na2 O, and
other minerals. Wastewater sludge may also contain heavy
metals such as cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead,
mercury, nickel, and zinc. Alkalinity and pH are the most
important of the easily measured chemical parameters
affecting sludge conditioning. Raw primary sludge has
a pH range of 5.0–8.0, alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3 ) of
500–1500, and organic acid (mg/L as HAc) 200–2000.
Waste Activated Sludge
Definition. Activated sludge gets its name from the
interaction between wastewater and microorganisms
(bacteria, protozoa, and rotifers) in the presence of
dissolved oxygen in a biological process of wastewater
purification. Association of microorganisms that use
organic material as food, remove suspended solids,
and adsorb and mineralize wastewater contaminants
are given the name activated sludge. The average
sizes of activated sludge flocs are 1–4 mm; they have
a light gray, yellow gray, or dark brown color. As
the biological process of wastewater purification takes
place, activated sludge increases. After the biological
process of wastewater purification, activated sludge
settles in secondary clarifiers. From the secondary
clarifiers, the main part of the activated sludge is
moved into aeration tanks to participate in the biological
process; the other part receives treatment as waste
activated sludge.
Activated sludge contains mostly bacterial cells that
are viscous and difficult to dewater. The parameters of
activated sludge sedimentation are sludge volume index
(SVI), sludge density index (SDI = SVI/100), and sludge
age determined by a settleometer test. An SVI less than
100 mL/g indicate an older, denser, fast settling sludge
that has a thick, scummy, dark tan foam in aeration
tanks. An SVI of more than 100 mL/g indicates a young,
slow settling, light density sludge. An optimal SVI is
70–130 mL/g. An SDI of more than 1 g/cm3 indicates old
sludge; an SDI of less than 1 g/cm3 indicates a young
sludge. Sludge age refers to the number of days for
which the suspended solid particles remain under aeration
(5–15 days). The following microorganisms are Indicators
of activated sludge age in order from young to old: amebas,
flagellates, ciliates, and rotifers.
Quantity and Moisture. The moisture content of the
activated sludge discharged from secondary clarifiers
after aeration tanks is 99.2–99.7%. Gravity or belt
gravity thickening of waste activated sludge is a very
important process because of the high volume and
moisture content in waste activated sludge. After gravity
thickening, waste activated sludge has a moisture content
of 97–98%, and volume is decreased 5–10 times. After
belt gravity thickening, waste activated sludge has
a moisture content of about 95%. In the process of
belt gravity thickening, added polymers can reduce the
moisture content. Thickened activated sludge is often
treated together with primary sludge. For approximate
computations, the quantity of the mixture of primary
sludge and gravity thickened activated sludge at an
average moisture content of 96.2% can be assumed as
0.6–1% of the volume of wastewater treated.
Chemical Composition. Activated sludge consists of
microorganisms and adsorbed particles. The activated
sludge dry solids consist of 70–75% organic matter. The
dry solids contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur,
and oxygen. Activated sludge contains (% of dry solids)
6–7.5 fats, 2.4–7.5 nitrogen, 2.8–11.0 phosphorous,
potassium up to 0.4%, and approximately 2.5–3 times less
carbohydrates and two times more protein than primary
raw sludge, the major minerals present in dry solids.
Activated sludge can contain Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd, and other
elements. The alkalinity of activated sludge is 580–1100
(mg/L as CaCO3 ), organic acids 1100–1700 (mg/L as HAc),
and pH 6.5–7.5.
Physical Properties
Granulometric Composition. Primary raw sludge con-
tains 5–20% of particles larger than 7–10 mm, 9–33%
1–7 mm, and 50–88% below 1 mm in which about 45%
have sizes less than 0.2 mm of the total weight of dry solids.
In activated sludge, the quantity of particles less than
0.2 mm is 90%, below one mm 98%, particles of 1–3 mm
1.6%, and over 3 mm 0.4% of the weight of dry solids. The
organic part of sludge decays rapidly, and an increase in
the quantity of finely dispersed and colloidal particles and
bound water results in a decrease in the water separation
from the sludge and poor dewatering ability.
Density and Fluidity. The average density of activated
sludge is 0.7–1.3 g/cm3 . The density of primary sludge is

about 1 g/cm3 , and the density of the sludge dry solids
is 1.2–1.4 g/cm3 . Primary raw sludge whose moisture is
higher than 90% is a fluid; when moisture is 86–90%,
it looks like sour cream; when moisture is 82–86%, it
looks like a slush; and when moisture is less than 82%, it
looks like a light thin soil. Waste activated sludge whose
moisture is 88–91% looks like sour cream, and when
moisture is 85–87% like thin soil. At a concentration
of solids above 5% of primary sludge and above 3% of
activated sludge, they are non-Newtonian which means
that head losses are not proportional to velocity and
viscosity. They are also thixotropic which means that they
become less viscous when stirred.
Dewatering Characteristics. Dewatering is a process of
natural or mechanical removal of water from sludge.
The dewatering characteristics of sludge can be obtained
by measuring the volume of filtrate collected from
sludge and the time it takes to filter using varying
doses of conditioning reagents. The most commonly used
tests are the Specific Resistance Test, the Buchner
Funnel Filtration Test, and the Capillary Suction Time
Test (CST).
The water in sludge may be present as free water and
water bound physicomechanically, physicochemically, or
chemically. The more bound water present in sludge, the
more energy or reagents must be used to condition sludge
to remove bound water by dewatering. The separation
of water from sludge depends on the size of the solid
particles; the smaller the particles, the poorer the water
separation from the sludge. Any process that reduces the
size of the suspended solids particles has a negative
effect on conditioning and dewatering. The chemical
composition of sludge exerts a significant influence on
its treatment. Compounds of iron, aluminum, chromium,
and copper, as well as acids and alkalis, improve the
processes of precipitation, thickening, and dewatering
and reduce the consumption of chemical reagents for
conditioning of sludge before dewatering. Oils, fats, and
nitrogen compounds intensify anaerobic sludge digestion
but interfere with thickening and conditioning processes.
Thermophysical Characteristics. The specific heat of a
mixture of primary and thickened activated sludge is
(3.5–4.7) × 10,000 Joule/(kg K). The heat of combustion
of sludge dry solids equals 16.7–18.4 MJ/kg, the heat
for incinerating fuel matter is 23.4–26.9 MJ/kg of sludge
organic. The heat value is higher for raw sludge
and lower for activated sludge. Sludge burns at a
temperature of 430–500◦ C (800–1000◦ F); to eliminate
odors, the temperature needs to be raised to 800–850◦ C
(1500◦ F). For an increase in the moisture and ash of the
sludge, there is a decrease in the heat of combustion
and liberation of volatiles. In the process of thickened
activated sludge aerobic digestion, 3.6 kcal are released/g
volatile (organic) suspended solids oxidized (15 MJ/kg).
The reduction of 1 kg of organic sludge during composting
of dewatered sludge creates an average of 21 MJ/kg
of heat. Raw primary sludge has a thermal content
6,800–10,000 Btu/lb.
WASTEWATER SLUDGE 863
Bacteriological Content
The activated sludge process is the most efficient biological
process for removing coliforms, pathogenic bacteria, and
virus particles from wastewater; they are transported to
primary and activated sludge. The primary sedimentation
of sewage allows reducing 30–70% of microorganisms and
bacteria. After activated sludge treatment, the reduction
of microorganisms and bacteria reaches 90–99%. The
average level of indicator bacteria and pathogens, such
as coliforms, Streptococcus, Salmonella, enteric viruses,
and parasite ova/cysts reaches millions n/g dry weight of
sludge. The diversity of microbial flora makes it difficult
to enumerate the total population.
Biosolids
The Water Environment Federation (WEF) has adopted
a policy of encouraging the use of the word biosolids in
place of sludge to promote public acceptance of reused
water projects. The term biosolids is used to connote
the primary organic solid product of treatment that
meets US EPA or other applicable criteria for beneficial
use. The term biosolids has been used by WEF in the
last few years instead of sludge. The type and level of
wastewater and sludge treatment has an effect on the
type, quantity, and quality of the biosolids generated.
Biosolids are the solid organic matter produced as by-
products of municipal wastewater treatment processes
(also known as sewage sludge) that can be beneficially
used, especially as a soil amendment, in accordance with
standards and requirements. Sludge regulations limit
biosolids disposal alternatives based on the treatment
level provided.
CONCLUSION
Primary and waste activated sludge are two main types
of sludge (biosolids) formed in wastewater purification.
The quantity of a mixture of primary and thickened
waste activated sludge whose average moisture is 96.2%
reaches 1.0% of the treated wastewater. High moisture
with bound water and small solid particles make sludge
difficult to dewater. The dry solids of sludge consist of
organic matter and minerals. The microbiological popu-
lation of sludge includes millions of coliforms, pathogenic
bacteria, and viruses. Sludge (biosolids) contains macronu-
trients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
micronutrients. After treatment (thickening, condition-
ing, stabilization, dewatering, disinfecting), biosolids meet
regulatory requirements for pathogens, vector attraction
reduction, and heavy metal content and become benefi-
cial valuable products, which can be applied to land for
soil conditioning, preventing soil erosion, and as fertil-
izer.
READING LIST
Bitton, G. (1944). Wastewater Microbiology. Wiley-Liss, New
York.
Bruce, A.M. and Fisher, W.J. (1994). Sewage Sludge Stabilization
and Disinfecting. Ellis Hardwood Ltd., Chichester, UK.
864 PROCESSING OF SLUDGE
WEF. (1992). Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants.
MOP 8, Vol. 2. WEF. #76.
Foess, G.M. and Siger, R.B. (1993). Pathogen/vector attraction
redaction requirement of the sludge rules. Water Eng. Manage.
Jun.: 25.
US EPA. (1997). Land Application of Biosolids Process Design
Manual. US EPA.
Lue-Hing, C., Zenk, D.R., and Kuchenither, R. (1992). Munic-
ipal Sewage Sludge Management. Technomic, Lancaster,
PA.
Siger, R.B. (1993). Practical guide to the new sludge standards.
Water Eng. Manage. Nov.: 26.
Spellman, F.R. (1997). Dewatering Biosolids. Technomic, Lan-
caster, PA.
US EPA. (1990). State Sludge Management Program Guidance
Manual. US EPA.
Tehobanoglous, G.B., Franklink, L., and Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.
(1992). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and
Reuse. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Turovskiy, I.S. (2000). Biosolids or sludge? Water Eng. Manage.
April: 19–21.
Turovskiy, I.S. (2001). Reduction of energy consumption in
wastewater sludge treatment. Fl. Water Resour. J. March:
34–36.
US EPA. (1995). A Guide to the Biosolids Risk Assessments for
EPA Part 503 Rule.
US EPA. (1993). Office of Wastewater Management. EPA 832-B-
93–005.
US EPA. (1999). Biosolids Generation, Use, and Disposal in the
United States. 530-R-99. September 10.
Vesilind, P.A. (2003). Wastewater Treatment Plant Design. WEF
and IWA Publishing.
Ward, R.L., McFeters, G.A., and Yeger, J.G. (1984). Pathogens in
Sludge. Sandia Report. 83–0557. TTC-0428. Sandia Natural
Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM.
PROCESSING OF SLUDGE
IZRAIL S. TUROVISKIY
Jacksonville, Florida
Wastewater sludge is a high moisture suspension in which
water is bound by small solid particles. The main parts
of the sludge solids are organic and contain different
types of microorganisms, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and
parasites. On the other hand, sludge contains valuable
organic macronutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and micronutrients, such as elements and met-
als. Wastewater sludge is hazardous waste which must
be stored, disposed of, or be reused in accordance with
standards and regulations based on the treatment level
provided.
The main purpose of treatment is to prepare sludge
for removal from wastewater treatment plants and to pro-
duce biosolids that can be used as a soil amendment
and conditioner. To achieve this goal, treatment pro-
cesses of sludge should include thickening and dewatering
to decrease sludge volume and moisture and disinfec-
tion and stabilization to control odor, pathogens, and
vectors.
SLUDGE TREATMENT
Thickening
Thickening is an economically effective process to
increase sludge concentration and decrease sludge volume
by removing some free water to the extent that
the sludge remains in the fluid state. The objectives
of thickening are to produce a relatively solids-free
supernatant and to produce a sludge that can be pumped
without difficulty. Sludge can be thickened by using
gravity thickeners, gravity belt thickeners, rotary drums,
separators, centrifuges, and flotators. Rotary drums and
gravity belt thickeners are mechanical devices that
remove free water from wastewater sludge using gravity.
Centrifugation is a process in which centrifugal force
(usually about 500 to 3000 times the force of gravity)
is applied to a sludge slurry to accelerate the separation
of the solid and liquid fractions. Flotation thickening is
a solid–liquid separation caused by introducing fine air
bubbles into the liquid phase. Adding polymers in waste
activated sludge thickening allows removing more water.
Gravity thickening is a common method of solid–liquid
separation to reduce the sludge volume handled in the
dewatered/sludge disposal of a wastewater treatment
facility. During the process of waste activated sludge
gravity thickening, the concentration of dry solids
increases, on average, from 0.2 to 2.0% and the volume of
sludge is reduced 10 times. However, when the thickening
process lasts 8–10 hours or more, organic putrefaction
occurs, the microorganisms of the activated sludge perish
without air, the amount of colloids increases, and part of
the free water is transformed into a bound state of water
with dry solids. Unthickened activated sludge usually
has better dewatering abilities than thickened sludge.
On the other hand, dewatering or digesting nonthickened
activated sludge does not make sense due to the large
volume and low initial concentration of dry solids. The
kinetics of the process of activated sludge thickening
determines the rational concentration of dry solids.
Conditioning
Conditioning is a chemical or physical process that
improves the dewaterability of a sludge during its prepa-
ration for dewatering. Sludge conditioning consists of
such methods as inorganic chemical conditioning, organic
chemical conditioning, thermal conditioning, elutriating,
and freeze–thawing. Chemical conditioning is a com-
monly used method. By this process, chemicals such as
ferric chloride, lime, organic polymers, and others are
added to sludge to coagulate or flocculate the fine par-
ticles and decrease bound water. It is a unique process
vital to the successful operation of sludge thickening and
dewatering systems. Thermal conditioning uses elevated
temperatures and pressures to promote the separation
of solids and liquid through the release of cell-bound
water. By using thermal conditioning, sludge can often
be mechanically dewatered without using chemicals.
Freeze–thaw conditioning substantially decreases con-
sumption of reagents required for conditioning sludge that
was mechanically dewatered.

Dewatering
Dewatering is the process of natural or mechanical
removal of water from sludge during which the sludge
loses its fluidity, becomes damp solids, and can be
transported in bulk. The dewatering processes currently
in use include natural methods such as air drying on
drying beds, lagoons, and mechanical methods such as
belt press filtration, centrifugation, vacuum filtration,
and pressure filtration. Moisture in sludge may be
bound physicomechanically, physicochemically or bonded
chemically and can also be present as ‘‘free water.’’
Conditioning of sludge before dewatering allows increasing
part of the free water, and more water can be removed by
mechanical dewatering. Primary raw sludge has better
dewatering ability than mixtures of primary raw sludge
and thickened activated sludge and better than digested
sludge. Dewatering often is followed by sludge aerobic
or anaerobic digestion. During the dewatering process,
the water is not completely removed from the sludge.
The moisture remains within 70–80% limits. At that
moisture level, sludge loses its fluidity and may be moved
by conveyors. Sludge, generally, should be dewatered
before it is thermally dried, composted, alkali stabilized,
or incinerated.
Stabilization
Stabilization is one of the more frequently used methods
of sludge treatment (especially if the sludge will be used as
a fertilizer). All sludge requires some form of treatment,
whether stabilization, thickening, or dewatering, possibly
followed by drying, composting, and incineration, or a
combination of one or more of these processes, before being
discharged into the natural environment. Stabilization is
a combination of processes of sludge treatment to meet
U.S. EPA or other applicable criteria for beneficial use.
The process of stabilization is necessary to eliminate
the potential of putrefaction of sludge’s organic part,
to prevent offensive odor dissemination, and to reduce
volatile and pathogen content. Two criteria typically
used to measure biosolids stability include the volatile
solids content and pathogen indicator organism reduction.
The following methods of sludge stabilization are in
use: aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, alkaline
stabilization, composting, thermal drying, heat/wet air
oxidation, acid (oxidation) disinfecting, and some others.
Aerobic Digestion. Aerobic digestion has been widely
used in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) for many
years. Aerobic digestion is a process of oxidizing the
organic part of the sludge by microorganisms in special
tanks in the presence of oxygen (air aeration of sludge).
Aerobic sludge digestion stabilizes raw sludge and
produces biosolids for further treatment and disposal. The
process of aerobic sludge digestion may be conducted using
several technological schemas. The duration of the volatile
part of solids oxidation depends on the food/microorganism
ratio, temperature, intensity and quantity of the air
aeration, and also on wastewater composition and
technological demand. This process is more useful for
digesting and stabilizing thickened activated sludge.
PROCESSING OF SLUDGE 865
Anaerobic Digestion. Anaerobic digestion is a biological
process that reduces volatile solids by using microorgan-
isms in the absence of oxygen and reduces odor and
pathogen content. Digesters are cylindrical reservoirs with
conical bottoms; the upper section of the reservoir has a
sealed cover with a device for collecting the gas. Two types
of anaerobic digestion processes are in use: mesophilic
and thermophilic. Mesophilic processes occur in the tem-
perature range of 32–35 ◦ C. The thermophilic process
operates at higher temperature (50 to 55 ◦ C) to reduce
organic solids and pathogen content further. The quantity
of gas obtained during digestion is approximately 1.0 m3
for every 1.0 kg of disintegrated organic sludge. The follow-
ing composition of the gas can be expected: methane—60
to 70%; carbon dioxide—16 to 34%; nitrogen, hydrogen,
and oxygen—0.4 to 6%. The heat of combustion of this
gas averages around 21 million Joule/m3 (MJ/m3 ). Anaer-
obic digestion is a widely used stabilization process for
primary or a mixture of primary and thickened waste
activated sludge.
Alkaline Stabilization. Alkaline stabilization of sludge
produces biosolids that are reduced in pathogen and
vector attraction, and meet Class ‘‘A’’ requirements. Of the
chemicals used for sludge stabilization, the most common
is quicklime or hydrated lime, which is added to sludge
before or after dewatering. The quantity of lime added is
determined so that the pH of the sludge and lime mixture
is raised to 12.0 or above for a period of 2 hours.
Composting. Various composting processes are used,
such as windrow composting, aerated static piles, and
in-vessel composting. This technology includes mixing
dewatered sludge with an added bulking agent (sawdust,
peat, wood chips, bark, etc.) and aerating the mixture. In
sludge composting, a biothermal process takes place in
which microorganisms reduce the sludge’s organic in the
presence of oxygen. This aerobic process is accompanied by
a rise in temperature to about 55–65 ◦ C and a decrease in
moisture content. The quantity of organic sludge reduced
during composting averages 25%. A reduction of 1.0 kg
of sludge organic creates an average 21 MJ/kg of heat.
Taking in to account heat losses and heating of compost
material, it is necessary to spend approximately 4 MJ of
heat to evaporate 1.0 kg of water. Thus, the reduction of
1.0 kg of organic sludge allows removing 5.0 kg of water
from the sludge. Besides that, part of the moisture is
removed from the sludge by natural evaporation. The
total quantity of moisture removed from the sludge
depends on climate factors, the season of the year, the
dimensions of the piles, duration of composting, and
intervals between shoveling over. Removal of moisture
from the sludge produces compost at a moisture content
of approximately 50–55%. During composting, the heat
generated by the decomposition of the organic portion of
the sludge stabilizes and renders the sludge harmless
transforming it into usable soil conditioning biosolids.
Thermal Drying. Thermal drying is used to destroy
pathogens, to eliminate odor, and to reduce most of the
water content and the volume of sludge and transportation
costs of the biosolids. Thermal drying of sludge is
866 MUNICIPAL STORM WATER MANAGEMENT
conducted in drying systems consisting of a drying device
and the auxiliary equipment, which includes furnaces
with a fuel supply system, feeders, cyclones, scrubbers,
blowing equipment, conveyors and bins, monitoring
and measurement instruments, and automatic control
equipment. Depending on the consistency of the sludge,
its end uses and quantity, spray dryers, drum dryers,
opposed jet dryers, dryers with suspended and fluidized
beds, pneumatic pipe dryers, and other different types of
heat dryers can be used. Thermal drying can produce dry
biosolids whose moisture content ranges from 10–40%,
but it does require fuel for processing.
Incineration. Sludge is incinerated if it is impossible
or economically infeasible to use, if storage is limited or
unavailable, and also when it is required for sanitary
and hygienic considerations. The most commonly used
types of incinerators are multiple-hearth and fluidized-bed
furnaces. Incineration dramatically reduces the volume
of sludge and completely disinfects it. The preparation of
sludge for incineration requires dewatering and/or thermal
drying. When considering incineration, it is important
to choose a method that yields safe exhaust gases and
techniques to reduce the amount of energy required and/or
provide some, if not all, of the required energy from another
sludge process.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of sludge treatment is to reduce the moisture
content and the volume of sludge; it renders the sludge
harmless, prepares it for biosolids use, and moves biosolids
from the WWTP. The most common types of sludge
treatment are thickening, dewatering, and stabilization,
which can be used one after the other consecutively and
in various combinations. Stabilization refers to a number
of processes, which reduce volatile solids, pathogen levels,
vector attraction, and odor. Sludge must be stabilized
before use and disposal. The variety of wastewater
sludge treatment alternatives allows comparing and
choosing cost-effective technology for each wastewater
treatment plant.
READING LIST
Operation and Maintenance of Sludge Dewatering Systems.
(1987). Manual of Practice. #OM-8. WPCF.
MOP. (1988). Sludge Conditioning. MOP ED-14.
WEF. (1996). Standards for the Use and Disposal of Sewage
Sludge—Final Rule and Phased—In Submission of Sewage
Sludge Permit Application. WEF.
WEF. (1996). Wastewater and Sludge Treatment Processes. WEF.
(1997). High-temperature sludge digesters and duckweed ponds
reduce the cost of sludge disposal. Chem Eng. February:
81–83.
Bruce, A.M. and Fisher, W.J. (1994). Sewage Sludge Stabilization
and Disinfection. Ellis Hardwood, Chichester, UK.
WEF. (1992). Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants.
MOP 8, Vol. 2. WEF.
Epstein, E. (1997). The Science of Composting. Technomic,
Lancaster, PA.
Foess, G.M. and Siger, R.B. (1993). Pathogen/vector attraction
reduction requirement of the sludge rules. Water Eng. Manage.
June: 25.
Ghosh, S. (1987). Improved sludge classification by two-phase
anaerobic digestion. Environ. Eng. June: 1265–1284.
Lawler, D.F. and Chung, V.J. (1986). Anaerobic digestion. Effect
on particle size and dewaterability. W.P.C.F. December: 1107.
Lue-Hing, C., Zenk, D.R., and Kuchenither, R. (1992). Municipal
Sewage Sludge Management. Technomic, Lancaster, PA.
McDonald, G.J. (1995). Applying sludge to agricultural land-
within the rules. Water Eng. Manage. February: 38.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1992). Wastewater Engineering, Treat-
ment, Disposal, and Reuse. McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 1334.
Parkin, G.F. (1986). Fundamentals of anaerobic digestion of
waste-water sludges. Environ. Eng. May: 867–920.
Spellman, F.R. (1997). Dewatering Biosolids. Technomic, Lan-
caster, PA.
Spellman, F.R. (1997). Incinerating Biosolids. Technomic, Lan-
caster, PA.
Turovskiy, I.S. (2001). Technological improvement for the aerobic
digestion of sludge. Water Eng. Manage. August: 33–36.
US EPA. (1999). Biosolids Generation, Use, and Disposal in the
United States. 530-R-99.
MUNICIPAL STORM WATER MANAGEMENT
C.A. PROCHASKA
A.I. ZOUBOULIS
Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki, Greece
INTRODUCTION
Enlargement of urbanization and industrial activities
around the countryside have significantly altered the nat-
ural landscape of watersheds. The hydrological changes
resulting from urbanization are shown in Fig. 1 (1).
This, in turn, has adversely affected both the quantity
and the quality of storm water runoff and has contributed
to the chemical, physical, and biological impairment
of receiving waters. Several studies have shown that
heavy metals, synthetic organics, pesticides, fuels, waste
oils, and pathogens commonly contaminate storm water
that originates from urban and industrial areas. To
help improve the quality of storm water discharges,
the U.S. Congress amended the Clean Water Act in
1987, which directs the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to develop the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (hereafter termed NPDES). Under
NPDES regulations, the municipalities must develop
storm water management plans that include specific
controls to reduce the discharge of pollutants to the
maximum extent practicable. The management plans
must also address the legal, administrative and financial
aspects of the municipality’s storm water control program.
The municipal storm water management programs
all involve similar elements. These include mainly
public information/participation, elimination of illegal

Precipitation
Evapo-
transpiration 100%
40%
Surface 10%
runoff
Ground-water 50%
Preurban
Precipitation
Evapo-transpiration 100%
13%
25%
30%
Storm sewer 43%
runoff
Ground-water 32%
Urban
Figure 1. Comparison of water distribution before and after
urbanization (1).
discharges, public agency activities, control of indus-
trial/commercial storm water discharges, new develop-
ment management, storm water treatment, program eval-
uation, and monitoring. The activities associated with
each of these essential program components are presented
briefly in the following (2):
PUBLIC INFORMATION/PARTICIPATION
This element is considered the most important early action
and is the cornerstone of effective pollution prevention. Its
objectives are to inform the public, commercial entries, and
industries about the proper use and disposal of materials
and waste and to correct the practices of storm water runoff
pollution control. The public information activities include
the development of general and focused information
materials, as well as public service announcements.
The participation activities include citizen monitoring
programs, stenciling of storm drain inlets with ‘‘no
dumping’’ signs and organized creek cleanups.
ELIMINATION OF ILLEGAL DISCHARGES
The elimination of illicit connections to the storm drain
system and the prevention of illegal dumping are other
essential early action elements. The objective is to ensure
that only storm water or otherwise authorized discharges
can enter the storm drains. The relevant activities include
inspection of storm drain outfalls, surveillance of storm
drain systems, and enforcement actions.
MUNICIPAL STORM WATER MANAGEMENT 867
PUBLIC AGENCY ACTIVITIES
Many public agency activities may affect storm water
pollution. Some activities prevent or remove storm water
pollution; other activities are actually sources of pollution.
The objective of this element is to ensure that routine
municipal operations and maintenance activities are
initiated or improved, to reduce the likelihood that
pollutants are discharged to the storm drain system. The
relevant activities include street sweeping; maintenance
of storm drain inlets, lines, and channels and catch
basins; corporation yard management; and the application
of specific recycling programs. Coordination of road
maintenance and flood control activities with storm water
management program is also included.
CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL STORM WATER
DISCHARGES
Industrial and commercial sources may contribute sub-
stantial pollutant loading to a municipal storm drain
system. The objective of this element is to identify and
effectively control the industrial and commercial sources
of concern. The relevant activities include compilation of
a list of industrial and commercial sources, identification
of appropriate pollution prevention and control measures,
and inspection of respective facilities. The focus is not
only on facilities associated with industrial activity, as
defined in the storm water regulations, but on any facility
that conducts industrial activities, as well as commercial
facilities, such as automotive operations and restaurants.
This effort is expected to complement federal and state
industrial storm water permitting efforts.
NEW DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
New development (and redevelopment) areas offer the
greatest potential for implementing the most effective
pollution prevention and control measures. The objective
of this element is to reduce the likelihood of pollutants
entering the storm drain system from areas of new
development or significant redevelopment during and after
the construction period. The relevant activities include
mainly the review of existing local permitting procedures
and the modification of the procedures to identify and
assign appropriate site design, erosion control, and
permanent storm water control measures.
STORM WATER TREATMENT
The initial focus of storm water management programs
is on pollution prevention and source control. The subse-
quent treatment of collected storm water is expected to
be a rather costly alternative. There may be opportuni-
ties, however, for installation or retrofitting of structural
control. The objectives of this element are to study the
various treatment alternatives available, to test the fea-
sibility of conducting the activities, and to determine the
effectiveness of the treatment through pilot-scale projects.
The main available treatment system alternatives are
the following:
868 MUNICIPAL STORM WATER MANAGEMENT
Riprap
Barrel
Figure 2. Detention basin (2).
Riser with trash rack
Emergency
spillway
Riprap
Cutoff trench
Figure 3. Retention pond (2).
1. Infiltration systems, which capture a volume of
runoff and infiltrate it into the ground. Infiltration
facilities may include infiltration basins, infiltration
trenches, or porous pavement systems.
2. Detention systems, which capture a volume of runoff
and temporarily retain that volume for subsequent
release. Detention systems do not retain a significant
permanent pool of water between runoff events; a
common type is shown in Fig. 2.
3. Retention systems, which capture a volume of runoff
and retain that volume until it is displaced in part
or in total by the next runoff. Retention systems,
therefore, maintain a significant permanent pool
volume of water between runoff events. The details
of a retention pond are shown in Fig. 3.
4. Constructed wetland systems are similar to retention
and detention systems, except that a major portion
of the water surface area (in pond systems) or bottom
(in meadow-type systems) contains wetland vegeta-
tion. This group also includes wetland channels. A
typical wetland system design is shown in Fig. 4 (3).
5. Filtration systems use some combination of granular
filtration media, such as sand, soil, organic material,
carbon or a membrane, to remove constituents found
in runoff.
6. Vegetated systems (biofilters or bioretention systems),
such as swales and filter strips, are designed to
convey and treat either shallow flow (swales) or
sheet flow (filter strips) runoff. A diagram of a typical
bioretention area is shown in Fig. 5.
100 year
10 year
2 year
BMP
Sediment forebay
Grassed
Concrete base
Principal release pipe Deep water zone for
set on negative slope gravity settling
to prevent clogging
Riprap for shoreline
Emergent aquatic
protection
plants
Normal pool elevation
Sediment forebay
Concrete Low flow drain for pond maintenance
base (should be designed to provide easy access
and to avoid clogging by trapped sediments)
7. The method of minimizing directly connected imper-
vious surfaces describes a variety of practices that
can be used to reduce the amount of surface area
directly connected to the storm drainage system by
minimizing or eliminating the traditional curb and
gutter. This is considered to a nonstructural prac-
tice, but it has been included here because of the
need to design and construct alternative conveyance
and treatment options.
8. Miscellaneous and vendor-supplied systems, which
include a variety of proprietary and miscellaneous
systems that do not fit under any of the above
categories. These may include catch basin inserts,
hydrodynamic devices, and filtration devices.
PROGRAM EVALUATION
Storm water management programs are expected to
change as they mature. Consequently, they should have
built-in flexibility to allow for changes in priorities, needs,
or levels of awareness. The objective of this element
is to provide a comprehensive annual evaluation and
report of the program’s effectiveness. The measures of
effectiveness include mainly quantitative monitoring to
assess the effectiveness, the specific control measures,
and the detailed accounting of program accomplishments
and funds and staff hours expended. The annual report
provides an overall evaluation of the program and sets
forth plans and schedules for the coming year. The
annual report is considered a program’s self-audit and
 Inlet

Sediment Open grass

forebay perimeter

Open water

Wetland
vegetation Outlet structure

Figure 4. Constructed wetland system (3).

Bioretention area Pavement

limit Flow Flow

Curb

Flow Flow

Plan view

Ground cover or Max. ponded

mulch layer water depth (6")

Curb
3:1 (typ.)
Flow Flow

Proposed 4' min.

Planting grade
soil

2' Bioretention area

min
Section Figure 5. Bioretention system (3).

869
870 WHAT WASTEWATER UTILITIES CAN DO NOW TO GUARD AGAINST TERRORIST AND SECURITY THREATS
provides a mechanism to propose modifications to the
storm water management plan in response to program
accomplishments or failures. The annual report also serves
as the key regulatory tool for providing accountability
and public review in accordance with the respective
NPDES permit.
MONITORING
Monitoring is an essential component of any pollution con-
trol program. The objectives are to obtain quantitative
information to measure program progress and effective-
ness, to identify the sources of pollutants, and to document
the reduction of pollutant loads (if any). The success of
the monitoring program can be measured by the ability
to make more informed decisions on a program’s direc-
tion and effectiveness. The monitoring activities include
primarily the baseline monitoring of storm drain dis-
charges and receiving waters and is focused on special
studies to identify sources of pollutants and to evaluate
the effectiveness of specific control measures. The types
of monitoring may include water column measurements,
sediment measurements, and nonsampling and analysis
measurements, such as the number of outfalls inspected or
the amount of material removed by regular maintenance
actions. Toxicity identification and evaluations are also
integral components of monitoring programs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Quasim, S.R. (1999). Wastewater Treatment Plants: Planning,
Design and Operation. Technomic, Lancaster, PA.
2. U.S. EPA. (1998). N.P.D.E.S. Storm Water Phase II Fact Sheets,
Washington, DC.
3. U.S. EPA. (1995). National Conference on Urban Runoff
Management: Enhancing Urban Watershed Management at
the Local, County and State Levels. Report EPA/625/R-95/003.
Chicago, IL.
WHAT WASTEWATER UTILITIES CAN DO NOW
TO GUARD AGAINST TERRORIST AND
SECURITY THREATS
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency—Office of
Wastewater Management
One consequence of the events of September 11th is a
heightened concern among citizens in the United States
over the security of their critical wastewater infrastruc-
ture. The nation’s wastewater infrastructure consisting of
approximately 16,000 publicly owned wastewater treat-
ment plants, 100,000 major pumping stations, 600,000
miles of sanitary sewers and another 200,000 miles of
storm sewers, is one of America’s most valuable resources,
This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the
public domain in the United States of America.
with treatment and collection systems valued at more than
$2 trillion. Taken together, the sanitary and storm sewers
form an extensive network that runs near or beneath key
buildings and roads, and is contiguous to many commu-
nication and transportation networks. Significant damage
to the nation’s wastewater facilities or collection systems
would result in: lose of life, catastrophic environmental
damage to rivers, lakes and wetlands, contamination of
drinking water supplies, long term public health impacts,
destruction of fish and shellfish production, disruption
to commerce, the economy and our normal way of life.
Although many wastewater utilities have already taken
steps to increase security, the following recommendations
provide many straightforward, commonsense actions to
increasing security and reducing threats from terrorism.
Many of these actions are recommended by the Association
of Metropolitan Sewer Agencies, the Water Environment
Federation, and other leading professional organizations.
The recommendations include:
GUARDING AGAINST UNPLANNED PHYSICAL
INTRUSION
• Lock all doors and set alarms at your office, pumping
stations, treatment plants, and vaults, and make it a
rule that doors are locked and alarms are set;
• Limit access to facilities and control access to
pumping stations, chemical and fuel storage areas,
giving close scrutiny to visitors and contractors;
• Post guards at treatment plants, and post ‘‘Employee
Only’’ signs in restricted areas;
• Control access to storm sewers;
• Secure hatches, metering vaults, manholes and other
access points to the sanitary collection system;
• Increase lighting in parking lots, treatment bays, and
other areas with limited staffing;
• Control access to computer networks and control
systems, and change the passwords frequently;
• Do not leave keys in equipment or vehicles at
any time.
MAKING SECURITY A PRIORITY FOR EMPLOYEES
• Conduct background security checks on employees at
hiring and periodically thereafter;
• Develop a security program with written plans and
train employees frequently;
• Ensure all employees are aware of communications
protocols with relevant law enforcement, public
health, environmental protection, and emergency
response organizations;
• Ensure that employees are fully aware of the impor-
tance of vigilance and the seriousness of breaches in
security, and make note of unaccompanied strangers
on the site and immediately notify designated secu-
rity officers or local law enforcement agencies;
• Consider varying the timing of operational proce-
dures if possible so if someone is watching the
pattern changes.

• Upon the dismissal of an employee, change passcodes
and make sure keys and access cards are returned;
• Provide Customer Service staff with training and
checklists of how to handle a threat if it is called in.
COORDINATING ACTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE EMERGENCY
RESPONSE
• Review existing emergency response plans, and
ensure they are current and relevant;
• Make sure employees have necessary training in
emergency operating procedures;
• Develop clear protocols and chains-of-command for
reporting and responding to threats along with rele-
vant emergency management, law enforcement, envi-
ronmental, public health officials, consumers and the
media. Practice the emergency protocols regularly;
• Ensure key utility personnel (both on and off duty)
have access to crucial telephone numbers and contact
information at all times. Keep the call list up to date;
• Develop close relationships with local law enforce-
ment agencies, and make sure they know where
critical assets are located. Request they add your
facilities to their routine rounds;
• Work with local industries to ensure that their
pretreatment facilities are secure;
• Report to county or State health officials any illness
among the employees that might be associated with
wastewater contamination;
• Report criminal threats, suspicious behavior, or
attacks on wastewater utilities immediately to law
enforcement officials and the relevant field office of
the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
INVESTING IN SECURITY AND INFRASTRUCTURE
IMPROVEMENTS
• Assess the vulnerability of collection system, major
pumping stations, wastewater treatment plants,
chemical and fuel storage areas, outfall pipes, and
other key infrastructure elements;
• Assess the vulnerability of the storm water collection
system. Determine where large pipes run near or
beneath government buildings, banks, commercial
districts, industrial facilities, or are contiguous with
major communication and transportation networks;
• Move as quickly as possible with the most obvious
and cost-effective physical improvements, such as
perimeter fences, security lighting, tamper-proofing
manhole covers and valve boxes, etc.;
• Improve computer system and remote opera-
tional security;
• Use local citizen watches;
• Seek financing for more expensive and comprehen-
sive system improvements.
While wastewater utilities are the key to improving
security of our wastewater treatment plants and collection
WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES—ADVANCED 871
systems, EPA, other Federal agencies, and both industry
and managerial trade associations also provide help and
support. EPA is working with AMSA and other groups
to develop training courses and technical materials for
wastewater utilities and State personnel on assessing
vulnerabilities and improving security. EPA is working
collaboratively with the Association of Metropolitan Water
Agencies and other groups to develop an Information
Sharing and Analysis Center to bolster coordinated
notification and response to threats and vulnerabilities
at both water and wastewater facilities. A number of
technical projects are underway to help increase security
of the nation’s critical wastewater infrastructure.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
For more information please visit the following web sites:
EPA Counter-terrorism: http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/
ecounterterrorism.html
EPA Alert on Chemical Accident Prevention and
Site Security: http://www.epa.gov/ceppo/pubs/secale.
pdf
Association of Metropolitan Sewer Agencies:
http://www.amsa-cleanwater.org
Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies:
http://www.amwa.net/isac/amwacip.html
Water Environment: http://www.wef.org
National League of Cities: http://www.nlc.org/nlc org/
site/newsroom/terrorism response
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
TECHNIQUES—ADVANCED
MIGUEL A. VALENZUELA
Instituto Politecnico
Nacional—ESIQIE. MEXICO
ADVANCED OXIDATION PROCESSES (AOP)
All advanced oxidation processes are characterized by a
common chemical feature: production of OH• radicals.
Table 1 and Fig. 1 show a list of AOP and their
applicability.
These radicals are suitable for achieving complete
abatement and mineralization of pollutants. AOP usually
operate at or close to ambient temperature and pressure.
The potentialities offered by AOP can be exploited to
integrate biological treatments by oxidative degradation
of toxic substances, entering or leaving the biological
stage (1–2). The usual two AOP are the Fenton process
and photocatalysis:
Fenton Process
Production of OH• radicals by Fenton’s reagent occurs
when addition of H2 O2 is added to Fe2+ salts (3): It has
been demonstrated that Fenton’s reagent can destroy toxic
872 WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES—ADVANCED

Table 1. Some Advanced Oxidation Technologies electrons in the conduction band (e− cb ) and holes in the
Fenton-Type reactions valence band (h+ vb ):

Fe 2+
+ H2 O2 → OH + Fe3+ + OH−
•
TiO2 −−−→ (e− cb + h+ vb )
Ozone—peroxide—UV systems The carriers can diffuse to the surface where they react
−
O3 + OH → O2 →• OH
− as follows:
3O3 + UV(< 400 nm) → 2• OH h+ vb + OH− −−−→ OH• ads
H2 O2 + UV(< 400 nm) → 2• OH
H2 O2 + O3 → 2• OH and
H2 O2 + O3 + UV →• OH e− cb + O2 −−−→ O2 •− ads
Semiconductor oxides—UV systems
where ads = adsorbed to the surface of TiO2 particles.
TiO2 + hv → TiO2 (h+ + e− ) Organic pollutants may adsorb on the surface of TiO2
H+ + OH− →• OH particles, and there they are attacked by the adsorbed
Radiolysis (high-energy beams) OH• radicals and holes. The O2 •− radicals can further
disproportionate as follows:
H2 O → e −
aq + H +• OH + (H2 , H2 O2 , H3 O+ )
•

Wet oxidation (WO) systems

2O2 •− ads + 2H+ −−−→ H2 O2 + O2

RH + O2 → R• + HO2 • Although the quantum yield of TiO2 photocatalyzed

RH + HO2 • → R• + H2 O2 reactions is rather low, the system does have the
H2 O2 + M → 2 OH• advantage that it can use UV photons in the near
RH + OH• → R• + H2 O UV (blacklight UV fluorescent lamps or the UV portion
R• + O2 → ROO•
of solar radiation) (Fig. 2). Compilations of substances
ROO• + RH → ROOH + R•
which can be mineralized using photocatalysis are now
Sonolysis (ultrasound) available (7).
• •
H2 O → H + OH
COMPLEXATION/FLOCCULATION
Source: Reference 26.
It has been shown that dissolved humic substances
(DHS), bind (complex) organic solutes via hydrophobic
Incineration interactions, forming humic–contaminant complexes in
the aqueous phase. The use of DHS in flushing solutions
to enhance desorption of hydrophobic contaminants from
sediments was suggested by several researchers (8–10). It
was further proposed to remove the humic–contaminant
Wet OX complexes by flocculation using alum or ferric salts,
followed by press filtration and incineration or disposal
of the resulting precipitate.
The treatment process follows two stages: (1) binding
AOP
of Dissolved Humic Acid (DHA) by the dissolved con-
taminants to form complexes (complexation stage) and
(2) precipitation of DHA and the associated contaminant
0 5 10 15 20 200 300 by using a flocculant (alum or ferric chloride, floccu-
COD g/L lation stage). This process can be applied to remove
Figure 1. Suitability of water treatment technologies according
various classes of hydrophobic organic pollutants such as
to COD contents. (Source: Reference 1). PAHs, PCBs and chloro-organo pesticides from industrial
wastewater. Additionally, this technology has the advan-
tage that it may be coupled to the general water treatment
compounds such as phenols and herbicides in wastewaters. process (Fig. 3) (11)
Irradiation by UV-vis light strongly accelerates the
degradation rate of organic pollutants (4). The application
CONDUCTING POLYMERS
of the Fenton process requires strict pH control; sludges
can be formed which create disposal problems. Conducting polymers have ion exchange properties
induced by charging and discharging processes (12). For
Photocatalysis
instance, polypyrrole (PPy) can function as an anion
In this process, hydroxyl and other radicals are generated exchanger, whereas PPy modified with polystyrenesul-
at the surface of an UV-absorbing powder (called a fonate anions (PPy/PSS• ) works as a cation exchanger
photocatalyst). The most widely used photocatalyst is (Fig. 4) (13,14). Such a modified polymer can be used as an
the wide band-gap (3.2 eV) semiconductor TiO2 in its electrochemically switchable ion exchanger for water soft-
anatase crystalline form (5–6). TiO2 absorbs UV light ening (15). This ion exchanger can be regenerated without
at wavelengths below ∼ 380 nm creating an excess of chemical additives or aqueous electrolysis.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES—ADVANCED 873

PVDF tube
Aluminum
surface PP connection
Water
outlet

View “A” Water

inlet

37°

View “A”

Figure 2. Scheme of one CPC module used for solar detoxification of water. (Source: J.M.
Hermann, et al. (1998). Appl. Catal. B: Environmental 17: 15).

DHS Alum

Raw
water Deep
∞ ∞ Settling bed
filtration

Rapid Slow stirring

mixing Backwash
Water sludge Treated
Complexation Flocculation water
stage stage
Sludge treatment

Figure 3. Flow diagram of the

complexation—flocculation process
coupled with a common water
Safe disposal treatment operation. (Source: Ref-
erence 11).

IONIZING IRRADIATION For instance, the powder-activated carbon–activated

High energy irradiation (γ rays, X rays, and electron
beams) interacts with water to generate a variety of
free radicals, principally OH• , H• and hydrated electrons.
If H2 O2 or O3 is present in the water, the H• and
the hydrated electrons are converted efficiently to OH•
radicals. This process is based on electron accelerators.
An attempt has been made to use combined electron beam
and ozone for treating municipal wastewater in aerosol
flow (Fig. 5) (16,17).
MEMBRANE/SONICATION/WET OXIDATION
Hybrid systems are becoming popular for treating
waste streams that are otherwise difficult to handle.
sludge system (PACT system by Zimpro Environmental,
Inc.) is a classic example of such systems. OXYMEM
is another hybrid process, where wet oxidation and
nanofiltration were used together to treat bioresistant
industrial wastewater containing polyethylene glycol. It
has also been demonstrated that sonication followed by
wet oxidation (SONIWO) is a useful hybrid process for
treating refractory waste. Conventional bioprocesses may
not be amenable to biodestruction of the effluent from
reactive bath dye. ‘‘Membrane-sonication-wet oxidation’’
(MEMSONIWO) is a hybrid process applied to water
conservation via recycling. The membrane unit allows
concentrating the waste, and then the permeate (mostly
water) can be recycled. The concentrate from the
membrane unit can, then, be treated by sonication to
874 WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES—ADVANCED

H H 10 5
+ N N +
N N N
H H H 8 7
− −
SO3 SO3
+

1 2 3
+ 4 9
n

Reduction Oxidation e
(water softening) (regeneration)

H H
N N
N N
H H
SO3−
+ +
6
N Figure 5. Scheme of pilot plant for combined electron-beam
H and ozone treatment of municipal wastewater in aerosol flow.
(1) Reservoir of wastewater intake (2) Electric pump unit for
SO3− wastewater (3) Sprayer unit (4) Irradiation chamber (5) Electron
accelerator (6) Turboblower (7) Power supply (8) Control desk
(9) Electric pump unit for purified water removal (10) Biological
shielding (Source: Reference 17).

n
ratios have a low capacity to retain cations but are more
hydrophobic and can, therefore, sorb uncharged molecules.
Figure 4. Polypyrrole with incorporated PSS anions working as In laboratory studies using batch sorption equilibria,
a cation exchanger. (Source: Reference 15).
high Si large-pore mordenite (MOR) and ZSM-5, it was
found, have sorption properties for methyl tert-butyl ether
make it suitable for wet oxidation. After wet oxidation, the (MTBE) and trichloroethylene (TCE) that are superior to
water can be discharged or recycled (18). those of activated carbon (Table 2) (20).

SORPTION BY ZEOLITES SUPERCRITICAL WATER OXIDATION

It is well established that the sorption characteristics
of zeolite-type materials are defined by pore size and
charge properties (19). Most naturally occurring zeolites
bear a relatively high framework charge arising from Al3+
substitution for Si4+ in the crystal lattice; this results in a
structure of high cation-exchange capacity. Such zeolites
have been used as ion exchangers to treat water and are
incorporated into systems for treating radioactive waste
(removal of 137 Cs+ and 90 Sr2+ ) and for removing NH4 +
from wastewater. Zeolites that have high SiO2 /Al2 O3
Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) is considered a
promising technology for treating several wastes (21–24).
SCWO is a process where oxidation takes place in water
above its critical point (647 K, 22.1 MPa). SCWO is an
environmentally acceptable technology that produces a
disposable clean liquid (pure water), clean solid (metal
oxides, salts), and clean gas (CO2 , N2 ). Recently, there has
been increasing interest in using heterogeneous catalysts
in SCWO (Fig. 6). Catalysts can increase the oxidation
rates, reduce the residence times and temperatures

Table 2. Solution Concentrations and Percent Removal after Equilibration of

100 µg/L Solutions with 5 mg of Solid Phasea
MTBE CHCl3 TCE

Sorbent µg/L % Removal µg/L % Removal µg/L % Removal

MOR 4.0 ± 0.3a 96 62.2 ± 5.2a 38 23.2 ± 4.4a 77

ZSM-5 36.6 ± 9.4b 63 21.9 ± 1.2b 78 < 3.0bb > 97
Y 94.9 ± 6.1c 5 99.6 ± 3.9c <1 90.9 ± 1.7c 9
AC 48.2 ± 3.9b 52 43.8 ± 2.2d 56 32.2 ± 1.6a 68
a
Mean values within columns followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other
at p ≤ .05.
b
3 µg/L was the detection limit for the method used.
Source: Reference 20.
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES—ADVANCED 875

Organics feed Safety

relief
Cooling
water He P
T
Organics+H2O Stirred He
pressure Safety
Safety vessel relief
P Safety Heat
relief 2 µm filter relief exchanger P T
P He Metering pump Safety
relief T 2 µm
He Feed
cylinder filter
Catalytic reactor
Backpressure
P Split feed T regulator
heater coils
H2O+H2O2
Safety
relief
2 µm Mixing
filter tee
Metering Fluidized sand bath
pump
Gas–
liquid Liquid
Oxidant feed Vapor separator product
product

Figure 6. Experimental apparatus for catalytic SCWO. (Source: Reference 25).

OH(aq) + S(aq) → products

Bulk solution media: T ~ 300 K
H2O2 + S(aq) → products
.
HO2 N2
.
H2O2 O2 OH

Gas–liquid
Cavity Interior Interface
up to ~ 5000 K .
. T
. ~ 2000 K OH
H ~ 500 atm OH(aq) + S(aq) → product
.
. ‘Hot’ bubble reaction: . H
HO 2 OH → H2O2
. . .
H2O(g) → OH(g) + H(g) .
2HO2 → H2O2 + O2 OH
. .
HO N2 → 2N S(aq) → products
. . .
. O2 → 2O OH + NO → HONO H
H
S(g) → products
.
OH(g) + S(g) → products
.
O2 N2 NO HO2

Substrate(s)
. . .
O2 OH HO2 N2 OH

Figure 7. Three reaction zones in the cavitation process. (Source: Reference 26).

required for treatment, and possibly control the selectivity
of the reaction pathways (25).
ULTRASONIC IRRADIATION
Sonochemical effects are due to the phenomenon of
‘‘cavitation,’’ the nucleation and the behavior of bubbles
in a liquid (26,27). In wastewater treatment, a bubble of
cavitation may function as a microreactor which destroys
volatile organic compounds inside (28–30). The cavity may
also be thought as a H• , OH• , OOH• radical source that
react with pollutants in the bulk of the solution (Fig. 7).
Several potential applications of ultrasonic irradiation
have been reported recently.
876 TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Andreozzi, R., Caprio, V., Insola, A., and Marotta, R. (1999).
Catal. Today 53: 51.
2. Ollis, D.F. (1993). In: Comparative Aspects of Advanced
Oxidation Processes, Emerging Technologies in Hazardous
Waste Management III. D.W. Tedder and F.G. Pohland
(Eds.). Chap. 2, ACS Symposium Series 518, Washing-
ton, DC.
3. Haber, F. and Weiss, J. (1934). Proc. R. Soc. Ser. A 147:
332.
4. Bauer, R. et al. (1999). Catal. Today 53: 131.
5. Mills, A. and Hunte, S.L. (1997). J. Photochem. Photobiol. A:
Chem. 108: 1.
6. Bahnemann, D. (1999). The Handbook of Environmental
Chemistry. Vol. 2, Part I, Environmental Photochemistry,
P. Boule (Ed.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
7. Blake, D.M. (1999). Bibliography of Work on the Photocat-
alytic Removal of Hazardous Compounds from Water and Air.
Report NREL/TP-570-26797, National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, Golden, CO.
8. Johnson, W.P. and Amy, G.L. (1995). Environ. Sci. Technol.
29: 807.
9. Rebhun, M., Smedt, F.D., and Rwetabula, J. (1996). Water
Res. 30: 2027.
10. Liu, H. and Amy, G.L. (1993). Environ. Sci. Technol. 27:
1553.
11. Rebhun, M., Meir, S., and Laor, Y. (1998). Environ. Sci.
Technol. 32: 981.
12. Shimidzu, T., Ohtani, A., and Honda, K. (1988). J. Elec-
troanal. Chem. 88: 323.
13. Zhong, C., Doblhofer, K., and Weinberg, G. (1989). Faraday
Discuss. Chem. Soc. 88: 307.
14. Ren, X. and Pickup, P.G. (1993). J. Phys. Chem. 97: 5356.
15. Weidlich, C., Mangold, K-M., and Juttner, K. (2001). Synth.
Met. 119: 263.
16. Pikaev, A.K. et al. (1996). Radiat. Phys. Chem. 48: 75.
17. Pikaev, A.K., Podzorova, E.A., and Bakhtin, O. (1997).
Radiat. Phys. Chem. 49: 155.
18. Dhale, A.D. and Mahajani, V.V. (1999). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.
38: 2058 and references therein.
19. Newsam, J.M. (1986). Science 231: 1093.
20. Anderson, M.A. (2000). Environ. Sci. Technol. 34: 725.
21. Mishra, V.S., Mahajani, V.V., and Joshi, J.B. (1995). Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res. 34: 2.
22. Matatov-Meytal, Y.I. and Sheintuch, M. (1998). Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res. 37: 309.
23. Gloyna, E.F. and Li, L. (1995). Environ. Prog. 14: 182.
24. Levec, J. (1997). Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q 11: 47.
25. Yu, J. and Savage, P.E. (1999). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 38: 3793
and references therein.
26. Adewuyi, Y.G. (2001). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40: 4681 and
references therein.
27. Thompson, L.H. and Doraiswamy, L.K. (1999). Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res. 38: 1215.
28. Pétrier, C. and Francony, A. (1997). Ultrasonic Sonochemical
4: 295.
29. Phull, S.S. et al. (1997). Ultrasonic Sonochemical 4:
157.
30. Pandit, A.B., Gogate, P.R., and Mujumdar, S. (2001). Ultra-
sonic Sonochemical 8: 227.
TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION
TECHNIQUES
SANJIV GOKHALE
Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee
Trenchless technology (TT) consists of a wide range of
methods, materials, and equipment for installing new
or rehabilitating existing underground pipelines and
utility systems with minimal excavation of the ground.
According to the North America Society of Trenchless
Technology (NASTT), trenchless construction is ‘‘a family
of methods, materials, and equipment capable of being
used for the installation of new or replacement or
rehabilitation of existing underground infrastructure with
minimal disruption to surface traffic, business, and other
activities.’’
Open-cut trench construction has proven expensive,
especially in congested urban areas, because it requires
disruption of surface activities. Some problems caused by
the open-cut method include traffic disruption, economic
impact on local businesses, damage to existing utilities,
and concerns for worker safety. The development and use
of trenchless techniques has expanded rapidly over the
past 10 years. The reason for this exceptional growth
is the desire to install or rehabilitate underground
pipeline systems with minimum impact on society and
the environment. The benefits of trenchless technology
are quite apparent compared with the conventional open-
cut process. However, it is necessary to evaluate the
suitability and appropriateness of any rehabilitation
system, trenchless or otherwise, on a project-by-project
basis with due consideration of all project criteria, such as
size and material of pipe, level of deterioration, hydraulic
capacity, etc.
According to a 2003 survey (http://www.oildom
publishing.com/UC/uchome.html) of trenchless construc-
tion methods used by municipalities, the percentage of all
municipal projects using trenchless construction methods
has grown by 180% (new installation) and 270% (rehabili-
tation), respectively, over the past 5 years.
BASICS OF PIPELINE RENOVATION USING TRENCHLESS
TECHNIQUES
Trenchless pipeline renewal methods offer several advan-
tages over conventional dig-up and repair/replace meth-
ods:
• minimize disturbance to existing site, underground
utilities, and environment;
• are more suitable for difficult underground condi-
tions, such as high water table and unstable soils;
• require less exposed work area, therefore involving
lesser risk to the workers and public; and
• minimize the need for spoil removal and disposal.
The primary trenchless pipeline-system renewal methods
can be divided into five categories (Table 1):
 TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES 877

Table 1. Trenchless Pipeline Renewal Methods

Maximum
Diameter Installation
Range, Lengths,
Method in. ft. Liner Materiala Application

Sliplining:
Segmental 12–150 5000 PE, PP, PVC, GRP Gravity & pressure
Continuous 4–60 1000 PE, PP, PVC, GRP Gravity & pressure
Spiral wound 4–100 1000 PE, PP, PVC, PVDF Gravity
CIPP:
Inverted in place 4–108 3000 Thermoset resin Gravity & pressure
Winched in place 4–54 500 Thermoset resin Gravity & pressure

Close-Fit:
Swaged 4–15 700 HDPE, PVC Gravity & pressure
Folded 3–24 1000 HDPE, MDPE Gravity & pressure
Expanded spiral 4–36 1000 HDPE, MDPE Gravity & pressure

Spray-on Lining:
Cement mortar 4–36 NA Cement mortar Gravity & pressure
Shotcrete >42 NA Cement mortar Gravity & pressure
Epoxy 4–24 NA Epoxy Gravity & pressure

Point Source Repairs:

Robotic 8–30 NA Epoxy & cement mortar Gravity
Grouting NA NA Chemical grouting Any
Mechanical sleeve 4–24 NA Mechanical sleeves Any
Point CIPP 4–24 50 Fiberglass/polyester resin Gravity
a
Definitions of Acronyms: PE: Polyethylene; PP: Polypropylene; PVC: Polyvinyl chloride; PVDF: Polyvinylidene chloride; GRP: Glassfiber rein-
forced polyester; HDPE: High density polyethylene; MDPE: Medium density polyethylene.

• sliplining a winding machine and a helically wound liner pipe is

• cured-in-place pipe (CIPP)
• close-fit pipe
• spray lining
• point source repair
Sliplining
Sliplining is one of the earliest forms of trenchless pipeline
rehabilitation. There are three main types of sliplining:
continuous, segmental, and spiral wound. A new pipe of
smaller diameter is inserted by pulling, pushing, or spiral
winding it into the host pipe, and the annulus between the
existing pipe and the new pipe is grouted. Small liners may
be pulled in manually but most require a winch (Fig. 1).
The winch applies a steady, progressive pull to place the
liner inside the host pipe. The liner pipe is generally
butt-fused to its design length. Numerous designs of
pipe pushing machines, both manual and hydraulic, are
available. In most instances, an insertion pit is required
for the pushing machine. The pushing machine grips the
liner pipe and pushes it forward into the host pipe. The
gripping mechanism is then released and returned to the
starting position, and the process is repeated. Segmental
liners are generally used to reduce the size of the insertion
pit. Pipe joints are generally of the mechanical type with
either a snap-fit or a screw-on mechanism. For spirally
wound liners, strips of PVC material are passed through
manufactured in situ. To increase the stiffness of the liner
pipe, ribbed strips are used, with ‘‘T-beams’’ forming on the
outer surface. The winding machine is normally located
down a manhole or a small excavation. The tube travels
down the host pipe as more strips are fed into the machine.
The whole tube is rotating during the installation, so the
limiting factor is usually the friction and weight of the
liner that the winding machine is capable of turning.
An alternate spirally wound technique overcomes this
drawback by using a winding machine that travels through
the host pipe, thereby removing the need to rotate the
liner itself.
This method has the merit of simplicity and is relatively
inexpensive. One of the chief drawbacks of sliplining
is the resulting decreased cross-sectional area. In some
instances, however, despite the reduced cross section, the
hydraulic capacity of the pipeline may actually increase
due to the superior flow characteristics of the new
pipe. The reconnection of laterals and service lines in
conjunction with sliplining of gravity pipelines usually
necessitates excavation. Excavation must take place
and the lateral must be disconnected before grouting.
Electrofusion is commonly used to connect laterals to
PE liners in the same way as new installations. For
glass-fiber reinforced polyester resin (GRP) pipe, laterals
may be typically reconnected to the new liner pipe using
‘‘tees.’’
878 TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES
New PE pipe
Figure 1. Continuous sliplining.
Cured-In-Place Lining (CIPP)
The main alternative to sliplining and its variants in the
non-man-entry pipeline renovation market is the cured-
in-place lining (CIPP), sometimes referred to as ‘‘in situ
lining.’’ Although several patented systems are currently
available, the common feature of CIPP is the use of a
polyester or epoxy resin impregnated fabric tube. The tube
is inserted into the existing host pipe and inflated against
the wall of the host using a hydrostatic head or air pressure
(Fig. 2). The inflated liner is cured by recirculating hot
water or steam. The CIPP process creates a ‘‘close-fit’’
pipe that has quantifiable structural strength and can be
designed for specific loading conditions.
The chief advantages of CIPP is that it minimizes
the reduction in cross section and the liner pipe can
conform to noncircular cross sections. The laterals can be
reopened remotely after lining by using a remote controlled
robotic cutter. The chief disadvantage of this method is
the need to take the host pipe out of service during
installation and curing. Diversion or bypass pumping
Liner Truck
Liner
Guide tube
Start of inversion
Figure 2. Cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining.
Winch
Launch pit
or chamber
Pulley
Towing head
Sliplining installation
adds to the installation cost. CIPP is not cost-effective
for large diameters.
As in all trenchless renovation systems, thorough
cleaning and preparation are essential. In non-man-
entry pipelines, CCTV inspection should be carried
out prior to and after installation. All silt and debris
should be removed completely by jetting or other means
prior to installation. Intruding connections, encrustation,
and other deposits should be removed by mechanical
means or high-pressure jetting, followed by cleaning to
remove debris. There may be short-term environmental
implications with CIPP systems when using polyester
resins. The solvents in the systems can give off strong
odors and in high concentrations, the vapor can pose a
health risk. Such levels are not typically found in CIPP
installations; nonetheless, adequate ventilation of a CIPP
work site is essential. This problem applies only until the
resin is cured.
Close-Fit Pipe
The use of liners that are deliberately deformed prior to
insertion, and then revert to their original shape once
Boiler truck
Hot water recirculation
Guide tube Liner
Completion of inversion
 TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES 879

The pipe is reduced

in diameter by passing
it through rollers or
dies, and is reverted
to its original size
Diagram courtesy of subterra after insertion
Figure 3. Swaged liner. Diagram
courtesy of Subterra.

in position, so that they fit closely inside the host pipe,

is called ‘‘close-fit lining.’’ Such techniques are a logical
development of basic sliplining described previously. The
close-fit pipe method takes two principal forms, both of
which take advantage of the built-in memory of some
polymeric pipe materials. In one method, the diameter of
the liner is temporarily reduced by drawing it through a
set of rollers, a process referred to as ‘‘swaging,’’ so that
it can be inserted into the existing pipe (Fig. 3). Once
installed in place, the liner is restored to its original
size by pressurizing the line. Due to the limitations on
size reduction, this technique is better suited to pressure
pipes than to gravity sewers that have dimensional
irregularities. The second method involves folding the liner
into a ‘‘U’’ or ‘‘C’’ shape prior to insertion (Fig. 4), and then
using heat and/or pressure to restore its original shape.
This technique is often described as ‘‘fold-and-form.’’ The
liner diameter and wall thickness are the main limitations
of this process, but it can be used for both pressure pipes
and gravity sewers. Some versions of the spirally wound
lining technique described previously offer the facility to
expand the liner to provide a close fit with the host pipe.
During installation, the joint between the adjacent turns
of the helix is prevented from slipping by a locking wire.
Once the liner is in position, the locking wire is pulled
back progressively to allow the joint to slip and the helix
to increase in diameter (Fig. 5).
Close-fit lining minimizes the need for cross-sectional
reduction. Theoretically speaking, in this type of method,
there is no annulus and therefore no need for annulus
grouting. The curing time is reduced compared with
a cured-in-place (CIPP) liner. As in CIPP, the lateral
connections can be reopened remotely after lining by using
a remote controlled robotic cutter. The chief disadvantage
is the size limitation (for non-man-entry pipe sizes).
The spirally wound
liner is expanded
after insertion by
allowing slippage
between adjacent
turns of the helix
Figure 5. Spirally wound liner being installed in a host pipe.
Spray-On Linings
Spray-On linings have a long history in potable water
pipelines, where the principal objective is to remove
the scale and corrosion of old pipelines, generally made
of cast iron, and then apply a coating that inhibits
further deterioration and seals minor leaks and cracks.
The most common materials used for this purpose are
cement mortar linings or epoxy resin linings. For small-to
medium sized pipelines this can be achieved by a robotic
spraying machine that is winched through the pipeline at
a constant, predetermined rate. Development continues in
achieving a cost-effective application of spray-on linings
in non-man entry sewer pipeline renovation, but so far no
method has commercial prominence. This may be partly
due to the differing requirements for sewer renovation,
where the aim is to increase the structural strength of
the pipe, rather than prevent corrosion, and partly due

Folded PVC liner

for sewer renovation,
showing close fit
after reversion Figure 4. Fold-and-form pipe.
880 TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES
to the practical difficulty of ensuring that the inflow into
the system is completely stopped while the material is
being applied and cured. For large, man-entry pipelines,
the application of a mortar lining can be done manually or
mechanically.
Spray-on linings are usually intended as protective
coatings and rely on the bond to the host pipe for
their function. Hence the preparation of the host pipe is
critically important. Old water mains, particularly those
made of cast iron, often have heavy internal deposits of
corrosion and scale. Cleaning techniques include high-
pressure water jetting, scraping, pigging, etc. There is
often a balance drawn between removing all traces of
corrosion and avoiding damage to the pipe wall; some of
the more aggressive cleaning techniques should be used
with caution.
Pipe scrapers are designed to remove hard deposits.
Spring-loaded steel blades are mounted on the central
shaft of a scraper. A towing eye is fitted to each end
allowing the scraper to be pulled through the pipe in either
direction. Wire brush pigs consist of circular wire brushes
mounted on a central shaft and are used to remove the
debris loosened by the scrapers or by themselves to remove
loose debris from the pipe. Cleaning pigs are available in
a wide range of designs and are normally driven through
the pipe under water pressure. In a heavily encrusted
pipe, pigging may be carried out in stages, using pig sizes
of increasing diameters. Pull-through pigs, also known as
‘‘squeezes,’’ remove fine material and fluids from pipes.
They consist of rubber disks fitted to the central shaft that
are towed through the pipe. Pull-throughs are often used
in the final stage of pipe preparation to produce a clean,
dry surface, to which the spray-on lining is applied.
The application of a cement mortar lining is a common
and a relatively inexpensive method for water main
renovation. The cement mortar serves two important
functions: the alkalinity of the cement inhibits corrosion
of an iron pipe, and the relative smoothness improves
flow characteristics. Note that cement mortar linings are
applied to many new cast iron and ductile iron pipes to
inhibit corrosion. Application is generally by a spraying
machine that is either fed by a hose from the surface or, for
large pipes, may have its own hopper containing premixed
mortar. The forward speed of the sprayer is controlled to
achieve a consistent mortar thickness. Spray application
may be followed by troweling. This is often carried out by
rotating spatulas fitted to the spraying machine.
For renovation of large diameter brick and concrete
pipelines, shotcrete is often used as a cost-effective means
to enhance the structural integrity of a pipeline. Shotcrete
is a process in which mortar or concrete is conveyed
through a hose and projected at high velocity onto the
surface of a pipe. Shotcrete may be applied dry or wet.
The method of applying dry-mix shotcrete through a
hose using compressed air is also given the trade name,
Gunite. There are advantages and disadvantages to both
methods. For instance, a wet-mix shotcrete application
results in less rebound, less dust, and yields a higher
compressive strength. The drawbacks of the wet-mix
are limited conveying distance, increased demand on
aggregate quality, and increased clean-up costs. As in
other lining methods, surface preparation is critical.
All deteriorated material from the pipe walls must be
removed along with dirt, oil, and other bond inhibiting
material. The pipe surface must be dampened in the
wet method so as to be saturated surface dry (SSD)
prior to application. Prepackaged mixtures of ready-to-
use cementitious mortars containing various proportions
of silica fume and fiber reinforcement, and admixtures for
high-strength, low-shrinkage shotcrete are commercially
available. For additional strength, reinforcing bars or
welded wire fabrics may be used. Both wet and dry-
shotcrete are shot perpendicularly to the pipeline surface
to minimize rebound and to create a smooth pattern.
After applying the shotcrete, it is allowed to stiffen for
about 10 minutes before ‘‘bumpy’’ areas are troweled to
give a uniform surface. Shotcrete is applied in layers
(approximately 1-inch thick) until the required design
thickness is reached. Before applying the next layer, the
previous layer must be allowed to reach an initial set. This
can take from 45 minutes to several hours depending on
mix consistency and ambient temperature.
Epoxy linings are an alternative to cement mortar
linings (Fig. 6). The resin bonds to the surface of the pipe,
forming a coating, which inhibits water penetration and
corrosion. Epoxy coatings are much thinner than cement
mortar linings and therefore do not significantly reduce the
pipe cross section. However, any defect in the coating may
allow corrosion to start and unlike cement mortars, they
do not have alkalinity to inhibit chemical deterioration.
Epoxy resins are also relatively expensive compared to
cementitious materials. Epoxy resins should not be used
for lining water lines unless specifically approved by NSF.
The resin is applied by a spraying machine with a rotating
nozzle. The thickness of the coating is controlled by the flow
rate and forward speed of the sprayer. In most systems,
the resin base and the hardening agent are fed through
separate hoses and are combined by a static mixer just
behind the spray nozzle. Ideally, the cure time should be
as short as possible to minimize the time during which
the pipe is kept out of service. However, too rapid a
cure carries the risk of causing blockage in the static
mixer or the nozzle. Unlike cement mortar linings, the
resin is not smoothed or troweled after spraying, and the
Figure 6. Application of epoxy resin lining.
 TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES
surface quality depends on the application technique and
the properties of the material.
Epoxy linings do not fulfill any structural function and
are not recommended for pipes that leak significantly or
for pipes with significant structural defects.
Point Source Repairs
Various localized repair systems have been developed,
most aimed at sewer renovation but include some that
are designed to seal joints in pressure pipes. Many
techniques are adaptations of the full-length lining
systems seen previously.
The economics of ‘‘spot repair’’ versus renovation of the
entire pipe length is assessed by the Design Engineer,
but as a general rule spot repair methods may prove
economical where defects in the pipe are restricted
to less than 25% of the length. Preinspection of the
pipeline and cleaning are just as essential to localized
repairs as to full-length renovation. There are four broad
categories of localized repair systems: robotic, grouting,
mechanical seals, and point CIPP. Sometimes point repair
systems are classified into two categories, structural and
nonstructural. Robotic methods, mechanical seals, and
point CIPP produce increased structural strength and
are hence regarded as ‘‘structural’’ renovation techniques;
chemical grouting is often termed ‘‘nonstructural.’’
Point Source Repairs. Robotic techniques, used mainly
in gravity pipelines, consist of a grinding robot and a
sealing robot (Fig. 7). The grinding robot can be fitted
with various shapes of diamond carbide cutters suitable
for clayware, concrete, polymeric pipe, and even steel.
The wheels are driven by an electric motor and cooled
by a water jet spray. The robotic operation is monitored
by a CCTV camera attached to the head. Typically, the
grinding robot mills cracks to a width and depth of up to
1 inch, after which the area around the crack is cleaned.
A grinding robot can also remove intruding laterals, grout
deposits, and hard encrustation. Like the grinding robot,
the sealing robot is self-propelled and equipped with an
onboard CCTV camera. Epoxy is applied by the sealing
robot to completely fill the slot milled by the grinding
KA-TE system AG
Photo courtesy of
Cutting/grinding robot
removing an intruding
lateral connection
Figure 7. Robotic repairs using grinding and filling remotely controlled robots.
881
robot. In addition to filling slots, the sealing robot can
apply epoxy around poorly made connections or leaking
joints to seal connection and joints.
All robotic functions are controlled from a central
console housed in a vehicle, which contains the power pack,
hoist for lifting and lowering robots into manholes, and
other ancillary equipment. Robotic repairs are versatile,
but to be cost-effective, a consistent program of work
is needed.
Grouting. Resin injection systems fall into two cate-
gories: those whose principal function is to seal the pipeline
against infiltration and exfiltration and those that restore
structurally damaged pipe.
A common method of sealing leaking joints in gravity
pipelines is by using a special packer that combines the
functions of leakage testing and grout injection. A packer
with inflatable elements is positioned across a pipe joint
and pressurized to isolate the joint. The joint is tested
for pressure loss and if necessary a sealing gel is injected
through the packer to seal the joint. The grout has little
intrinsic strength but turns the ground around the leaky
joint into an impermeable mass thereby enhancing the
structural stability of the pipe.
In the past, the use of acrylamide grouts was
commonplace. However, these grouts have been banned
in the United States because the unreacted components
pose a serious health risk. Today the use of polyurethane
(PU) grouts is common. PU grouts react with the free
water in the soil to form a viscous gel that hardens over
time. Many PU grouts contain acetone to reduce viscosity.
The flammability of acetone should be considered during
storage and handling.
For leak sealing the entire system—main sewer,
laterals, and manholes—a different approach is taken,
often referred to as ‘‘fill and drain.’’ The section of the sewer
to be sealed is first isolated and then filled from manhole to
manhole with an environmentally safe chemical solution
(usually sodium silicate). After a predetermined interval
to allow the chemical to permeate through leaking joints
and cracks, the solution is pumped out quickly, and the
section filled once again with a second chemical solution
Filler robot injecting
epoxy resin through
a flexible plate pressed
against the pipe wall
882 TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES
(usually proprietary), which reacts with the residue of
the first chemical to form a waterproof gel. The second
chemical is then pumped out and the pipe cleaned before
returning it to service.
An epoxy resin system is used to address structural
defects in pipes. An inflatable packer isolates the defect
and injects a rapid-setting epoxy resin into the crack,
fracture, or hole in the pipe wall. The packer is left in
position until the resin has cured, thus forming an internal
collar inside the pipe.
Mechanical Seals. Mechanical seals are used primarily
for sealing leaking joints. This method involves installing
a metal band or clip (usually stainless steel) faced with
an elastomeric material across the joint. The elastomeric
material forms a seal with the inner surface of the pipe.
Repair modules are installed by an inflatable packer which
expands the clip and presses the elastomeric material
against the pipe wall. The packer is then deflated and
withdrawn. Systems of this type are available for gravity
and pressure pipe. Mechanical sealing systems have the
advantage of being quick and easy to install; however,
the material cost is higher than in other methods.
Tapered versions are available to seal between pipes of
varying diameter and to seal the annulus at the ends of
sliplined pipes.
Point CIPP. Most point or ‘‘patch’’ repairs with cured-
in-place (CIPP) liner sections entail impregnating a fabric
with suitable resin, pulling the patch into place within a
sewer by using an inflatable packer or mandrel, and then
filling the packer with water, steam, or air under pressure
to press the patch against the existing sewer wall while
the resin cures. After curing, the packer is deflated and
removed. The repair is then inspected by CCTV, and any
lateral connections present are reopened using the same
techniques as for full-length CIPP liners.
Both thermal and ambient cure systems are currently
available. In many respects, point repairs are a short
version of cured-in-place liners, although often the fabrics
and resins are specialized to achieve greater structural
strengths in the patch. The fabric is commonly polyester
needle-felt (unwoven), either on its own or in combination
with glass fiber. Some systems use a multilayer sandwich;
the glass fiber provides strength, and the felt acts as a resin
carrier. Although polyester resin is used in full-length
liners for economy, epoxy resins are a common alternative
for local repair systems. Epoxies, unlike polyester resins,
are not affected by the presence of water. This is especially
relevant in techniques designed for installation without
diverting the flow in the pipeline. Impregnation of the
fabric is usually, but not always, carried out on site. In this
case, care is needed to avoid health risks and the spillage
of chemicals, some of which are toxic in the unreacted
stage. During mixing and impregnation of the resin, it
is important to remove all entrapped air because air can
weaken the material and in severe instances results in
porosity. To overcome this, some systems use vacuum
impregnation.
In both ambient and thermally cured systems, it is
essential to limit the rise in the temperature of the
material until the patch is inflated within the host pipe.
Exothermic cure begins as soon as the resin components
are mixed, and the rate of temperature rise depends on
the volume of resin mixed. One of the most common causes
of point system failure is premature cure, where the patch
has started to harden before it is in position.
BASICS OF MANHOLE RENOVATION USING TRENCHLESS
TECHNIQUES
Trenchless manhole renewal methods offer several advan-
tages over conventional dig and repair/replace methods.
These advantages are similar to those in trenchless
pipeline renovation, explained previously.
There are four basic methods of manhole rehabilitation:
• spot repairs (chemical grouting, plugging, and
patching);
• cementitious coatings (spray and troweled);
• protective coatings (epoxy and polyurea); and
• structural repair systems (monolithic in situ liners)
Spot Repairs. Most injection processes use materi-
als similar to those employed in pipe joint sealing,
polyurethane or acrylic grouts. The primary purpose of
pressure grouting is for I/I control and stabilization of
voids around manholes.
The process generally involves drilling injection holes
in a predetermined pattern, through which the grout
is injected to create a flexible external membrane.
Polyurethene grouts are water-reactive and can be injected
without a catalyst if there is sufficient free water in the
surrounding ground.
Rapid setting hydraulic cements may be used for
plugging holes and cracks and are generally used prior
to grout injection to prevent washout of the grout.
Some hydraulic cements have a setting time of just a
few seconds.
Careful inspection of the contractor’s work during the
actual grouting operation is necessary to ensure adequate
coating of the exterior of the manhole structure. A follow-
up dye test is recommended for each manhole.
Cementitious Coatings. Cementitious coatings are typ-
ically used to inhibit I/I and are not structural. Cemen-
titious coatings are typically made of portland cement,
finely graded mineral fillers, and proprietary chemical
additives. Cementitious coatings are generally brushed
on in two applications, one gray and one white, to pro-
vide a visual indication of the coverage of each layer, to
a total thickness of about 1/2 inch. Before applying the
cementitious coatings, it is essential to prepare the inte-
rior by washing with high pressure jets and plugging and
patching as required.
Protective Coatings. Protective chemical coatings, such
as epoxies and polyureas, are used as barriers to bacterial
corrosion on new or recently installed precast manholes.
They are not used in rehabilitating badly deteriorated
or structurally unsound manholes. The recommended
 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION
coating thickness differs greatly among products and
manufacturers, although the typical range is from 60 to
200 mils. A combination of semistructural cementitious
liners with epoxy coatings has recently been introduced to
provide surface restoration and protection.
Structural Repair Systems. Cementitious liners have
been widely used over the past 5 years for structural
enhancement of brick manholes which have lost some
of their mortar joints but remain basically sound. The
liners are made of high-strength, quick-setting mortars of
portland or high alumina cements. Thorough preparation
of the internal surface is essential, and a bonding
or stabilizing agent may be necessary depending on
the condition of the manhole. Structural rehabilitation
generally requires a cementitious liner thickness of
between 1 to 4 inches (Fig. 8).
In situ structural replacement systems fall into two
categories: inserts and in situ lining systems. A variety of
inserts made of fiberglass, polyurethane, PVC, etc., can be
installed inside existing manholes and then back-grouted
to create a new structure inside the host manhole. The
concept is similar to sliplining in pipeline renovation. This
method requires excavating the ring and the cone to allow
placing the insert inside. If the manhole is tapered, it
may be necessary to excavate several feet before the insert
can be positioned. Careful attention is required around
pipe inlets because it is difficult to make a seal when the
material composition of the liner is different from that of
the inlet pipe.
In situ lining systems are reconstruction techniques
that require no excavation and are not disruptive.
These systems use a variety of spiral-wound, cured-in-
place, etc., materials to create a liners inside existing
deteriorated manholes. Cured-in-place liners are generally
recommended for structural rehabilitation of manholes
where future corrosion is expected. A felt or a glass-
reinforced ‘‘bag’’ is custom-made to the size of the manhole.
Resin is impregnated into the bag at the job site. The bag
is then lowered into the manhole, steam pressure injected
for 1–2 hours to achieve curing, and holes are cut at
the invert and pipe inlet locations before returning the
manhole to service. Surface preparation is crucial to the
Figure 8. Application of one-coat cementitious structural liner.
883
success of this method. All voids and recesses need to
be filled prior to undertaking cure-in-place lining. The
helically wound lining technique described previously for
pipeline renewal can also be used for renovating manholes.
PVC strips are fed into the manhole opening and spirally
wound by a winding machine into the existing manhole.
Preparation involves removing ladders, step-irons, and
internal backdrops before cleaning the surface by high
pressure water jetting. Annulus grouting is carried out to
bond the liner to the walls of the manhole.
BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND
SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND
REHABILITATION
SANJIV GOKHALE
Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee
In March 2001, ASCE released a Report Card for
America’s Infrastructure. The wastewater and drinking
water infrastructure categories received a discouraging
D+ overall and an estimated need for an investment
of $1.3 trillion to bring conditions to acceptable levels.
In September 2003, ASCE released a Progress Report
(http://www.asce.org/reportcard/) that examines the cur-
rent trends for addressing the nation’s deteriorating
infrastructure. ASCE determined that the conditions and
performance had not changed significantly in 2 years.
America’s industries rely on clean water to carry
out activities that contribute over $300 billion to our
economy each year. However, the challenge to continue
providing clean water remains because our existing
national wastewater infrastructure is aging, deteriorating,
and in need of repair, replacement, and upgrading. In
fact, EPA has reported that without improvements to the
nation’s wastewater treatment infrastructure, we face the
very real risk of losing the environmental gains we have
achieved during the last three decades since the passage
of the Clean Water Act of 1972. Drinking water quality
remains good, but the infrastructure of the nation’s 54,000
drinking water systems is aging rapidly. Federal funding
remains flat, and the infrastructure needs continue to
increase. There is an annual shortfall of $11 billion needed
to replace or rehabilitate facilities that are nearing the
end of their useful lives and to comply with federal water
regulations.
The nation’s 16,000 wastewater systems face enormous
needs. Some sewer systems are 100 years old and many
treatment facilities are past their recommended life
expectancies. For the fiscal year 2001, Congress allocated
$1.35 billion for wastewater infrastructure, but currently
there remains a $12 billion annual shortfall in funding
for infrastructure needs. Sewer overflows and discharge of
untreated or undertreated flows into streams and rivers
has made more than one-third of U.S. surface waters fail
to meet water quality standards.
The forecast for our nation’s drinking water systems
indicates a downward slope. Drinking water received
884 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION
a D on the 2001 Report Card, yet the situation
continues to worsen as aging systems—some developed
more than a century ago—continue to service our ever-
growing population.
Traditionally, municipalities have constantly been a
‘‘step behind’’ in managing the municipal, and this is
especially true of sewer systems. Municipalities have
addressed the design, construction, maintenance, and
rehabilitation of sewer systems by a ‘‘crisis-based’’
approach. Sewers are not built and/or rehabilitated until a
major failure (i.e., overflow, collapse) occurs. This reactive
management practice has led to inefficient use of funds
and causes more frequent sewer failures, which end in
difficult and costly repairs. For municipalities to be a ‘‘step
ahead’’ in managing sewer systems, they need to have
a better understanding of the existing condition of the
network, which in turn will help them plan and manage
maintenance to prevent major failures.
PIPELINE ASSESSMENT
A variety of ways and means exist by which existing
underground pipelines may be evaluated:
• ground penetrating radar (GPR)
• sonar
• televising
• smoke testing
• dye testing
• flow monitoring
• walk-through
• pressure leak tests
• electronic leak testing
Ground Penetrating Radar
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) works by launching
pulses of electromagnetic energy into the soil under
investigation. These pulses propagate through the ground
and are reflected by subsurface targets or at interfaces
between different media. The radar measures the time
taken for a pulse to travel to and from the target, which
indicates its depth and location. The transit time of the
pulse depends on the dielectric properties of the material.
In addition, the depth and penetration obtained may vary
considerably with soil conditions; for example, loam is an
easy medium to penetrate, whereas clay is more difficult.
The difficulty with GPR lies in selecting the correct
frequency; different types of soil respond differently to
radar frequency. A large study undertaken in Canada
to detect leaks in buried plastic water distribution pipes
was inconclusive. However, more recent advances in GPR
technology and in particular the use of multisensory
systems seem to hold promise. Field trials indicate that
multisensory systems are more accurate, faster, and
capable of working in a variety of ground conditions.
At present, however, the effectiveness of this technology
Pipe
Figure 1. Multisensory ground penetration radar (GPR) used in
locating underground pipe.
in pinpointing inactive leaks in underground pipes is
undocumented.
GPR is used today primarily to locate underground
pipelines. GPR equipment is dragged across the surface in
a precise fashion, and the output (radar signal) is stored
and later graphed after filtering out the ‘‘noise’’ (Fig. 1).
Computer enhancements have allowed GPR technology to
become very effective in situations where an underground
discontinuity (e.g., a pipeline) is known, but the plan
location of a buried pipeline is unknown. However, GPR
may be able to indicate that a discontinuity exists
underground, but there is often an uncertainty about
what the discontinuity actually is and also what is the
exact depth at which this discontinuity exists.
GPR technology is an evolving field and it is expected
that in the future this may very well become the most
dominant method of pipeline location and assessment.
Sonar
Sonar can give a relatively accurate picture of the profile
of a pipe wall and surrounding soil. The results, however,
are very much open to interpretation, and a highly skilled
operator is vital. Sonar techniques can, however, show
flow regimes under water and are thus useful in detecting
infiltration into surcharged pipes.
Televising
Pipeline televising is used to identify problems primarily
in sanitary and storm sewer pipe. It is usually referred to
as closed-circuit television inspection (CCTV) and consists
of a remote television camera passing through a pipe that
sends the live picture to a screen aboveground. The remote
television camera unit is composed of a camera mounted
on a skid or equipped with wheels (Fig. 2). The camera
can be directed through the pipe using manholes as access
points to insert cables that connect to the remote TV unit.
Other cables connected to the remote TV unit carry the
signal back to the screen, which is usually mounted in
a truck. The screen mount in the truck incorporates a
videocassette recorder slot so that data can be saved and
viewed by others.
The sizes and types of pipe that can be televised are
virtually unlimited, especially with newer technologies
that allow smaller TV units to be pushed through small
diameter pipe such as house laterals. The line televising
crew usually consists of an operator stationed in the truck
and one or two operators stationed near the manhole(s).
 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION
Figure 2. CCTV Systems: Mainline inspection and lateral
inspection (left to right).
In most cases, the line televising crew is employed by
the local utility, although private contractors perform this
service as well.
Line televising is performed as part of routine operation
and maintenance by most wastewater utilities. It provides
a good indication of the structural integrity of the pipe
and can pinpoint problems in a way that was not possible
before its invention (Fig. 3).
A utility may also require postconstruction televising at
the completion of a new sewer or storm pipe to determine
adequacy of joint connections, service connections, or other
indications of proper pipe installation. A further applica-
tion might be the review of lined sewer pipe to ensure that
services were properly reinstated. The applications of line
televising are numerous. The information generated, in
conjunction with proper consultation with the Engineer,
will guide the utility toward better decisions regarding the
maintenance and operation of the network.
Smoke Testing
Smoke testing is a simple test used to identify unautho-
rized connections to a sanitary sewer system. In systems
where the sanitary and storm sewers are separate, unau-
thorized connections include roof leaders, downspouts, and
Figure 3. Pipeline Defects: Cracked pipe, offset joint, infiltration root intrusion, root blockage,
and grease blockage (clockwise from top left).
885
yard drains. Smoke testing can also identify direct con-
nections between the sanitary and storm sewer system
and, to a lesser extent, locations of broken sewers or ‘‘lost’’
manholes. In these latter two cases, line televising is more
effective.
To smoke test, a blower unit is inserted over a manhole
to allow smoke to be blown into the sewer (Fig. 4). Pipe
plugs are inserted into adjacent manholes to isolate a
section of sewer before ‘‘smoke bombs’’ are inserted into
the manhole where the blower is located. The smoke
blown into the sewer then, in theory, has no place to
escape except through unauthorized connections, direct
connections from the storm sewer, plumbing vents, or
defects in the sewer system. However, there is a potential
that smoke can enter homes or businesses if the plumbing
that connects the building to the sewer is defective or was
installed improperly or if the traps are dry. For example,
the absence of a vent pipe in a home may cause smoke
to enter the house. For these reasons, advance warning
to the residents potentially impacted is not only a good
idea, but also a necessity. Further, coordination with the
local Police and Fire Departments is necessary to avoid
panic or alarm with the potential of smoke detected in
resident’s homes. Smoke testing can be a valuable tool in
determining who is connected to the sanitary, or storm,
sewer system.
Dye Testing
Dye testing, like smoke testing, can be used to determine
connections to a sanitary, or storm, sewer system or
interconnections between the two. It can also be used
to determine leaking sewers that may be discharging to
creeks or other bodies of water. Improper connections,
such as yard drains discharging to a sanitary sewer, can
be effectively identified by a dye test. It can also be used to
identify positively whether a house is actually connected
886 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION
Figure 4. Flow monitoring device, dye testing, and smoke testing in sewers (clockwise from top left).
to the sanitary sewer. Rare instances where house laterals
were either inadvertently not connected or wrongly
connected to the storm sewer system, unfortunately,
sometimes occur. A dye test is a good tool for these cases.
The dye can be in powder, tablet, or liquid form and is
simply inserted into the sewer (Fig. 4). Although safe and
harmless, the wastewater utility should be contacted to
ensure that no regulations against the dye are in place and
as a ‘‘heads-up’’ if appreciable quantities of the dye reach
the treatment plant. Similarly, the local environmental
agency should be contacted if dye testing is proposed
in storm sewers. Some dyes can be mistaken for things
such as ‘‘antifreeze’’ spills and can cause undue alarm
and attention. Like smoke testing, public education is a
necessity in most applications. Where access to households
is necessary to test for positive connections of laterals or
drains, it is probably best to work through local city or
town officials.
Flow Monitoring
Flow monitors (or meters) are useful as part of a statistical
modeling exercise for I&I (Fig. 4). Data on water use, and
hence discharge to sewers, can be obtained through a few
strategically placed flowmeters and when combined with
network modeling, can present a very accurate overall
picture of the system operation.
Walk-Through
The walk-through method of pipe assessment is obviously
used only for large diameter pipes or large storm sewer box
structures. This method can yield important information
on the structural integrity of the pipe and structure,
especially if trained personnel perform the inspection. The
Construction Inspector must be fully aware of the safety
implications of entering these pipes or structures. The
decision on whether to enter a pipe or structure should be
made with full regard for Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) confined space entry regulations
http://www.osha.gov/.
Pressure Leak Testing
For pressure pipe, the methods of assessment for pipe in
service are limited. One method used is leak testing using
sound waves to pinpoint the location of the leak. The test
is primarily on water mains and is usually performed
by specialized firms. However, the cost of leak detection
equipment has decreased to the point where most medium
to large water utilities have invested in this methodology.
 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION 887

Stop Play

Lateral defects are identified

from water level to the
connection point. Leaks
from water level to house
cannot be identified.

Radial crack Roots

in line

Longitudinal crack Faulty joint

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Display on computer screen

Figure 5. The FELL system.

Leak testing uses sound waves to identify the point
in the pipe where a leak has occurred. The technology
has evolved to a point where digital readouts can specify
the exact location of the leak relative to the wire
connections on water main appurtenances, usually valves.
This technology could be useful when recently installed or
repaired pipe cannot pass specified pressure tests.
from the sonde, through the wall of the nonconducting
pipe, and through the ground, to the surface electrode.
When the sonde is close to such a defect, the current
between the sonde and the surface electrode increases.
Figure 5 illustrates the operation of the FELL system.
PIPELINE REPAIR AND RENEWAL—EXCAVATION

Electronic Leak Testing Sanitary and storm sewer systems and water distribution
systems develop defects over time. Defects occur from a
The focused electrode leak location (FELL) system
variety of causes including improper initial installation,
measures electrical current flow between a probe that
freeze/thaw damage, and cutting by another contractor.
travels in a pipe and a surface electrode. Pipe defects that
Pressure lines typically exhibit failures rapidly; it may
allow liquids to flow into or out of the pipe cause a spike
take years for a defect in a gravity line to be obvious. A
in the electrical signal, thereby locating the sources of
failing pipe system can be repaired or renewed by replac-
infiltration or exfiltration. The intensity of the measured
ing the entire pipe or manhole or by replacing only the
current can be correlated with the magnitude of the leaks.
defective portion. Construction requirements for repair
The FELL test system uses a specially constructed
and renewal are similar to original construction require-
electrode called a ‘‘sonde’’ that generates an electric field.
ments. The following discussion highlights the different
The sonde is 30 in. long and 3 in. in diameter. The electric
methods of repairing or renewing pipes and manholes.
field is focused into a narrow disc, 1 in. wide set normal
to the longitudinal axis of the sonde. A surface electrode
(usually a metal stake) is put into the ground at the PIPELINE REPAIR AND RENEWAL—WHOLE PIPE
surface. When the sonde is placed in a nonconducting pipe
that contains sewage (and/or water), the electric current Gravity Sewers
flow between the sonde and the surface electrode is very When the Engineer has determined that a pipe and/or
small. Defects in the pipe that would allow flow of fluid manhole has deteriorated beyond trenchless rehabilita-
either into or out of the pipe provide an electrical pathway tion, replacement is typically the prudent alternative. To
888 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION
replace a whole segment (structure to structure), the Con-
tractor must excavate to the pipe. Paved surfaces must be
saw cut prior to excavation to prevent damage beyond the
construction limits. The original backfill is removed; if it is
acceptable material by today’s standards, it can be reused;
otherwise, it must be removed. When the pipe is exposed,
it is removed along with the bedding material. Lateral
connections should be cut before the pipe is removed to
prevent fracturing the lateral. Once enough of the pipe is
removed, new segments of pipe may be installed following
procedures for new pipe installation. Bedding, haunching,
and backfilling are all important components of successful
pipe replacement. Although it is often more difficult to
prepare the bedding below the pipe because water may
be flowing in the trench, proper bedding is essential for
proper pipe installation. In addition, if the original pipe
settled, the bedding remaining under the existing pipe will
not be on grade for the installation of the new pipe. It is
important to check the grade of the bedding prior to laying
the new pipe.
Force Mains
If the line to be replaced is a force main, it may be designed
in a new location so the existing force main can remain in
service until the latest possible time. In this case, the force
main installation is the same as new construction until it
is time to make the final connection to the pump end of the
force main. If the new force main connects to the existing
force main, a pressure coupling must be used. If the new
force main is connected at the discharge of the pumps,
properly sized spool pieces must be on hand to complete
the final connections as rapidly as possible.
Couplings to join the new force main to the old
force main must be designed for the pressure the line
will undergo. Pressure couplings typically have a rubber
sealing sleeve surrounded by a steel or stainless steel
sleeve. The sleeve is fastened to the pipe by tightening
bolts provided on the clamp.
All testing of the force main must be completed prior
to putting it into operation. The same tests required
for new force mains must be completed on replacement
force mains.
The Contractor may have to provide external pumping
capacity or temporary piping to allow pumping the
wastewater or storm water downstream. This can also
be accomplished by a vacuum truck, with appropriate
permissions to discharge into a downstream manhole.
Manhole Connections
The rubber gasket or boot used to create a watertight seal
between the manhole and the pipe may need to be replaced.
The importance of the gasket, whatever type is used, is
to prevent groundwater from entering the pipe–manhole
joint. The gasket must seal tightly to the manhole and to
the pipe.
Lateral Connections
The Engineer will specify if the laterals are to be replaced
to the right-of-way or easement limits or only within
the trench. In either case, the lateral wye or tee must
be installed in the main line approximately at the same
location as the previous one. The Contractor must excavate
along the lateral until sound (not broken or cracked) pipe
is found and replace the lateral from that point to the
main. The connection between the new pipe and old
pipe is made with a special coupling. These couplings
are manufactured to fit various pipe sizes and materials.
They are manufactured from rubber compounds and have
some type of clamp to seal the coupling to the pipe. Some
of the couplings have a stainless steel sleeve to prevent
misalignment of the pipe.
Testing
Testing requirements are specified in the Contract
Documents. Rehabilitated pipe may be tested similarly
to a new pipe installation with a low-pressure air test
and a deflection test. If the main has lateral connections,
the lateral connection coupling must be removed and the
lateral plugged prior to the air test. To help reduce the
cost of testing, the pipe can be air tested (if permitted
by Contract Documents) once the pipe has been bedded
and backfilled up to the elevation of the lateral couplings.
Deflection testing should be completed after the required
waiting time. In special circumstances, the Engineer may
specify joint testing in lieu of air testing of the whole
pipe. The Engineer may also specify deflection and/or
television inspection of the main after the repair has
been completed. Television inspection after installation is
similar to the inspection described in assessment of pipes
earlier in this article.
Sewage Control
The Contractor may choose (or the Engineer may require)
to plug the upstream sewer line and pump the flow around
the segment being replaced. This creates easier working
conditions for preparing the bedding for the new pipe. As
work progresses on the line segment, the Contractor may
have to cope with flow from laterals. If the flow is light,
the Contractor may choose to ‘‘just work in it’’ and let
the sewage flow through the trench. This is acceptable
as long as the crew is able to compact the bedding and
backfill properly. If the Contractor does not bypass the
wastewater, workers need to be aware of the potential
for disease transmission. Rubber boots, gloves, and eye
protection should be provided. Facilities must be provided
for washing hands.
PIPELINE REPAIR AND RENEWAL—POINT REPAIRS FOR
GRAVITY SEWERS
Gravity Sewers
If a sewer or force main has a small section that
is deteriorated, it may be replaced while leaving the
remaining line in service. The Contractor saw cuts
pavement as necessary and excavates down to the pipe.
The bad section of pipe is exposed. The pipe must be cut
with a saw past the limits of the damage. It is important
that the pipe is cut back to sound pipe for the repair
coupling to seal against. A new section of pipe is cut to
 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION
the same length as the piece removed. Repair couplings
are placed on the replacement piece and the new piece is
inserted into place.
Bedding
The repair piece must be bedded properly to prevent
settlement or heaving of the new piece of pipe. If flexible
couplings are used, this is all the more critical because the
flexible couplings will deflect rapidly creating an offset in
the pipe or a tear in the coupling if the offset is severe
enough. If couplings with a steel sleeve are used, the offset
may cause the pipe to crack if it is not bedded properly.
Lean concrete or flowable fill may be used to bed the pipe.
Repair Clamps
• Flexible Repair Coupling: these clamps are manu-
factured to fit snugly on various sizes and types of
pipe. Clamps can be purchased to fit VCP on one end
and PVC on the other because they have different
outside diameters. The proper clamp must be used
to ensure a watertight connection. The rubber sleeve
is tightened onto the pipe by tightening the clamps
supplied with the repair coupling
• Repair Couplings with Sleeves: these clamps are
similar to the flexible clamps described above, but
they have a stainless steel (usually) sleeve that wraps
around the rubber sleeve to prevent the pipes sections
from being misaligned or offset.
• PVC Repair Clamps: these clamps can be used to
repair PVC pipe with PVC pipe. The clamp is a
double bell.
Testing
The most common tests for point repairs are
• Segmental Low-Pressure Air Test: a testing ring
is inserted into the line and positioned over the
repair. The positioning is observed with a television
camera. The testing ring is inflated to the required
test pressure.
• Mandrel Deflection Test: Completed in the same
manner as new construction.
• Television Inspection: Completed in the same man-
ner as assessment.
PIPELINE REPAIR AND RENEWAL—POINT REPAIRS FOR
FORCE MAINS
Force Mains
Force mains may be point repaired by methods similar to
those for gravity lines. The main difference is in the type
of repair clamp and testing. If the defect in the force main
is a single crack, a repair clamp of the proper pressure
rating and length may be used without replacing any pipe.
If the damaged section cannot be repaired by one clamp, a
section of the force main may be removed by saw cutting.
A new section of pipe is then secured into the line with
one or two clamps (one if it is possible to use a push-on
889
or bolt-on joint). The bedding must be moved away from
the pipe to install the clamp. The pipe must be cleaned to
allow the clamp to seat properly.
Bedding
The replaced section of pipe or the clamped area must
be rebedded to support the pipe properly. Lean concrete
or flowable fill may be used for support under the
repaired area.
Repair Clamps
The surface of the existing pipe and the replacement piece
must be relatively clean to allow the repair clamp to seal
completely on the pipe. The clamp will leak if there is
debris on the pipe.
• Bolt-On Flanges: for most pressure pipe, flanges can
be bolted onto the existing pipe and a new flanged
piece (or bolt-on flanges on the repair piece) bolted
into place.
• Pressure Couplings: these couplings are typically
made from a sheet of rubber to create the sealing
surface and a stainless steel band with multiple
clamps to hold and tighten the clamp onto the pipe.
They are manufactured for various pressure ratings.
Testing
Typically, the repair is tested after the pipe is bedded but
before backfilling is completed. The pressure is returned to
the line; if no leaks are observed, backfilling is completed.
MANHOLE REPAIR AND RENEWAL
Manholes
To replace a manhole or storm structure, the Contractor
must saw cut the existing pavement and excavate around
the manhole. When the excavation reaches the elevation
of the sewers, the excavation must follow along the pipes
to allow the pipes to be saw cut. Once all lines have
been freed from the manhole or structure, the manhole
can be removed. The Contractor will have to provide a
means of controlling wastewater flow into the excavation,
as described earlier in this section.
Once the manhole has been removed, the bedding can
be removed and replaced. The bedding must be compacted
well, leveled, and brought up to the correct elevation. The
new manhole is set similarly to new construction. Once
the manhole is set, the pipes must be reconnected. New
sections of pipe are inserted into the manhole, and the
other end is connected to the existing pipe with a coupling
as, described in the Point Repair section.
Testing
Replaced manholes are typically vacuum tested and the
line connections are tested, as described in the Point
Repair section.
890 BASICS OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND SEWER PIPELINE ASSESSMENT, REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION
WATER MAIN REPAIR AND RENEWAL—POINT REPAIRS
FOR FORCE MAINS
Point Repairs of Water Mains
Point repairs on water mains are similar to repairs on force
mains, except that water mains may be under constant
pressure. Normally, a sufficient number of valves in the
water distribution system can be closed to reduce or
eliminate any pressure in the water main. Point repairs
can be completed using a repair clamp or sleeve with
the proper pressure rating and size for the pipe to be
repaired. Water main pipe materials vary from ductile
iron, cast iron, old sand cast iron with variable diameters
and rough surfaces to asbestos cement and concrete to
smooth wall PVC and polyethylene plastic. Repair clamps
are normally stainless steel with rubber gaskets and
seating surfaces. Repair sleeves are usually ductile iron
with rubber gaskets.
If the portion of the water main to be repaired is large
enough, sections of pipe may need to be removed, replaced,
and connected with one or two repair clamps/sleeves. If a
new bell joint can be used at one end of the repair, only
one clamp/sleeve would be needed.
Pipe bedding must be removed below the clamp/sleeve
for proper cleaning and preparation of the pipe to receive
the repair clamp/sleeve. Once repairs have been made, the
repaired section may be pressurized to check for leaks at
the joints and repair clamps/sleeves.
After satisfactory testing or observation of the repair
under pressure, pipe joints and repair clamps/sleeves need
to be properly bedded. After bedding of the entire repair
section, the trench is backfilled and compacted, as it
would be for new construction. Backfill materials may
be excavated soil, granular materials, and flowable fill.
Line Stops
At times, there may not be an adequate number of valves
in the existing system to isolate the water main to be
repaired. In these instances, it may be necessary to install
line stops to complete the repair. A line stop consists of a
tee installed on the water main to provide access to install
a flexible rubber plug in the water main that acts as a
closed valve. Line stops can be installed in a water main
while the water main is still pressurized.
The tee is bolted to the water main and a specially
constructed valve is installed on the branch of the tee. A
cutting tool is inserted through the valve and a circular
hole is cut into the existing water main. The cutting tool
is retracted, the valve is closed, and the cutting tool is
removed. The rubber stopper or plug is inserted through
the valve and pushed into the water main, filling the entire
pipe with a rubber plug. The line stop acts as a temporary
closed valve. Repairs are completed to the water main
using normal pipe repair methods, and once the repairs
are complete, the plug and valve are removed from the
line stop tee. A threaded cap is installed in the tee to close
the tee. The tee is backfilled as part of the pipe but can
be used again in the future if a temporary closed valve
is necessary.
Insertion Valves
At times, there may not be an adequate number of valves
in the existing system to isolate the water main to be
repaired. In these instances, it may be desirable to insert
a permanent valve to allow making the repair and to
provide a way to isolate water main sections in the future.
The procedures to insert a valve are similar to those for
installing a line stop.
An insertion valve body consisting of at least two
sections is bolted to the water main and a temporary
valve is installed on top of the valve body. All work to
cut the wall of the water main and to install the valve
gate is done through the temporary valve. A cutting tool
is inserted through the valve and a circular hole is cut in
the existing water main. The cutting tool is removed and
the valve gate and operator are installed in the valve body
and water main. The valve body and operator are fastened
together and the temporary valve is removed.
The insertion valve and joints are tested for leaks
and once accepted, can be bedded and backfilled as new
construction of a water main valve.
Freezing and Clamping of Service Pipes
Repair of service pipes can sometimes be completed by
freezing or by clamping a service line. Wrapping dry
ice around the entire circumference of the pipe usually
completes freezing. For freezing to work, there must be no
flow through the pipe, so one end of the service line must
be plugged or crimped to stop all flow. Once the water in
the service pipe is frozen, the plugged/crimped end can be
cut off and repairs made.
Clamping a service line is limited to use on polyethylene
plastic service pipe. Polyethylene can be completely
clamped tight and once the clamp is removed, it rebounds
to match its original shape closely.
Testing
As discussed before, testing usually consists of physically
observing the repaired section of pipe and any valves and
fittings for leaks after pressure is restored to the water
main. Any leaks must be repaired to the satisfaction of the
water utility or municipal personnel. It is advantageous
to have the circumference of all joints exposed so any
dripping on the bottom of the pipe can be observed.
Disinfection
Under normal repair conditions, the repaired water
main cannot be disinfected by methods used for new
construction. Repairs and water in the water main are not
usually disinfected after the repair is complete because the
water mains usually serve existing customers. Instead, the
repair pipe, valves, fittings, line stops, etc., are cleaned
and disinfected during repair procedures. Cleaning and
disinfecting is done by swabbing the materials with a
strong solution of chlorine prior to installation.
After the repair is complete, the water main is usually
flushed with a high flow rate of water by opening one or
several fire hydrants near the repair section. Many water
utilities and municipalities also issue a ‘‘boil order’’ to have

customers boil their water for 1 or 2 days following a water
main repair.
Public Notification
Customers affected by reduced pressure or a water main
shutdown should be notified of the repairs being made
and precautions to take once water service is restored.
‘‘Boil orders’’ are often used to protect public health and
welfare. Boil orders are issued by personal contact, door-to-
door notice, daily newspaper articles, and radio/television
notice. The water utility or municipality normally takes
responsibility to notify its customers of repairs and
precautions.
WATER HAMMER: QUANTITATIVE CAUSES
AND EFFECTS
RATHNAVEL PONNUSWAMI
Care2
Redwood City, California
Water hammer is a hydraulic phenomenon that has to
be considered for the safe design of water-carrying pipes.
It is basically a pressure fluctuation that would result in
disturbing noises and, more importantly, rupture of pipes
and fittings (1,2).
DEFINITION
Water hammer can be defined as a transitory increase
in pressure in a water system when there is a sudden
change of direction or velocity of the water. Water hammer
may also be known by names like shockwave effect or
hydraulic shock.
If the velocity of water flowing in a pipe is suddenly
checked, the energy given up by the water will be utilized
in compressing the water itself. This pressure energy is
transferred to the pipe wall and this leads to the setup
of shock waves in the system. These shock waves travel
backward (with a speed similar to the speed of sound),
until encountering a solid obstacle (the valve), and crash
into the obstacle back and forth repeatedly. This repeated
crashing produces an undesirable sound and may lead to
rupture of valves and pipes.
The concept of water hammer is normally explained by
drawing an analogy to the movement of a train. Assume
a real train, instead of slowing to a stop, hits into a
mountainside. The back of the train continues forward
even though the front cannot go anywhere. Similarly, the
hammer occurs because an entire train of water is being
stopped so fast that the end of the train hits up against
the front end and sends shock waves through the pipe.
EFFECTS OF WATER HAMMER
Water hammer cannot be ignored as another hydraulic
effort in water conveyance, as it poses undesirable effects
during water conveyance. The major effects of water
hammer are the following:
WATER HAMMER: QUANTITATIVE CAUSES AND EFFECTS 891
1. Water hammer will cause disturbing noises that
tend to be highly problematic in houses and
industrial areas.
2. Water hammer may account for the malfunctioning
of pipe appurtenances like pressure relief valves,
mud valves, backflow preventers, or stop valves.
3. Water hammer may also lead to rupture of the pipes
and connected fittings.
4. Water hammer may at times lead to minor
flow losses.
CAUSES OF WATER HAMMER
The problem of water hammer can be encountered in var-
ied places like houses, irrigation systems, domestic water
supply, and industries. The causes for water hammer (i.e.,
causes for sudden change in flow velocity/direction) are
varied, yet they can be grouped under five major cases:
• Rapid opening or closing of control valves.
• Starting and stopping of pumps.
• Recombination of water after water column separa-
tion.
• Rapid exhaustion of all air from the system.
• Power failure in water pumping system.
COMPUTATION OF WATER HAMMER
The pressure rise caused by the water hammer should
be quantified to understand its impact and to sort out
remedial measures. The rise in pressure due to water
hammer can be attributed to pipe velocity, pipe diameter,
and pressure wave travel in the pipe. The maximum
pressure caused by water hammer can be obtained by
the expression
Hmax = a × Vn /g
where Hmax is the maximum pressure rise due to water
hammer, Vn refers to the velocity of flow in the pipe, g
refers to the acceleration due to gravity, and a is the
velocity of pressure wave travel, which in turn can be
obtained by the expression
a = 1425/(1 + kd/EC)1/2
where k is the bulk modulus of water, d is pipe diameter,
C is wall thickness of the pipe in meters, and E is the
modulus of elasticity of the pipe material.
The pressure exerted due to water hammer is taken
into consideration for the structural design of pipelines for
public water supplies. In case of unavailability of data and
as a rule of thumb, Table 1 presents the extra pressures
taken depending on pipe size.
Table 1. Water Hammer Pressure for Different Pipe
Diameters
Diameter of pipe, <250 300 400 500 600 750 >750
mm
Water hammer 8.50 7.75 7.00 6.30 5.75 5.60 4.90
pressure, kg/cm2
892 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
Today there are a lot of computational facilities also
available for the quantification of water hammer pressure.
CONTROL OF WATER HAMMER
As a hydraulic effect, water hammer is undesirable but
inevitable. However, there are a lot of techniques to
minimize the pressure rise due to the water hammer,
which need to be exercised for proper flow profile.
1. The best and simplest technique would be to close
or open the valves slowly. Even the first 80% of the
valve travel may be executed conveniently, but the
last 20% should be done at a snail’s pace to avoid
problems. The usage of flywheels for this purpose is
advisable, and automatically controlled valves with
slow closing are desirable.
2. The provision of check valves, surge relief valves, and
similar instruments may help in reducing the water
hammer. Today, specialized water hammer arrestors
are commercially available for this purpose. Apart
from these surge-absorbing water hammer arrestors,
pressure regulation devices can also be used. An
example is a pressure snubber, a device for slowing
the rate of change of system flow that will protect
from water hammer damage if installed (using a
proper size) near the input of a pressure sensor.
3. The pumps are also a matter of concern. Pump
startup problems can usually be avoided by increas-
ing the flow slowly to collapse or flush out the
voids gently. Also, an uninterrupted power sup-
ply for pumps would prevent water hammer. The
above arrangements may also contribute to lower
horsepower and maximum operating efficiency.
4. Great care should be taken to incorporate the
pressure rise due to water hammer during the
structural design of pipelines.
There has not been much study about the phenomenon
of water hammer and its significance in the design and
performance aspects of a water system, but the current
scientific forum is coming up with better descriptions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Singh, G. (1994). A Text Book of Water Supply Engineering.
Standard Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, pp. 198–201.
2. Lahlou, M. (2003). Tech brief—water hammer. On Tap Mag.,
Winter.
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
GUENTER LANGERGRABER
BOKU—University of Natural
Resources and Applied Life
Sciences
Vienna, Austria
The term constructed wetlands describes artificial wet-
lands designed to improve water quality. A constructed
wetland is a complex mixture of water, substrate, plants,
litter (fallen plant material), and a variety of microor-
ganisms (most importantly, bacteria). The mechanisms
for improving water quality include settling of suspended
particulate matter; filtration and chemical precipitation;
chemical transformation; adsorption and ion exchange
on surfaces of plants, substrate, and litter; breakdown,
transformation, and uptake of pollutants and nutrients
by microorganisms and plants; and predation and natural
die-off of pathogens.
Constructed wetlands provide the optimal treatment
conditions found in natural wetlands but have the flex-
ibility of being constructed. For optimal support of the
treatment mechanisms, various types of constructed wet-
lands optimized for different applications are used. Free-
water-surface constructed wetlands and subsurface-flow
constructed wetlands are the main types of constructed
wetlands. The applications include treatment of domes-
tic, industrial, and agricultural wastewaters, storm water,
and landfill leachate.
Wetland treatment systems are effective in treating
organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and additionally for
decreasing the concentrations of heavy metals, organic
chemicals, and pathogens. A good pre-treatment for
suspended solids is essential for long-term operation.
MECHANISMS FOR WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
Organic Matter
Treatment wetlands receive large external supplies
of carbon. Degradable carbon compounds are utilized
in wetland processes. At the same time, degradation
processes produce biodegradable carbon compounds.
Microorganisms use degradable organic matter as a
substrate for respiration and growth.
In general, wetlands are efficient in reducing organic
matter. Organic matter exists in particulate and dissolved
form at the influent of constructed wetlands. The
concentration of organic compounds is often reduced to
the background level at the effluent.
In aerobic zones where dissolved oxygen is available,
organic matter is decomposed by respiration of het-
erotrophic organisms that produce carbon dioxide (CO2 )
and water. Under anoxic conditions (no dissolved molec-
ular oxygen is available), nitrate is used as an electron
acceptor and is reduced to dinitrogen (denitrification). In
anaerobic zones (neither molecular nor bound oxygen is
available), degradation of organic matter is a multistep
process in which CO2 and methane (CH4 ) are produced.
Under anaerobic conditions, organic matter can also be
reduced by sulfate and iron. However, these pathways
play a minor role in subsurface-flow constructed wetlands.
Particulate matter in subsurface-flow wetlands has a
large impact on the porous substrate. Particles settle into
the pores, and the settled matter is degraded as described
before. If the decomposition rate of the particulates is less
than the settling rate, the pore volume is reduced, and this
causes clogging. The potential for clogging is higher near
the inlet of subsurface-flow systems. To prevent clogging,
only pre-treated wastewater can be used in combination
with subsurface-flow constructed wetlands.
 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS 893

Nitrogen Denitrification. Under anoxic conditions and if easily

Nitrogen compounds are among the most important con-
stituents of wastewater due to their role in eutrophication,
their effect on the oxygen content of receiving waters, and
their toxicity to aquatic organisms and animals. The most
important inorganic forms of nitrogen in wetlands are
ammonia (NH4 + ), nitrite (NO2 − ), nitrate (NO3 − ), and dis-
solved elemental nitrogen or dinitrogen gas (N2 ). Nitrogen
is also present in many organic forms, including urea,
amino acids, amines, purines, and pyrimidines. Organic
nitrogen compounds are also a fraction of the dry weight
of plants, microorganisms, detritus, and soils.
The various forms of nitrogen are continually involved
in biochemical transformations. The major processes
involved in the nitrogen cycle are ammonification,
nitrification, denitrification, nitrogen fixation, nitrogen
assimilation, and ammonia volatilization (Fig. 1).
Ammonification. Ammonification is the transformation
of organic nitrogen to ammonia. This process occurs
during the breakdown of organic matter. The rate
of ammonification is directly related to the rate of
degradation of organic matter.
Nitrification. Nitrification is the process of oxidizing
ammonia to nitrate. The oxidation is done by autotrophic
bacteria, which are entirely dependent on generating
energy from nitrification. Nitrification is strictly an aerobic
process (the presence of oxygen is indispensable) and takes
place in two steps. Nitrosomonas sp. are responsible for the
first step of nitrification: ammonia is oxidized, and nitrite
is produced. The nitrite produced is further oxidized to
nitrate by Nitrobacter sp. Due to the high oxygen demand
of the nitrification process (4.57 g oxygen are required for
1 g of ammonia nitrogen), the elimination of ammonia
nitrogen is one of the major requirements of wastewater
treatment to guarantee a sufficient oxygen concentration
in receivers.
NH3
n N2 + N2O
atio
Fix
Denit
biodegradable organic matter is present, heterotrophic
bacteria reduce nitrate to molecular dinitrogen by
denitrification. Besides dinitrogen, small amounts of
nitrous oxide (N2 O) and nitric oxide (NO) are produced.
These dissolved gases are released to the atmosphere, and
this reduces the total nitrogen content of treated water.
Denitrification and nitrification occur simultaneously in
soils where both aerobic and anoxic zones exist nearby. The
lack of carbon in the anoxic zones where nitrate is available
is the limiting factor for denitrification in wetlands.
Nitrogen Assimilation. Nitrogen assimilation refers to
a variety of biological processes that convert inorganic
nitrogen into organic compounds. Ammonia uptake is
more favored by wetland plants and bacteria than nitrate
uptake. In general, the amount of nitrogen taken up by
plants and incorporated into the bacterial biomass is small
compared to the nitrogen influent load of constructed
wetlands for wastewater teatment.
Other Processes. Bacteria, blue-green algae, and plants
can fix nitrogen. Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere diffuses
into solution and is reduced to ammonia. However, this
is generally not observed in constructed wetlands because
fixation is more effective in nitrogen-poor environments.
Un-ionized ammonia (NH3 ) is relatively volatile, so
it can be removed from solution to the atmosphere via
diffusion. Usually less than 1% of the total ammonia is
present in un-ionized form.
Ammonium can be adsorbed onto active sites of a soil
matrix. Only intermittent loading of a system will show
rapid removal of ammonia by adsorption due to depletion
of ammonia on the adsorption sites during resting periods.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is typically present in wastewater as
orthophosphate and organic phosphate. Phosphorus is
released during the degradation of organic matter.
Orthophosphate is incorporated into the biomass of organ-
isms during growth. Phosphorus removal in wetland
treatment systems occurs by adsorption, plant uptake,
complexation, and precipitation.
Plant uptake is not a suitable measure of the net

removal rate in a wetland because most of the stored

Vola

Gas phosphorus is returned to the water by decomposition

rifica
tiz

processes. Due to the limited sorption sites in the

ation

Denitrification

tion

soil matrix, phosphorus removal via adsorption is time

dependent. After a phosphorus removal rate of almost
+
100% at the start-up of the operation of the constructed
NH4 Nitrific wetland, the removal rate becomes very low, once all
n

ation
tio

−
ca

NO 2 − sorption sites are filled. During times of low phosphorus

ifi

N O3
on

influent concentration, also a release of phosphorus can

m

Water
Am

be observed.
usio

Organic
Diff

N Other Substances
Assimilation
− Besides the main constituents of wastewater, organic
N O3
+ matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus, other pollutants such as
Sediments NH4
heavy metals, specific organic compounds, and pathogens
Figure 1. Simplified wetland nitrogen cycle. can be removed from water using constructed wetlands.
894 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
Heavy Metals. Wetlands interact strongly with heavy
metals in a number of ways and thus are capable of signif-
icant metal removal. The three major mechanisms are
• binding to soil, sediments, particulates, and soluble
organic matter;
• precipitation as insoluble salts, principally sulfides
and oxyhydroxides; and
• uptake by plants and bacteria.
A criterion for heavy metal removal is the contact time
between dissolved metals and the soil matrix. The longer
the contact time, the more exchange processes occur.
A particularly significant effect can be observed on the
adsorbed metal concentration in the rhizosphere by using
different plant species. The plant organisms can, however,
become stressed at high heavy metal concentrations, so
that the treatment is more appropriate to low metal
influent levels. Harvesting the plants used for metal
removal then provides a means to prevent metals cycling
in the wetland ecosystem and a sustainable means of
disposal, if the harvested plants are then appropriately
dealt with. Experimental evidence has shown that heavy
metal concentrations are highest in the plant roots,
followed by the stems, and then the leaves, so that the
whole plants must be harvested, not just the foliage.
Specific Organic Compounds. Many constructed wet-
lands deal with domestic wastewater where BOD and
DOC are used as a sum parameter for organic matter.
However, other special organic compounds can be removed
by using constructed wetlands. Experience exists with
waters containing surfactants, solvents, mineral oils, and
pesticides. Some specific compounds that were success-
fully treated by constructed wetlands are, for example,
MTBE, trichloroethane, BTEX, cyanide, and explosives
(e.g., TNT). Major removal mechanisms are volatiliza-
tion, photochemical oxidation, sedimentation, sorption,
and microbial degradation by fermentation or aerobic and
anaerobic respiration. Bioaugmentation of the sediment
and sorption by macrophytes is particularly important.
In general, there is a lack of knowledge on the detailed
removal pathways for organic compounds.
Pathogens and Parasites. Human pathogens are typically
present in untreated wastewater. Their populations are
highly variable and depend on the health of the human
population contributing to the waste. Typical pathogen
populations in wastewater include viruses, bacteria, fungi,
and protozoa. Parasites such as helminth worms are
also common.
Natural treatment technologies can reduce populations
of human pathogens by filtration, natural die-off rates, and
hostile environmental conditions. Constructed wetlands
reduce pathogen populations at varying but significant
degrees of effectiveness. The elimination efficiency varies
with macrophyte type and increases with the retention
time of the wetland.
The Role of Plants
Macrophytes growing in constructed wetlands have
several properties in relation to the treatment process.
This makes plants an essential part of the design of
constructed wetlands.
The most important effects of the macrophytes
ragarding the treatment process are physical effects. The
roots provide surface area for attached microorganisms,
and root growth maintains the hydraulic properties of
the substrate. The vegetation cover protects the surface
from erosion, and shading prevents algae growth. Litter
provides an insulating layer on the wetland surface
(especially for operation during winter).
As far as is known, the effect of plant uptake plays a
minor role in common wastewater parameters compared to
the degradation by microorganisms. For other pollutants
such as heavy metals and special organic compounds, the
selection of different plant species can, however, play a
major role in enhancing treatment efficiency. Both plant
productivity and pollutant removal efficiency are relevant
in finding an appropriate plant for a given application.
If the wetland is not harvested, the substances
incorporated in the plant will be returned to the system
during decomposition of the plants. When dead plants are
degraded, the organic constituents can act as an additional
carbon source for denitrification. Some plants also release
organic compounds from their roots, which can also be
used for denitrification.
Oxygen release from roots into the rhizosphere is well
documented but in situ release rates, still are a matter of
controversy. Compared to the amount of oxygen brought
into the system from the atmosphere via convection and
diffusion, the release of oxygen from plant roots can
be neglected.
Plants also have other functions not directly related to
the treatment process. They provide a habitat for wildlife
(including birds and reptiles in large systems) and give
the treatment system a more aesthetic appearance.
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
Surface-Flow Constructed Wetlands
Surface-flow (SF) or free-water-surface (FWS) wetland
technology is strongly related to natural wetlands.
Wetlands have been used for wastewater discharge for
as long as sewage has been collected. When monitoring
was initiated at some of the discharges, an awareness
of the water purification potential of wetlands began to
emerge. The ‘technology’ started in the 1970s in North
America with ecological engineering of natural wetlands
for wastewater treatment.
In surface-flow wetlands (Fig. 2), water flows over the
soil surface from an inlet to an outlet point. Inflow
water containing particulate and dissolved pollutants
slows down and spreads through the area of shallow
water. The main removal mechanism for particulates is
settling. Particulates contain organic matter and enter the
biogeochemical cycle in the water column and wetland soil
surface. Dissolved pollutants are sorbed by plants, soil, and
active microbial populations throughout the wetland and
then also enter the overall mineral cycles of the wetland
ecosystem. The amount of sorption processes is related
to the area where these processes can take place. Due to

Distribution pipe
Water
Sediments
Figure 2. Surface-flow wetland containing emergent macrophytes.
the small surface area of the wetland soil, surface-flow
constructed wetlands require a large area to reach good
elimination rates of dissolved pollutants.
Surface-flow constructed wetlands can be classified by
the plants that are used. Most treatment wetlands use
emergent macrophytes (e.g., common reed—Phragmites
australis), plants whose parts extend above the wetland
waters (Fig. 2). Other types use free-floating macrophytes
(e.g., water hyacinth—Eichornia crassipes), floating-
leaved, bottom-rooted macrophytes (rooted in the soil,
but their leaves float on the water surface, e.g., water
lilies—Nymphea spp.), submersed macrophytes (plants
that are buoyant and suspended in the water column),
or floating mats (some emergent macrophytes can form
floating mats, e.g., cattails—Typha spp. and common
reed—Phragmites australis).
Summarizing, one can say that the main disadvan-
tages of free-water-flow constructed wetlands are that
they require a large area, they may freeze in temperate cli-
mates, and they provide a breeding ground for mosquitoes.
Subsurface-Flow Constructed Wetlands
Subsurface-flow (SSF) constructed wetlands can be
subdivided into horizontal flow (HF) and vertical flow (VF)
systems depending on the direction of water flow through
the porous medium (soil or gravel). The use of subsurface-
flow constructed wetlands is limited to pre-treated water,
which contains only a low particulate content. Compared
to surface-flow systems, the contact area of water with
bacteria and substrate is much larger. This enhances
Inflow
Solid medium
Impermeable liner
Figure 3. Longitudinal cross section of a horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetland.
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS 895
Emergent vegetation
Water level
Outlet
the process rates of the system and therefore decreases
the area requirement of the treatment system. Pathogen
reductions for SSF compared with SWF for similarly
sized and managed systems are higher. Subsurface-flow
constructed wetlands are frequently planted with common
reed (Phragmites australis). Therefore a common term is
a reed bed treatment system. Other emergent plants like
cattails (Typha spp.) and bulrushes (Scirpus spp.) are also
used.
Horizontal-Flow Constructed Wetlands. In a horizontal-
flow constructed wetland (Fig. 3), water is fed in at the
inlet and flows slowly under the surface through the
porous media until it reaches the outlet zone, where it
is collected and discharged. Despite regular topography
and homogenous plant growth, obtaining an ideal flow
is not guaranteed, so that tracer studies are advisable to
ensure good hydraulic design. During the passage through
the system, water comes in contact with a network of
aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic zones in the substrate.
Aerobic zones occur in the upper parts of the water table,
anaerobic conditions at the bottom of the wetland.
Oxygen required for aerobic processes is supplied
mainly from the atmosphere via diffusion. The oxygen
transport from the roots into zones under the water table
is too weak to facilitate aerobic processes. Therefore,
anoxic and anaerobic processes play an important role
in horizontal-flow constructed wetlands. Organic matter
is decomposed aerobically and anaerobically and is,
therefore, removed well. Due to the poor oxygen supply,
only incomplete nitrification can take place.
Vegetation
Water level
Outflow
Outlet
896 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
Vegetation
Intermittent feeding
Sand
layer
Gravel
layer
Impermeable liner
Figure 4. Typical construction of a vertical-flow constructed wetland.
Vertical-Flow Constructed Wetlands. Vertical-flow con-
structed wetlands look like the system shown in Fig. 4.
Water is fed to the system intermittently. The large
amount of water from a single feeding causes flooding
of the surface. The water infiltrates into the substrate,
then gradually drains down vertically, and is collected by
a drainage network at the base. Until the next loading,
oxygen re-enters the system, and good oxygen transfer
into the system is possible. Vertical-flow constructed wet-
lands are, therefore, suitable when nitrification and other
strictly aerobic processes are important factors in the
treatment process. When high ammonia nitrogen elimina-
tion is required, only vertical-flow constructed wetlands
intermittent loading can be used.
APPLICATION OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
The applications of constructed wetlands for water treat-
ment are widespread and include treatment of domestic
wastewater, stormwater management in urban areas,
treatment of surface water and industrial wastewater,
including special wastewater (e.g., from hospitals), and
sludge consolidation. Some of these of are discussed more
fully here.
Domestic Wastewater. Constructed wetlands for domes-
tic wastewater treatment are generally applied as a main
or tertiary treatment stage. For use as a main treatment
stage, only subsurface-flow constructed wetlands are used.
For tertiary treatment, both surface and subsurface-flow
constructed wetland are widely used.
As a main treatment stage, either horizontal-flow or
vertical-flow constructed wetlands can be used, depending
on the effluent quality desired. Good pre-treatment is
necessary to reduce the loading of suspended solids.
If low ammonia effluent concentrations are required,
only vertical-flow constructed wetlands with intermittent
loading fed can guarantee good nitrification. To improve
denitrification rates, combined systems with horizontal
and vertical types of SSF constructed wetlands can
be used.
Sufficient oxygen supply is the main factor for good
performance of vertical-flow constructed wetlands. Design
Distribution pipe
Drainage pipe
recommendations can be based on calculations of oxygen
demand and oxygen supply. Considerations of long-term
operation of vertical-flow constructed wetlands should,
in particular, consider pore size reduction from influent
inorganic suspended solids.
Agricultural Wastewater and Food Wastes. Constructed
wetlands were used to treat agricultural wastewater from
farms with animal production. Crop runoff and pesticides
such as atrazine have also been effectively treated Food
processing wastes usually have high organic loads that
are easily biodegradable. Constructed wetlands have been
used to treat potato processing water, olive oil mill water,
and dairy wastewater.
Industrial Wastewater. Constructed wetlands can be
used to treat several kinds of industrial wastewater: coal
and metal mining water, oil extraction, refinery effluents,
oil-sand processing water, and wastewater produced by
the pulp and paper industries. Many organic and heavy
metal wastes have been effectively retained or removed.
Constructed wetland technology was also successfully
applied to treat hospital wastewater.
Landfill Leachate. Landfills generate highly pollutant
leachates as they decompose anaerobically over many
years. Constructed wetlands are used for leachate
treatment due to their long-term sustainable treatment
and low operating and maintenance costs. The retention
capacity of wetlands can also be sufficient to prevent
contamination of downstream water sources in a heavily
contaminated area.
Stormwater and Runoff Management. Uncontrolled
urban stormwater has been identified as a major con-
tributor to the nonpoint source pollution of surface waters.
Small amounts of rainwater often carry large amounts
of pollutants. Three approaches are used to control
urban stormwater using constructed wetlands: dry and
wet detention ponds (where the ponds remain dry or
wet between floods) and stormwater wetlands. Deten-
tion ponds collect stormwater and release it during dry
weather. The main removal mechanism is settling.
 USING ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES IN A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND TO TREAT MINE WASTEWATER IN IRELAND
Surface Water. Heavily polluted surface water can also
be treated using constructed wetland technology. The
treated water can be used, for example, for groundwater
recharge and for restoring contaminated surface waters.
However, it is not possible to produce an effluent quality
that allows direct use as drinking water.
SUMMARY
Constructed wetlands are artificial wetlands designed to
improve water quality. They provide the optimal treat-
ment conditions found in natural wetlands but have the
flexibility of being constructed. Wetland treatment sys-
tems are effective in treating organic matter, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and additionally for decreasing the concentra-
tions of heavy metals, organic chemicals, and pathogens.
Various types of constructed wetlands optimized for dif-
ferent applications are used for optimal support of the
treatment mechanisms. The main types are free-water-
surface constructed wetlands and subsurface-flow con-
structed wetlands with horizontal or vertical flow.
In general, the use of constructed wetlands provides
a relatively simple, inexpensive, and robust solution for
treating water. Compared to other treatment options,
constructed wetlands usually need less operation and
maintenance. Additional benefits include their tolerance
to fluctuations in flow, the facility of water reuse and
recycling, the provision of habitat for many wetland
organisms, and the more aesthetic appearance of a natural
system compared with technical treatment options.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to Mr. Phil Russell for his work in proofreading
and editing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cooper, P.F., Green, M.B., and Shutes, R.B.E. (1996). Reed
beds and constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. WRc
Swindon, Swindon, UK.
2. Haberl, R., Grego, S., Langergraber, G., Kadlec, R.H.,
Cicalini, A.R., Martins Dias, S., Novais, J.M., Aubert, S.,
Gerth, A., Hartmut, A., Hartmut, T., and Hebner, A. (2003).
Constructed wetlands for the treatment of organic pollutants.
JSS—J Soils & Sediments 3(2): 109–124.
3. Kadlec, R.H., Knight, R.L., Vymazal, J., Brix, H., Cooper, P.,
Haberl, R. (Eds.). (2000). Constructed Wetlands for Pollution
Control—Processes, Performance, Design and Operation. IWA
Scientific and Technical Report No. 8, IWA Publishing, London,
UK.
4. Kadlec, R.H. and Knight, R.L. (1996). Treatment Wetlands.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
5. Langergraber, G. and Haberl, R. (2001). Constructed wetlands
for water treatment. Minerva Biotechnologica 13(2): 123–134.
6. US EPA. (2000). Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal
Wastewaters. Report EPA/625/R-99/010. US EPA, Cincinnatti,
OH.
7. Vymazal, J., Brix, H., Cooper, P.F., Green, M.B., and Haberl,
R. (Eds.). (1998). Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater
Treatment in Europe. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The
Netherlands.
8. Wissing, F. (1995). Abwasserreinigung mit Pflanzen. Ulmer
Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany [In German].
897
USING ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES IN A
CONSTRUCTED WETLAND TO TREAT MINE
WASTEWATER IN IRELAND
AISLING D. O’SULLIVAN
MARINUS L. OTTE
University College Dublin
Belfield, Ireland
WASTEWATER GENERATION
The development and expansion of industrial and
agricultural activities in the Western world has led to
a corresponding increase in the release of potentially toxic
chemicals into the environment. Although growth has had
many socioeconomic benefits, it has also led to negative
implications for wetland ecosystems. For instance, the
intensive farming practices developed in Ireland in the
1970s led to eutrophic (overenriched) rivers and lakes
as a result of inadvertent inputs of excess nitrogen and
phosphorus. This resulted in algal blooms, subsequent fish
mortality, and reduced biodiversity of aquatic systems.
The breaching of tailings dam walls in mine storage
ponds has also resulted in catastrophic impacts on
neighboring watersheds, which in many circumstances has
led to irreversible ecosystem damage. Therefore, a balance
is sought between reducing undesirable impacts while
facilitating positive economic progress. By understanding
the complex processes that affect the biogeochemistry and
cycling of contaminants in aquatic ecosystems, innovative
treatment technologies can be applied to mitigate and
treat these wastes.
During metal mining, the oxidation of ores frequently
results in increased reactivity and bioavailability and
possibly toxicity of heavy metals (1). Many contaminants
such as heavy metals and radionuclides cannot be
chemically degraded, but microbial deactivation (mainly
through immobilization) is most suitable for the treatment
of these types of wastes (2). Other pollutants that prove
difficult to dispose of are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
which were used liberally as additives in the manufacture
of paints and plastics until their toxicity was realized in
the mid-1960s. PCBs have very high chemical, thermal,
and biological stability; these properties resulted in their
bioaccumulation in sediments and biota. Excess plant
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are typically
easier to treat in waters because they can be easily
assimilated by plants and algae.
CURRENT TREATMENT PRACTICES AND ALTERNATIVE
OPTIONS
Conventional practices for treating wastewater in Ireland
adopt predominantly chemical applications that require
high energy demands. These traditional technologies typ-
ically include the chemical manipulation of contaminants
and subsequent physical precipitation of suspended solids
in the water. Other means of treating wastewater con-
taminated with biodegradable organic wastes have proven
very successful in the past few decades as wastes are
898 USING ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES IN A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND TO TREAT MINE WASTEWATER IN IRELAND
biologically converted into gaseous and solid forms. Treat-
ment practices relying on biological processes include
continuous activated sludge reactors, which operate either
aerobically or anaerobically. In suspended reactor vessels,
microorganisms are kept in suspension in the wastewater,
whereas in attached systems, microbial masses adhere
typically to an inert medium. Various modifications of
the aerobic treatment processes have been developed,
including stabilization ponds, aerated waste reservoirs,
and rotation and filtration techniques (3). These treat-
ment techniques rely principally on activated processes,
that is, they require substantial energy inputs and risk
failure without continuous energy inputs.
Nonactivated biological processes employed to degrade
contaminants are a more recent practice in wastewater
treatment. Worldwide, particularly in North America and
Australia, emerging practices for treating wastewater
include constructed wetlands. These systems operate
by using natural processes and usually do not require
substantial energy inputs. The biological processes are
typically solar-driven and use carbon and nutrients in
the substrate to drive the microbial and plant processes.
Therefore, constructed wetlands can be economical and
ecologically acceptable. Typically, constructed wetlands
are designed specifically for the type of wastewater
being treated. Nutrients can be removed in aerobic
systems, and sulfates and metals can be removed
from wastewater under chemically reducing conditions.
Wastewater contaminated by metals has usually been
treated primarily to reduce acidity, but some treatment
options for this type of waste have shown that substantial
metals can be removed concurrently (4).
THE TARA MINES CASE STUDY
Tara Mines Ireland, a subsidiary of the Finnish company
Outokumpu-Zinc, is the largest producer of zinc in Europe
and the fifth largest lead-zinc mine worldwide. They have
been operating since 1977 and supply approximately 20%
of the European demand for zinc (5). The local bedrock
from which the ore is extracted is classified as Lower
Carboniferous calcite (CaCO3 ) and dolomite (CaMgCO3 ),
which buffers the wastewater used in the processing
operations to a pH of approximately 7.8 (5). Spent water
is pumped to large storage ponds for treatment at a site
about 5 km from the ore extraction site. Some of this
wastewater is fed to the experimental treatment wetlands
described here.
Treatment wetlands were engineered on-site at Tara
Mines in 1997. These wetlands, built specifically to treat
sulfate and metal-enriched wastewater emanating from
the mine, are the only treatment wetlands of this kind in
Europe at this time. Most applications employing microbes
to reduce levels of contaminants in wastewater have
focused on metal removal (6); the research at Tara Mines
was concerned primarily with removing sulfate from the
alkaline mine water.
Construction Design at Tara Mines Wetlands
Two similar experimental treatment systems were built
adjacent to large tailings ponds. Each system measured
Tailings ponds
System 2 System 1
Pumped
HT 2 HT 1
Pumped Pumped
Inflow Inflow
Gravity fed Gravity fed
Wetland Wetland
Gravity fed Gravity fed
Outflow Outflow
Interceptor
ditch flow
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the experimental treat-
ment wetlands at Tara Mines, Ireland. Arrows indicate the flow
path of the water, which was pumped from the storage ponds to
the header tanks (HT 1 and HT 2) and subsequently to the inflow
cells of each system. From there on, water traveling between cells
was gravity fed (by head differences between cells) to the wetland
cells and then finally to the outflow cells.
12 m (length) × 3 m (width) × 2 m (depth) or 72 m3 with a
4:1 (length to width) aspect ratio (7) and comprised three
12 m2 in-series surface-flow cells: inflow, wetland, and
outflow (see Fig. 1 for details). Both systems were lined
with a 2000 gauge (light-insensitive) impermeable PVC
sheet, and each wetland cell was planted with cattails
(Typha latifolia), reed (Phragmites australis), and floating
sweetgrass (Glyceria fluitans) in the ratio of 4:9:7 per
m2 . Three wooden baffles coated with an industrial-grade
waterproof varnish were also placed in each wetland cell to
increase the length of the flow path of the water. Mesocosm
experiments indicated that an optimal combination of
plant growth and substrate permeability was achieved
by using a medium containing spent mushroom substrate
and fine grit in a 1:3 ratio by volume of. Each cell was
filled with a similar mix of this substrate to a depth of
about 50 cm (Fig. 1).
BIOGEOCHEMISTRY—THE KEY TO REMEDIATION
Wetland plants can remove pollutants from contaminated
soils and water through uptake, translocation, and
compartmentalization in storage tissues (2,8). However,
the more significant influence of plants on metal removal
 USING ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES IN A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND TO TREAT MINE WASTEWATER IN IRELAND
from wastewater is indirect by accumulation of metals
in the sediments surrounding the roots (8,9). Sufficient
organic matter, provided by seasonal plant dieback,
is also important in treatment systems that operate
on natural biological processes. The accumulation of
these contaminants is governed by microbial reactions
mediated in suitable substrates and under appropriate
conditions. For instance, the substrates used in the
treatment wetlands at Tara Mines contained indigenous
populations of sulfate-reducing bacteria, identified as the
genera Desulfovibrio, Desulfobulbus, Desulfotomaculum,
and Desulfoccus. The systems were permanently flooded
and this provided net anaerobic substrate conditions
conducive to the chemical reduction of sulfate (SO4 2− ) to
sulfide (S2− ). This reaction occurred as the microorganisms
assimilated sulfate in the absence of oxygen, thus reducing
it to sulfide through the transfer of electrons produced
by the simultaneous oxidation of the organic substrate.
Sulfide anions resulting from the reaction are very
unstable and readily react with free or sorbed metal
cations to form metal sulfides such as zinc sulfide (ZnS),
lead sulfide (PbS), and iron sulfide (FeS) (10). However,
sulfide can also react with hydrogen to form hydrogen
sulfide. Once the overlying water became saturated with
hydrogen sulfide, it evolved to the atmosphere as a gas.
Although evolution of this gas has not yet been quantified,
it appears that substantial amounts were produced in
the Tara Mines treatment wetlands, as evident from the
frequent detection (olfactory). This may be a concern in
the application of a larger scale treatment wetland and
has not yet been fully addressed. Nonetheless, in the
Tara Mines case study, the capacity to treat metal and
sulfate contaminated wastewater using natural ecosystem
processes was successfully demonstrated.
SUCCESS STORY—IN MANY WAYS
Treatment Capacity
The experimental treatment wetlands were modeled on
the surface-flow design previously established in North
America. Effectively, treatment occurred through bioim-
mobilization of the contaminants in the water as substrate,
vegetation, and microbial assemblages interacted at the
sediment–water interface. Although sulfate concentra-
tions exiting the treatment systems did not comply with
acceptable discharge levels (of 200 mg L−1 ) stipulated in
national legislation, up to 69% of the influent concen-
tration (900 mg L−1 ) was removed, and this equaled a
removal rate of 29 g m−2 day−1 . Similarly, zinc and lead
were removed by up to 99% and 64%, respectively, of
the original concentrations supplied of 1.8 mg Zn L−1 and
0.2 mg Pb L−1 . Concentrations of these metals and of sul-
fides in the sediments were significantly greater than
those in the original substrates, and concentrations in
the soil water were also elevated compared to background
water levels. Plants contained less than 1% of sulfur in
their tissues, in accordance with other studies. Vegetation
(including algae that voluntarily colonized the systems)
sequestered metals to some extent, but plant roots had
almost double the concentration of metals, compared to
plant shoots. This may be explained by selective uptake
899
and translocation mechanisms exhibited by some plants
that can prevent contaminants from traveling to their
shoots. The effect may also be explained by metal hydrox-
ides that can form on plant roots (11). These hydroxides
form when localized oxygenation by wetland plant roots
and rhizomes induce precipitation of metals. Once met-
als are precipitated from solution, they become relatively
immobile and thus generally less available to living organ-
isms. The vegetation was not harvested from the treatment
wetlands, so metals in these tissues were not actually
removed from the systems because plant uptake and decay
result in cycling of metals within such ecosystems. The
most important attributes for ensuring long-term success
and sustainability of constructed wetlands that treat these
kinds of wastes appear to be wetland size and chemical
loading rates. Therefore, these considerations must be
clearly evaluated before constructing treatment wetlands.
Ecological and Societal Benefits
Wetlands are recognized for their hydrologic, economic,
ecological, and aesthetic values. Natural, restored, and
constructed wetlands have become the focus of many
scientists in recent years for their capacity to treat wastew-
ater in an ecologically and economically cost-effective
way (12). The ecological benefits provided by the Tara
Mines treatment wetlands were diverse and innumerable.
Soon after they were constructed, macroinvertebrates (35
taxa), plants (6 species), algae, and microorganisms vol-
untarily colonized the systems. The vegetation afforded
refuge to birds (e.g., moorhen) and other wildlife (foxes,
rabbits, shrews, etc.), and also provided niches for micro-
bial and invertebrate communities.
It is obvious that surface-flow wetlands offer many
ancillary benefits by creating new habitats for wildlife.
Initiatives to develop treatment wetlands have frequently
involved local communities and educational establish-
ments, thereby integrating educational principles into
their goals. Aspects of the study at Tara Mines have been
delivered to a wide spectrum of society from high-school
teenagers in the local community to undergraduate and
postgraduate students in universities in Ireland, Europe,
and the United States. Additionally, the work has been
well received by industries and local interest groups. By
involving communities in the construction of wetlands,
awareness of the value of such ecosystems and their
capacity to recycle wastes by biological and ecologically
acceptable techniques is generated.
TREATMENT SUCCESS COMPARED WITH OTHER SYSTEMS
The performance of the Tara Mines treatment wetlands
for sulfate and metal removal was compared with that of
other studies. Many of the other investigations quantified
removal as a percentage of the influent concentration, but
mass removal rates represent a more realistic estimate
of the actual amount removed (4). In this instance, con-
taminant removal is calculated from a loading perspective;
considers flow rates, concentrations, and wetland size; and
expresses removal per unit time. Sulfate removal at Tara
Mines was comparable with that published by Eger (13) of
up to 27 g m−2 day−1 . Metal removal (from a percentage
900 WATER AND WASTEWATER PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
perspective) at Tara Mines was usually greater than that
of other studies (e.g., Reference 14; removal of 33% Zn
and 26% Pb). However, metal levels in the wastewater
treated in the other studies were higher than those in the
Tara Mines wastewater, and so higher mass removal rates
probably occurred in these other studies.
STIMULUS FOR REVISING WASTE MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES
In the past 25 years, most treatment wetland studies were
concerned with removing plant nutrients from water. In
the last decade, this focus has shifted toward remediat-
ing mine wastewater, principally to reduce the impact
of acid mine drainage (4). However, constructed wetlands
built for treating mine waste were primarily developed
in North America, and the scope of similar systems in
Europe has yet to be demonstrated. However, the ques-
tion of long-term reliability of treatment wetlands is still
not conclusively answered because most systems of this
type have operated less than 15 years. Many scientists
will advocate that, once they are appropriately designed
and managed, they can remain self-renewing for several
decades. The development of constructed wetland tech-
nology has demonstrated attractive success rates, and
incurred limited financial operational costs. They can also
provide ancillary ecological benefits. Increasing pressure
in preparing for mine closure following ore exhaustion,
coupled with societal concerns regarding environmental
quality, is pressuring industries to reevaluate conven-
tional treatment practices. Recent Irish and European
Union legislation has contributed in some ways toward
increasing the awareness of alternative cost-efficient treat-
ment practices allied with sustainable development. By
exploiting this newly found awareness, the possibility of
implementing some innovative, ecologically sound waste
technologies looks promising.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of Tara Mines
Ireland and Enterprise Ireland for the research project. Dr. Declan
Murray is also acknowledged for his involvement in the research
project and our colleagues in the Department of Botany (UCD,
Ireland) for their assistance in the field while constructing the
treatment wetlands.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Schnoor, J. and Zehnder, A. (1996). Environmental Modeling:
Fate and Transport of Pollutants in Water, Air and Soil. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 381–451.
2. Salt, D. et al. (1995). Phytoremediation: a novel strategy for
the removal of toxic metals from the environment using
plants. Biotechnology 13: 468–473.
3. Gray, N. (1999). Water Technology—an Introduction for
Environmental Scientists and Engineers. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, pp. 302–320.
4. Hedin, R., Nairn, R., and Kleinmann, R. (1994). Passive
Treatment of Coal Mine Drainage. Information Circular
#9389, Bureau of Mines, US Department of the Interior.
5. O’Leary, W. (1996). Wastewater recycling and environmental
constraints at a base metal mine and process facilities. Water
Sci. Technol. 33(10–11): 371–379.
6. Song, Y., Piak, B., Shin, H., and La, S. (1998). Influence
of electron donor and toxic materials on the activity of
sulfate reducing bacteria for the treatment of electroplating
wastewater. Water Sci. Technol. 38(4–5): 187–194.
7. Crites, R. (1994). Design criteria and practice constructed
wetlands. Water Sci. Technol. 29(4): 1–6.
8. Otte, M., Kearns, C., and Doyle, M. (1995). Accumulation of
arsenic and zinc in the rhizosphere of wetland plants. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 55: 154–161.
9. Ye, Z., Baker, A., Wong, M., and Willis, A. (1998). Zinc, lead
and cadmium accumulation and tolerance in Typha latifolia
as affected by iron plaque on the root surface. Aquatic. Bot.
61: 55–67.
10. Morse, J., Millero, F., Cornwell, J., and Richard, D. (1987).
The chemistry of the hydrogen sulfide and iron sulfide systems
in natural waters. Earth Sci. Rev. 24: 1–42.
11. Doyle, M. and Otte, M. (1997). Organism-induced accumula-
tion of iron, zinc, and arsenic in wetland soils. Environ. Pollut.
96: 1–11.
12. Mitsch, W. and Gosselink, J. (2000). Wetlands, 3rd Edn. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 688–697.
13. Eger, P. (1994). Wetland treatment for trace metal removal
from mine drainage: the importance of aerobic and anaerobic
processes. Water Sci. Technol. 29(4): 249–256.
14. Mays, P. and Edwards, G. (2001). Comparison of heavy metal
accumulation in a natural wetland and constructed wetlands
receiving acid mine drainage. Ecol. Eng. 16: 487–500.
15. Hedin, R. (1996). Environmental engineering forum: long-
term effects of wetland treatment of mine drainage. J.
Environ. Eng. 122: 83–85.
READING LIST
Catallo, W. (1993). Ecotoxicology and wetland ecosystems—cur-
rent understanding and future needs. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.
12(12): 2209–2224.
Dunbabin, J. and Bowmer, K. (1992). Potential use of constructed
wetlands for treatment of industrial wastewaters containing
metals. Sci. Total Environ. 111: 151–168.
Foras Forbatha. (1990). Water Resources Division in Eutrophica-
tion (1986–1990). Publication of the (Irish) National institute
for planning and construction research.
Mora, A. (2001). Solutions Applied to Aznalcollar Disaster.
Abstracts of the COST Action 837 (WG2) Workshop; Phytore-
mediation of trace elements in contaminated soils and water.
C. Camara (Ed.). University of Madrid, Spain, April 5–7, p. 29.
Schuurmann, G. and Markert, B. (1998). Ecotoxicology. John
Wiley & Sons, London.
WATER AND WASTEWATER PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS
ABSAR A. KAZMI
Department of Civil
Engineering
Roorkee, Uttaranchal, India
Water in nature is most nearly pure in its evaporative
state. Because the very act of condensation usually
requires a surface, or nuclei, water may acquire impurities
at the very moment of condensation. Additional impurities
 WATER AND WASTEWATER PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
are added as the liquid travels through the remainder of
the hydrologic cycle and comes into contact with materials
in the air and on or beneath the surface of the earth.
Human activities contribute further impurities in the form
of industrial and domestic wastes, agricultural chemicals,
and other less obvious contaminants. Ultimately, these
impure waters complete the hydrologic cycle and return
to the atmosphere as relatively pure water molecules.
However, the water quality in the intermediate stage is of
greatest concern because the quality at this stage affects
human use of water.
The impurities accumulated by water throughout the
hydrologic cycle and from human activities may be in
both suspended and dissolved form. Suspended material
consists of particles larger than molecular size that
are supported by buoyant and viscous forces within
the water. Dissolved material consists of molecules and
ions that are held by the molecular structure of water.
Colloids are very small particles that technically are
suspended but often exhibit many of the characteristics of
dissolved substances.
Water pollution is the presence of impurities in water
in such quantity and of such nature as to impair the use
of the water for a stated purpose. Many parameters and
characteristics have evolved that qualitatively reflect the
impact that various impurities have on selected water
uses. Knowledge of properties/characteristics/parameters
of water and wastewater treatment processes is essential
for environmental scientists and engineers.
PHYSICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
Physical parameters define those characteristics of water
that respond to the senses of sight, touch, taste, or smell.
Suspended solids, turbidity, color, taste and odor, and
temperature fall into this category.
Suspended Solids
Solids can be dispersed in water in both suspended
and dissolved forms. Solids suspended in water may
consist of inorganic or organic particles or of immiscible
liquids. Inorganic solids such as clay, silt, and other
soil constituents are common in surface water. Organic
materials such as plant fibers and biological solids
(algal cells, bacteria, etc.) are also common constituents
of surface waters. These materials are often natural
contaminants resulting from the erosive action of water
flowing over surfaces. Other suspended material may
result from human use of water. Domestic wastewater
usually contains large quantities of suspended solids that
are mostly organic. Industrial use of water may result in a
wide variety of organic or inorganic suspended impurities.
Immiscible liquids such as oils and greases are often
constituents of wastewater.
Suspended material in water may be objectionable for
several reasons. It is aesthetically displeasing and pro-
vides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents.
Suspended organic solids may be degraded biologically,
resulting in objectionable by-products. Biologically active
901
(live) suspended solids may include disease-causing organ-
isms as well as organisms such as toxin-producing strains
of algae.
Suspended solids are likely to be organic and/or
biological and are an important parameter of wastewater.
The suspended solids parameter is used to measure
the quality of wastewater influent, to monitor several
treatment processes, and to measure the quality of the
effluent. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
has set maximum suspended solids at 30 mg/L for most
treated wastewater discharges.
Turbidity
Direct measurement of suspended solids is not usually
performed on samples from natural bodies of water or on
potable (drinkable) water supplies. The nature of the solids
in these waters and the secondary effects they produce
are more important than the actual quantity. For such
waters, a test for turbidity is commonly used. Turbidity is
a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed
or scattered by suspended material in water.
Most turbidity in surface waters results from the
erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock
fragments, and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable fibers
and microorganisms may also contribute to turbidity.
Household and industrial wastewaters may contain a wide
variety of turbidity producing material. Soaps, detergents,
and emulsifying agents produce stable colloids that result
in turbidity. Although turbidity measurements are not
commonly run on wastewater, discharges of wastewaters
may increase the turbidity of natural waterbodies.
When turbid water in a small, transparent container,
such as a drinking glass, is held up to the light, an
aesthetically displeasing opaqueness or ‘‘milky’’ coloration
is apparent. The colloidal material associated with
turbidity provides adsorption sites for chemicals that may
be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odors and for
biological organisms that may be harmful. Disinfection
of turbid waters is difficult because of the adsorptive
characteristics of some colloids and because the solids
may partially shield organisms from the disinfectant.
In natural waterbodies, turbidity may impart a brown
or other color to water, depending on the light-absorbing
properties of the solids, and may interfere with light
penetration and photosynthetic reactions in streams and
lakes. Accumulation of turbidity-causing particles in
porous streambeds results in sediments that can adversely
affect the flora and fauna of the stream.
Color
Pure water is colorless, but water in nature is often colored
by foreign substances. Water whose color is partly due to
suspended matter is said to have apparent color. Color
contributed by dissolved solids that remain after removal
of suspended solids is known as true color.
After contact with organic debris such as leaves,
conifer needles, weeds, or wood, water picks up tannins,
humic acid, and humates and takes on yellowish-brown
hues. Iron oxides make water reddish, and manganese
oxides make water brown or brackish. Industrial wastes
902 WATER AND WASTEWATER PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
from textile and dyeing operations, pulp and paper
production, food processing, chemical production, and
mining, refining, and slaughterhouse operations may add
substantial coloration to water in receiving streams.
Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable to the
general public. In fact, given a choice, consumers tend to
choose clear, uncolored water of otherwise poorer quality
over treated potable water supplies with an objectionable
color. Highly colored water is unsuitable for laundering,
dyeing, papermaking, beverage manufacturing, dairy
production and other food processing, and textile and
plastic production. Thus the color of water affects its
marketability for both domestic and industrial use.
Color is not a parameter usually included in wastewater
analysis. In potable water analysis, the common practice
is to measure only the true color produced by organic
acid resulting from decaying vegetation in the water. The
resulting value can be taken as an indirect measurement
of humic substances in the water.
Taste and Odor
The terms taste and odor define this parameter. Because
the sensations of taste and smell are closely related and
often confused, a wide variety of taste and odors may
be attributed to water by consumers. Substances that
produce an odor in water almost invariably impart a taste
as well. The converse is not true; many mineral substances
produce tastes but no odor. Many substances with which
water comes into contact in nature or during human use
may impart perceptible taste and odor. These include
minerals, metals, and salts from the soil, end products
from biological reactions, and constituents of wastewater.
Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes
unaccompanied by odor. Alkaline material imparts a bitter
taste to water, and metallic salts may give a salty or bitter
taste. Organic materials, on the other hand, are likely
to produce both taste and odor in water; petroleum based
products are prime offenders. The biological decomposition
of organics may also result in taste-and odor-producing
liquids and gases in water. Consumers find taste and
odor aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons. Because
water is thought of as tasteless and odorless, the consumer
associates taste and odor with contamination and may
prefer to use a tasteless, odorless water that might actually
pose more than a problem of simple aesthetics because
some of those substances may be carcinogenic.
Temperature
Temperature is not used directly to evaluate either
potable water or wastewater. It is, however, one of the
most important parameters in natural surface water
systems. The temperature of surface waters governs
to a large extent the biological species present and
their rates of activity. Temperature has an effect on
most chemical reactions that occur in natural water
systems. Temperature also has a pronounced effect on
the solubilities of gases in water. The temperature of
natural water systems responds to many factors, ambient
temperatures are the most universal.
CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
Water has been called the universal solvent, and chemical
parameters are related to the solvent capabilities of water.
Total dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness, fluorides,
metals, organics, and nutrients are chemical parameters
of concern in water quality management.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
The material remaining in water after filtration for
a suspended solids analysis is considered dissolved.
Dissolved material results from the solvent action of water
on solids, liquids, and gases. Like suspended material,
dissolved substances may be organic or inorganic.
Inorganic substances that may be dissolved in water
include minerals, metals, and gases. Water may come
in contact with these substances in the atmosphere, on
surfaces, and within the soil. Materials from the decay
products of vegetation, from organic chemicals, and from
organic gases are common dissolved organic constituents
of water. Many dissolved substances are undesirable
in water. Some dissolved minerals, gases, and organic
constituents are carcinogenic.
Because no distinction is made among the constituents,
the TDS parameter is included in the analysis of water
and wastewater only as a gross measurement of dissolved
material. This is often sufficient for wastewaters, but it is
frequently desirable to know more about the composition of
the solids in water for use in potable supplies, agriculture,
and some industrial processes. When this is the case, tests
for several of the ionic constituents of TDS are made.
Akalinity
Alkalinity is the quantity of ions in water that will react
to neutralize hydrogen ions. Alkalinity is thus a measure
of the ability of water to neutralize acids. The constituents
of alkalinity in natural water systems include CO3 2− ,
HCO3 − , and OH− . These ions result from the dissolution
of mineral substances in the soil and atmosphere. Phos-
phates may also originate from detergents in wastewater
discharges and from fertilizers and insecticides from agri-
cultural land. Hydrogen sulfide and ammonia may be
products of the microbial decomposition of organic mate-
rial. In large quantities, alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to
water. The principal objection to alkaline water, however,
is the reactions that can occur between alkalinity and cer-
tain cations in the water. The resultant precipitates can
foul pipes and other water system appurtenances.
Hardness
Hardness is the concentration of multivalent cations
in solution. At supersaturation, hardness cations react
with anions in the water to form solid precipitates. The
multivalent metallic ions most abundant in natural waters
are calcium and magnesium, and for all practical purposes,
hardness may be represented by the sum of calcium and
magnesium ions.
Soap consumption by hard water represents an
economic loss to the water user. Sodium soaps react
with multivalent cations to form a precipitate, thereby
 WATER AND WASTEWATER PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
losing their surfactant properties. Lathering does not
occur until all the hardness ions are precipitated, at which
point the water has been softened by the soap. Boiler
scale, the result of the carbonate hardness precipitate,
may cause considerable economic loss through fouling of
water heaters and hot water pipes. Changes in pH in
water distribution systems may also result in deposits
of precipitates. Bicarbonate begins to convert to the less
soluble carbonates at a pH above 9.0.
Magnesium hardness, particularly associated with the
sulfate ion, has a laxative effect on persons accustomed
to it. Magnesium concentrations of less than 50 mg/L are
desirable in potable waters, although many public water
supplies exceed this amount. Calcium hardness presents
no public health problem.
Fluoride
Generally associated in nature with few types of
sedimentary or igneous rocks, fluoride is seldom found
in appreciable quantities in surface waters and appears in
groundwater in only a few geographical regions. Fluoride
is toxic to humans and other animals in large quantities,
but small concentrations can be beneficial.
Metals
All metals are soluble to some extent in water. Excessive
amounts of any metal may present health hazards, but
only those metals that are harmful in relatively small
amounts are commonly labeled toxic; other metals fall into
the nontoxic group. Sources of metals in natural waters
include dissolution from natural deposits and discharges of
domestic, industrial, or agricultural wastewaters. Metals
in water are usually measured by atomic absorption
spectrometry.
Organics
Many organic materials are soluble in water. Organics in
natural water systems may come from natural sources or
may result from human activities. Most natural organics
consist of the decay products of organic solids; synthetic
organics are usually the result of wastewater discharges
or agriculture practices. Dissolved organics in water are
usually divided into two broad categories: biodegradable
and nonbiodegradable (refractory).
Biodegradable Organics. Biodegradable material con-
sists of organics that can be used for food by naturally
occurring microorganisms within a reasonable length of
time. In dissolved form, these materials usually consist
of starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and
esters. They may be the end products of the initial micro-
bial decomposition of plant or animal tissue, or they may
result from domestic or industrial wastewater discharges.
Although some of these materials may cause color, taste,
and odor problems, the principal problems from biodegrad-
able organics are the secondary effects from the action of
microorganisms on these substances.
Nonbiodegradable Organics. Some organic materials
are resistant to biological degradation. Tannic and lignic
903
acids, cellulose, and phenols are often found in natural
water systems. These constituents of woody plants
biodegrade so slowly that they are usually considered
refractory. Molecules that have exceptionally strong bonds
(some of the polysaccharides) and ringed structures
(benzene) are nonbiodegradable.
Nutrients
Nutrients are elements essential to the growth and
reproduction of plants and animals. Aquatic species
depend on the surrounding water to provide their
nutrients. Although a wide variety of minerals and
trace elements can be classified as nutrients, those
required in most abundance by aquatic species are carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus. Carbon is readily available
from many sources. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
alkalinity, and decay products of organic matter all supply
carbon to the aquatic system. In most cases, nitrogen
and phosphorus are the nutrients that limit aquatic
plant growth.
BIOLOGICAL WATER-QUALITY PARAMETERS
Water may serve as a medium in which literally thousands
of biological species spend part, if not all, of their life cycles.
Aquatic organisms range in size and complexity from the
smallest single-cell microorganism to the largest fish. All
members of the biological community are to some extent,
water quality parameters, because their presence or
absence may indicate in general terms the characteristics
of a given body of water. As an example, the general
quality of water in a trout stream would be expected to
exceed that of a stream in which the predominant species
of fish is carp. Similarly, abundant algal populations are
associated with a water rich in nutrients.
Biologists often use a species-diversity index (related
to the number of species and the relative abundance of
organisms in each species) as a qualitative parameter
for streams and lakes. A body of water that hosts a
large number of species with well-balanced numbers of
individuals is considered a healthy system. Based on their
known tolerance for a given pollutant, certain organisms
can be used as indicators of the presence of pollutants.
Pathogens
From the perspective of human use and consumption,
the most important biological organisms in water are
pathogens, organisms that infect or transmit diseases
to humans. These organisms are not native to aquatic
systems and usually require an animal host for growth
and reproduction. They can, however, be transported
by natural water systems, thus becoming temporary
members of an aquatic community. Many species of
pathogens can survive in water and maintain their
infectious capabilities for significant periods of time. These
waterborne pathogens include species of bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, and helminths (parasitic worms).
Bacteria. Bacteria are single-cell microorganisms, usu-
ally colorless, and are the lowest form of life that can
904 ANAEROBIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT
synthesize protoplasm from the surrounding environment.
Gastrointestinal disorders are common symptoms of most
diseases transmitted by waterborne bacteria. Among the
most violent waterborne bacterial diseases, cholera causes
vomiting and diarrhea that, without treatment, result in
dehydration and death.
Viruses. Viruses are the smallest biological structures
known to contain all the genetic information necessary
for their own reproduction. So small that they can only
be ‘‘seen’’ with the aid of an electron microscope, viruses
are obligate parasites that require a host in which to
live. Symptoms of waterborne viral infections usually
involve disorders of the nervous systems rather than of the
gastrointestinal tract. Waterborne viral pathogens cause
poliomyelitis and infectious hepatitis.
Protozoa. The lowest form of animal life, protozoa are
unicellular organisms more complex in their functional
activity than bacteria or viruses. They are complete, self-
contained organisms that can be free-living or parasitic,
pathogenic or nonpathogenic, microscopic or macroscopic.
Highly adaptable, protozoa are widely distributed in
natural waters, although only a few aquatic protozoa are
pathogenic. Protozoal infections are usually characterized
by gastrointestinal disorders of a milder order than those
from bacterial infections.
Helminths. The life cycles of helminths, or parasitic
worms, often involve two or more animal hosts, one
of which can be human or animal waste that contains
helminths. Contamination may also be via aquatic species
of other hosts, such as snails or insects. Aquatic systems
can be the vehicle for transmitting helminthal pathogens,
but modern water treatment methods are very effective in
destroying these organisms. Thus, helminths pose hazards
primarily to those persons who came into direct contact
with untreated water.
READING LIST
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (2003). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,
Disposal, Reuse, 4th Edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 27–139.
Peavy, H.S, Rowe, D.R., and Tchbanoglous, G. (1985). Environ-
mental Engineering, International Edn. McGraw-Hill, New
York, pp. 11–57.
ANAEROBIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT
LOOK HULSHOFF POL
Lettinga Associates Foundation
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Anaerobic digestion is a natural process in which different
microorganisms of the biological kingdoms of Bacteria
and Archaea work together to convert organic compounds
through a variety of intermediates into biogas, a mixture
of methane and carbon dioxide and small amounts of
hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen. This ancient process,
brought about by living species long before the presence
of oxygen in the atmosphere, is presently gaining an
increased interest because of its potential in the treatment
of solid organic waste, sludge, and wastewater.
HISTORY OF THE APPLICATION OF ANAEROBIC
PROCESSES
Volta is considered to be the first to realize that there
was a relationship between decaying vegetation and the
occurrence of inflammable gas. In 1776 he showed that
‘‘combustible air’’ was formed from sediments in lakes,
ponds, and streams (1). The initial use of anaerobic
fermentation for pollution prevention has been for the
treatment of domestic wastewater using anaerobic filters
and hybrid systems, the latter consisting of a combination
of an anaerobic tank and an anaerobic filter. The first
recorded anaerobic treatment process was an air-tight
chamber called the Mouras Automatic Scavenger, which
was developed in the 1860s in France (2). Based on this
concept Cameron developed a kind of septic tank in
England to treat the wastewater of the city of Exeter
in 1895, and Talbot developed a similar tank with baffles
in Illinois in the United States in 1894.
In the first half of the twentieth century, anaerobic
processes were especially applied for the digestion of
sewage sludge. During the 1920s and 1930s, interest in
the utilization of methane generated in sludge digesters
grew, especially in Germany. Gas was used for heating
of digesters, and in 1927 the Ruhrverband in Germany
started to use sludge gas to generate power for a biological
treatment plant. The generated (waste) heat was used
for heating the digester. This is now common practice
throughout the world.
The development of anaerobic treatment of industrial
wastewater started in the second half of the twentieth
century, also thanks to extensive studies in the first
half of the century by Buswell. To reduce the size of
the treatment systems, in the 1950s in South Africa,
Stander (3) developed the clarigester, a modified Imhoff
tank with an internal settler on top. In the same period,
Schroepfer (4) used a reactor with recirculation of sludge
from the settling tank, similar to aerobic treatment. This
process was called the anaerobic contact process.
The development of anaerobic industrial wastewater
treatment got a big boost after the energy crisis in the early
1970s, as anaerobic treatment is more energy efficient
than aerobic treatment. A major factor in the development
was also the recognition of the importance of sludge
retention. New reactor concepts resulted in a further
reduction of reactor volumes that could accommodate
much higher loading rates than conventional aerobic
treatment processes. The most prominent of these new
systems is the UASB-process developed by Lettinga in
The Netherlands (5).
In the last two decades a renewed interest has emerged
in the application of anaerobic pretreatment for domestic
wastewater in countries with a warm climate. The
anaerobic treatment step is usually followed by an aerobic
post-treatment.

THE ANAEROBIC PROCESS
The most important polluting compounds in wastewater
are usually organic polymers such as fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates. For the degradation of these polymers
four main steps can be distinguished in anaerobic
fermentation: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and
methanogenesis (see Fig. 1).
In the hydrolysis step, extracellular complex organic
polymers (proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) are
hydrolyzed by exoenzymes into smaller molecules (mono-
and oligomers: amino acids, sugars, and long-chain fatty
acids), which can pass through bacterial cell membranes
for further decomposition. For complex wastewaters, con-
taining a large fraction of polymers, hydrolysis is the
rate-limiting factor. During acidogenesis, the mono- and
oligomers are acidified, which means that they are con-
verted into simple organic acids, hydrogen, and carbon
dioxide. In the third step, called acetogenesis, acetate
is formed out of the simple (volatile) acids other than
acetate. Under standard conditions, acetogenic conver-
sions are endothermic and cannot take place. Only by
immediate consumption of the products of this conver-
sion step (hydrogen and acetate) by the methanogenic
Archaea, can this conversion become thermodynamically
favorable (exothermic). Finally, in the last step (methano-
genesis) biogas is formed, either out of hydrogen and
carbon dioxide or out of acetate. Roughly 70% of the biogas
is produced via the acetate route. Due to the low growth
rates of acetotrophic methanogens (the growth rate µmax
of Methanosaeta soehngenii, which is usually the most pre-
dominant methanogen in the anaerobic sludge, is around
0.1 d−1 ), acetotrophic methanogenesis is a crucial conver-
sion in the total anaerobic digestion process.
If sulfate is present in the wastewater, part of the
organic compounds will be degraded by sulfate-reducing
bacteria. Sulfate mediates the degradation of organic
compounds and will thereby be reduced to hydrogen
sulfide, which will partly end up in the biogas.
BIOGAS PRODUCTION
For more concentrated types of wastewater, biogas
production forms a welcome source of renewable energy.
Theoretically, about 0.5 m3 biogas can be produced per
Organic polymers
proteins carbohydrates lipids
Hydrolysis
Mono- and oligomers
amino acids, sugars, fatty acids
Acidogenesis
Volatile fatty acids
lactate
ethanol Acetogenesis
H2/CO2 Acetate
Methanogenesis
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the anaerobic fermentation
CH4/CO2
of complex organic polymers into biogas.
ANAEROBIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT 905
kilogram of converted COD. The basic principle of
anaerobic fermentation is that part of the carbon is
completely oxidized to CO2 , whereas the other part is
completely reduced to CH4 with the result that the average
oxidation state of the carbon stays the same. N and O will
stay completely reduced. Buswell derived an equation to
determine the theoretical biogas production for any given
organic compound. Assuming that of an organic molecule
with the general formula of Cn Ha Ob Nd a fraction x of
C goes to CH4 (oxidation state C = −4) and a fraction
(1 − x) of C goes to CO2 (oxidation state C = +4) and
taking into account that that does not change, it can be
derived that the average oxidation state of the organic
molecule (2b + 3d − a)/n equals −4x + 4(1 − x). From this
the Buswell equation is obtained:
Cn Ha Ob Nd + (n − a/4 − b/2 + 3d/4)H2 O
→ (n/2 + a/8 − b/4 − 3d/8)CH4
+ (n/2 − a/8 + b/4 + 3d/8)CO2
+dNH3
The real amount depends on various factors such as
temperature, atmospheric pressure, pH, heat production,
biodegradability of the pollutants in the wastewater,
amount of COD used for cell maintenance and growth,
and sulfate concentration in the wastewater. The CO2
content is strongly related to the pH: the higher the pH,
the lower the partial pressure of CO2 in the biogas. Sulfate
will reduce the CH4 content of the biogas. Theoretically,
sulfate-reducing bacteria will reduce 2 g of COD per gram
of sulfate, with the effect that the generated electrons are
used for formation of H2 S rather than CH4 . This results
in a biogas with lower methane content.
Biogas can be used as a replacement for natural gas in
different ways. It can be used directly in burners, in boilers,
or in gas engines or fuel cells for electricity generation.
ANAEROBIC TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Anaerobic treatment has some clear advantages over
conventional aerobic treatment. It has to be noted though
that anaerobic treatment still needs further aerobic
treatment of the remaining BOD. Most importantly, the
aerobic activated sludge process needs energy for aeration
(about 100 kWh per 100 kg COD), whereas in anaerobic
906 ANAEROBIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Table 1. Comparison of Various Characteristics of Aerobic and
Anaerobic Degradation of Glucose
Characteristic Aerobic
Reaction C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 →
6CO2 + 6H2 O
Energy release G0 = −2840 kJ/mol
Carbon balance 50% → CO2
50% → biomass
Energy balance 60% → biomass
40% → heat
Biomass production Yield > 0.5 kg VSS/kg COD
Energy input for 1 kWh/kg COD
aeration
treatment energy is produced in the form of biogas.
Over 285 kWh of electrical power can be produced per
100 kg COD.
In aerobic treatment much more sludge is produced
than in anaerobic treatment. This is caused by the big
difference in sludge yield factors (= grams of biomass
formed per gram of degraded COD). For aerobic sludge
this factor usually is around 0.5, whereas for anaerobic
sludge it is generally below 0.15. As sludge management
is a major cost factor in wastewater treatment, a
strongly reduced sludge production is a big advantage.
Contrary, comparing the effluent qualities of aerobic
and anaerobic treatment shows that aerobic treatment
is superior to anaerobic treatment in COD removal
efficiency. Usually anaerobic treatment needs further post-
treatment to meet common effluent discharge standards.
However, an anaerobic system with appropriate post-
treatment, in which the bulk of the organic pollutants
is treated in the anaerobic step, is more cost effective than
conventional aerobic treatment. The above mentioned
difference between aerobic and anaerobic degradation is
further illustrated for glucose as a model pollutant in
Table 1.
ANAEROBIC REACTOR SYSTEMS
Key to the worldwide interest in anaerobic treatment
is that it allows for an extreme uncoupling of the solid
retention time from the hydraulic retention time. This
uncoupling can be achieved by various means of sludge
retention, such as sedimentation, immobilization on a
fixed matrix or moving carrier material, and granulation.
Granulation is a form of autoimmobilization typical
for anaerobic biomass. Under appropriate conditions,
dispersed sludge gradually transforms into a granular
type of sludge. Granules are usually 0.5–3 mm in diameter
and have high specific methanogenic activities and high
settleabilities (up to 60 m/h). They are far more resistant
to external shear forces than flocs. In practice, uncoupling
of the hydraulic retention time from the solids retention
time means that small reactor systems can be applied at
high volumetric loading rates.
Tables 2, 3, and 4 give an overview of the most common
low rate, high rate, and super high rate processes that are
presently applied on full scale.
Anaerobic
C6 H12 O6 → 3CO2 + 3CH4
G0 = −393 kJ/mol
95% → CH4 + CO2 (biogas)
5% → biomass
90% retained in CH4
5% → biomass
5% → heat
Yield = 0.05—0.15 kg
VSS/kg COD
None
The anaerobic filter (AF) was used in early applications
for domestic sewage treatment. It was further developed
in the United States (6,7) for the treatment of industrial
wastewater treatment. The reactor is filled with a packing
material for bacterial attachment. Sludge retention is also
achieved by accumulation of anaerobic biomass in the
crevices of the packing. This reactor type can be operated
both in an upflow and downflow mode.
In the Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Bed (UASB) reac-
tor (5,8) sludge retention is achieved by sedimentation
of granular or thick flocculent sludge in an internal set-
tler located in the upper part of the reactor. This internal
settler is also called a gas–liquid–solids (GLS) or three-
phase separator. In this separator biogas is captured
in a gas hood, creating a quiet zone above this hood,
allowing solids to settle and return to the lower reac-
tor compartment where the anaerobic conversion takes
place. The water leaves the reactor on top of the reactor
as effluent. About 60% of all full-scale anaerobic reac-
tors that have been built worldwide are of the UASB
type. Alternative sludge bed processes are the Anaerobic
Baffled Reactor (ABR) (9,10) and the Anaerobic Migrat-
ing Blanket Reactor (AMBR) (11). UASB and AF reactors
are used for the treatment of both industrial and domes-
tic wastewater.
Common super high rate processes are the Expanded
Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) reactor (12) and the Internal
Circulation (IC) reactor (13) presented in Table 4. These
reactor systems can treat at volumetric loading rates up
to 30 kg COD/m3 · d. The EGSB is operated with anaerobic
granular sludge. EGSB reactors are more widely applied
than fluidized bed (FB) reactors. The upflow velocity in
EGSB reactors is up to 10 m/h. Like the UASB reactor,
the EGSB system has an internal settler on top of the
reactor. IC reactors are also operated with anaerobic
granular sludge. In this reactor an internal liquid recycling
is created by a so-called gas lift of the water by the
generated biogas. This internal recycling results in optimal
mixing and an intense contact between wastewater and
sludge. Contrary to external recirculation, the internal
recirculation does not lead to higher average upflow
velocities in the system. EGSB and IC reactors are tall
and slim and therefore have a small footprint.
 ANAEROBIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT 907

Table 2. Most Common Low Rate Anaerobic Treatment Systems (Volumetric Loading Rate <5 kg COD/m3 ·d)
Reactor Type Characteristics

Completely Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)

Gas • Suitable for sludge and manure digestion

• No sludge retention
M
• Long hydraulic retention times (15–30 days)

Influent Effulent

Anaerobic Contact Process

Gas • Suitable for wastewaters rich in suspended solids

M
• Sludge retention by external sedimentation and sludge recycling

Effluent
Influent Flocculator
or
degasifier

Sludge recycle

Excess sludge

Covered Anaerobic Lagoon

Gas • Suitable for wastewaters rich in suspended solids

Floating cover • Sludge retention by sedimentation
Effluent • Large reactor with large footprint
• Long hydraulic retention times

Influent

Sludge recycle

Waste sludge

Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor (ASBR)

Gas Gas Gas Gas • Suitable for wastewaters rich in suspended solids
M • Sludge retention by sedimentation
Effluent

Influent

Feed React Settle Decant

BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES determining factor. The conversion capacity is determined

There are three important factors that determine the
design of anaerobic reactors:
1. The biological conversion capacity.
2. The maximum allowable hydraulic loading rate.
3. The maximum allowable gas loading rate.
For the design of a system treating concentrated
wastewaters the biological conversion capacity is the
by the amount of biomass that can be retained in the
reactor and the specific methanogenic activity of this
biomass. This activity is influenced by various factors
such as pH, temperature, intensity of the contact between
wastewater and the biomass, COD composition, presence
of inhibiting or toxic compounds, and presence of sufficient
macro- and micronutrients.
For diluted wastewaters the limiting factor is the
hydraulic capacity of the reactor. If the hydraulic load
Table 3. Most Common High Rate Anaerobic Treatment Systems
(Volumetric Loading Rate 3–20 kg COD/m3 ·d)
Reactor Type Characteristics

Anaerobic Filter (AF)

Gas • Sludge retention by attachment on filter

material and entrapment in voids in the filter
Effluent • Can be operated upward and downward

Packing

Influent
Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Bed (UASB) Reactor

Gas • Sludge retention by granulation and settling

• Internal three-phase separator to separate
Effluent gas, sludge, and water
• Optimal contact of water with biomass by gas
mixing
Influent

Table 4. Most Common Super High Rate Anaerobic Treatment

Systems (Volumetric Loading Rates 10–30 kg COD/m3 ·d)
Reactor Type Characteristics

Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) Reactor

Gas • Suitable for medium to low strength

wastewater and low temperatures (<25 ◦ C)
Effluent • Comparable to fluidized bed reactor
• External recirculation
• Upflow flow rate in the reactor is up to 10 m/h

Recycle

Influent
Internal Circulation (IC) Reactor

Gas • Requires anaerobic granular sludge

• Two internal three-phase separators
• Internal circulation of water by gas lift
principle
Effluent

Internal
recirculation

Influent

908

exceeds the hydraulic capacity of the system, the sludge
washout from the reactor can become higher than the
sludge yield by bacterial growth. This will result in a
gradual drop in the quantity of active biomass in the
reactor and ultimately in reactor failure.
PHYSICAL SEPARATION OF ACIDOGENESIS FROM
METHANOGENESIS
Fairly common in anaerobic treatment is the physical
separation of hydrolysis and acidification in an acidifying
reactor and acetogenesis and methanogenesis in a second
reactor. This phase separation was supported by a school of
researchers (14–17), who claimed that such a separation
would lead to better control of the overall digestion
process. Under optimal mesophilic conditions a slight
preacidification of the wastewater is certainly beneficial,
but generally this is already accomplished during the
transport of the wastewater in the sewer system. For
soluble and not or partially acidified carbohydrate-
containing wastewaters, phase separation is therefore not
required. For the formation of granular sludge it is even
better to have no phase separation. However, for treatment
of hardly acidified carbohydrates under psychrophilic
conditions, the use of a preacidification step is required:
the in-growing voluminous acidifying organisms do not
decay sufficiently fast, and therefore they will accumulate
in the retained methanogenic sludge, creating a bulking
type of sludge. As a result, the sludge characteristics will
deteriorate (18).
Staging of anaerobic treatment systems can be
considered beneficial for the treatment of various types
of complex wastewaters, such as domestic sewage or
(a) Primary Activated Secondary
Grit sedimentation sludge sedimentation
Screens chamber tank tank tank
Raw sewage
Sludge
digestion dewatering
Aerobic sewage treatment
(b) High-rate
Grit anaerobic
Screens chamber treatment
Raw sewage
Anaerobic sewage treatment
ANAEROBIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT 909
wastewaters containing slowly biodegradable or inhibitory
compounds (19). In such staged reactors in principle all
phases of the anaerobic degradation process are allowed
to proceed to some extent simultaneously in each reactor
module. A staged reactor system will provide a higher
treatment efficiency, because more difficult compounds
like intermediates such as propionate, or possibly even
xenobiotic compounds (when present in the wastewater),
will find a more optimal environment for degradation due
to the development of appropriate microbial communities
in each stage. The process stability of a staged system is
also substantially higher than in the present commonly
practiced one-step systems.
APPLICATION OF ANAEROBIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Anaerobic treatment has been applied primarily for
medium to high strength wastewaters of (agro-) industrial
origin with COD concentrations over 1000 mg/L. Common
industries generating wastewater that can be well treated
by anaerobic processes are starch factories, breweries,
pulp and paper mills, and distilleries. More recently, other
industries with wastewater containing organic pollutants
have started using anaerobic treatment, such as chemical
and pharmaceutical industries.
Since 1985 interest has grown in anaerobic treatment of
domestic sewage in countries with tropical or subtropical
climates (20). The full-scale plants mostly use UASB
reactors for the anaerobic step and they are constructed
all over South America and Asia, especially in Brazil and
India. As indicated in Fig. 2 the advantage of anaerobic
sewage treatment over aerobic treatment is that four
components of the latter (primary clarifier, activated
Treated effluent
Sludge
Sludge
Effluent
polishing
pond
Treated effluent
Sludge
Sludge Figure 2. Flowsheets of aerobic sewage treatment
drying (a) using the activated sludge process and anaerobic
beds sewage treatment (b) with post-treatment in a
polishing pond.
910 SEWERAGE ODORS—HOW TO CONTROL
sludge tank, secondary clarifier, and sludge digester)
can be combined in one single reactor. In this reactor
removal of COD and sludge stabilization takes place
simultaneously.
Anaerobic treatment has traditionally been applied
under optimal mesophilic temperature conditions (around
30 ◦ C). Anaerobic digestion however, is, feasible under a
wide range of conditions, such as temperatures ranging
from 4 to 70 ◦ C, high salinity, the presence of recalcitrant
or toxic compounds, and for wastewater with very low
COD/sulfate ratios.
CONCLUSION
Anaerobic digestion is implemented for the treatment of
industrial and domestic wastewater, sludge, and solid
waste for the removal of biodegradable compounds from
the waste. Anaerobic processes require only a small energy
input and a renewable energy source is generated in
the form of biogas. Anaerobic treatment is a standard
technology for wastewater of agroindustrial origin in the
industrialized world. In developing countries, interest in
and application of anaerobic treatment of domestic sewage
are emerging.
The applicability of anaerobic processes is further
extended to hot and cold wastewater as well as wastewater
from the (petro-) chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, and
mining industries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Barker, H.A. (1956). Biological formation of methane. In:
Bacterial Fermentations. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, p. 1.
2. McCarty, P.L. (2001). The development of anaerobic treat-
ment and its future. In: Anaerobic Digestion for Sustainable
Development, Proceedings of the farewell seminar of Prof.
Gatze Lettinga. March 29–30, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
3. Stander, G.J. (1966). Water pollution research—a key to
wastewater management. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 38:
774.
4. Schroepfer, G.J., Fullen, W.J., Johnson, A.S., Ziemke, N.R.,
and Anderson, J.J. (1955). The anaerobic contact process
as applied to packinghouse wastes. Sewage Ind. Wastes. 2:
117–142.
5. Lettinga, G. et al. (1980). Use of the Upflow Sludge Blanket
(USB) reactor concept for biological wastewater treatment,
especially for anaerobic treatment. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 22:
699–734.
6. Young, J.C. and McCarty, P.L. (1969). The anaerobic filter for
waste treatment. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 41: R160.
7. Young, J.C. and Dahab, M.F. (1983). Effect of media design
on the performance of fixed bed anaerobic reactors. Water Sci.
Technol. 15: 369–383.
8. Lettinga, G. and Hulshoff Pol, L.W. (1991). UASB process
design for various types of wastewaters. Water Sci. Technol.
24: 87–107.
9. Bachmann, A., Beard, V.L., and McCarty, P.L. (1985). Perfor-
mance characteristics of the Anaerobic Baffled Reactor. Water
Res. 19(1): 99–106.
10. Barber, W.P. and Stuckey, D.C. (1999). The use of the
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) for wastewater treatment:
a review. Water Res. 33: 1559–1578.
11. Angenent, L.T., Banik, G.C., and Sung, S. (2000). Psy-
chrophilic anaerobic pretreatment of low-strength wastew-
ater using the Anaerobic Migrating Blanket Reactor. In:
Proceedings of the 73rd Annual Water Environment Con-
ference, New Orleans, LA.
12. Zoutberg, X. and de Been, X. (1997).
13. Yspeert, P., Vereijken, T., Vellinga, S., and de Vegt, A. (1993).
The IC reactor for anaerobic treatment of industrial
wastewater. In: Proceedings of the 1993 Food Industry
Environmental Conference, Atalanta, GA, pp. 487–497.
14. Breure, X. (1986).
15. Breure, X. et al. (1985).
16. Cohen, X. et al. (1985)
17. Pohland, X. and Ghosh, X. (1971).
18. Rebac, X. (1999).
19. van Lier, J.B. et al. (2001). Advances in high-rate treatment:
staging of reactor systems. Water Sci. Technol. 44(8): 15–25.
20. van Haandel, A.C. and Lettinga, G. (1994). Anaerobic Sewage
Treatment. A Practical Guide for Regions with a Hot Climate.
John Wiley, Chichester, UK.
SEWERAGE ODORS—HOW TO CONTROL
BRADLEY A. STRIEBIG
Gonzaga University
Spokane, Washington
WHAT ARE ODORS?
Odors result from the perception of chemicals by the
olfactory system. The chemicals are detected in the
mouth and nasal passages. Sensations are conveyed to
the brain where they may be negatively perceived. The
olfactory nerve (first cranial nerve) conveys the perception
of chemical odorants to the brain. The trigeminal nerve
(fifth cranial nerve) relates the pungency or irritability
due to chemical exposure to the brain. Many of the
chemicals that cause a negative reaction, bad odors,
are related to bacterial emissions that may indicate
the presence of pathogenic organisms. The human
olfactory system can detect many of these pathogenic
indicator chemicals at concentrations of only a few
parts per billion (ppb). The chemicals that cause the
olfactory response are called odorants. The human
olfactory system is capable of detecting a wide variety
of odorants.
The human response to odorants present in the air
depends on the odor concentration, intensity, persistence,
and character. Odor concentration can be measured as a
dilution ratio and results may be reported as a detection
threshold, recognition threshold, or dilution-to-threshold
ratio. Odorants can be measured analytically in the field or
laboratory and their concentrations are typically reported
in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) by
volume. Odor intensity is often related to the equivalent
intensity produced by exposing an odor panel to the
sample of interest and correlating the odor panel response
to a butanol-based standard scale. Odor persistence is
interpreted as the duration of exposure and is reported
as a dose–response function. The odor character is a
 SEWERAGE ODORS—HOW TO CONTROL 911

descriptive scale, which describes what the odor smells

like based on categorical descriptive terms. These terms Sewer headspace
provide scientists and engineers with the measurement
and descriptive techniques relating odorants to odors and H2S + 2O2 → H2SO4
hold the key to understanding odor control strategies.
Prior to describing control techniques, it is helpful to Acidic
H2S gas generation condensation
understand what causes odors and how they are generated
in the sewers.

WHAT CAUSES ODORS?

Dissolved oxygen < 0.1 mg/l

Inert anaerobic zone

Wastewater or sewage water is a complex mixture of Sulfides present: HS-, H2S
Pipe
organic and inorganic wastes. The organic wastes consist

Sulfide producing zone

wall

Boundary layer
of a mixture of human wastes, food wastes, and industrial Oxygen
wastes. Simple organic compounds such as sugars and transfer Wastewater
carbohydrates are broken down aerobically into carbon
dioxide and water, and anaerobically into methane. More Oxidation of sulfides:
complex organic molecules, such as proteins and amino 2O2 + 2HS− → S2O32− + H2O
acids, are also broken down into carbon dioxide, water,
and methane; however, the remaining sulfur and nitrogen Depletion of oxygen
in the boundary layer
present in these compounds may result in the production
of hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and other strong odorants
as illustrated in Fig. 1. Sulfide production
Aerobic wastewaters commonly contain many odorants,
including indole, skatole, organic acids, esters, alcohols, Diffusion of sulfides
and aldehydes. However, microbial activity in the into sewage water
sewers depletes the oxygen, creating anaerobic conditions.
When anaerobic conditions develop, the types and
Figure 2. Sulfide generation in sewers (adapted from Ref. 1).
concentrations of odorants in the sewer rapidly increase.
Most sewage odor problems are related to the odorants
formed under anaerobic conditions, including hydrogen
sulfide, mercaptans, ammonia, amines, and volatile fatty and nutrients in the sewage, sulfate concentrations,
acids. temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and residence time
Hydrogen sulfide is typically the odorant of greatest of the sewage and sludge deposits in the sewer
concern in sewers due to its low detection threshold, system.
high concentration, and acidic nature. Hydrogen sulfide Pomeroy and Parkhurst (1) developed a predictive
is generated from the anaerobic biological reduction of model for estimating sulfide generation in wastewater
sulfate (SO4 2− ) or thiosulfate. One common mechanism is collections systems:
described by
For pipes flowing full:
anaerobes
SO4 2− + 2C + 2H2 O −−−−−→ 2HCO3 − + H2 S S2 = S1 + (M)(t)[EBOD(4/d + 1.57)]
For less than full pipes:
Hydrogen sulfide is generated in the slime layers (Slim − S1 )
and sludge deposits in sewer collection systems as S2 = Slim −

m(su)3/8 t
illustrated in Fig. 2. Key parameters that control sulfide log−1
generation include the concentration of organic materials 2.31dm

where S2 = predicted sulfide concentration at time t2

Odor generation from organic wastewater components (mg/L)
S1 = sulfide concentration at time t1 (mg/L)
Organic sulfur Other Slim = limiting sulfide concentration,
Organic nitrogen
organics
Slim = (M  /m) EBOD(su)−3/8 (P/b) (mg/L)
Cysteine Methionine Amino acids M = sulfide flux coefficient, typically 0.5 × 10−3
to 1.0 × 10−3 (m/h)
Hydrogen Methyl Ammonia Amines M  = effective sulfide flux coefficient in gravity
Limonenes Organic
sulfide mercaptan sewers, typically 0.32 × 10−3 (m/h)
acids
m = empirical coefficient for sulfide loss,
Dimethylsulfide Dimethyldisulfide typically 0.96
Figure 1. Odorants generation mechanisms from organic t = detention time in the sewer reach with
wastes. constant diameter and flow (h)
912 SEWERAGE ODORS—HOW TO CONTROL
EBOD = effective biochemical oxygen demand,
EBOD = BOD × 1.07(T−20) (mg/L)
d = pipe diameter (m)
T = wastewater temperature ( ◦ C)
s = slope (m/m)
u = stream velocity (m/s)
dm = mean hydraulic depth, equal to area of
flow divided by surface width (m)
P = wetted perimeter (m)
b = width of wastewater stream at the surface
(m)
Odor emission of other compounds present in the
sewage, like hydrogen sulfide, increase with increased
turbulence of flow. The solubility of the odorant,
concentration, temperature, pH, and mass transfer
coefficient are all factors that affect the emission rate
of odorant in the sewer. Weirs, junction chambers, and
holding tanks may represent significant sources of odor.
Odor emissions are dependent on the chemical nature
of the odorant of concern and the composition of
the wastewater. Emissions are also dependent on the
mechanical operating parameters of the sewer. Odor
emissions are of greatest concern when odorants are in
close proximity to receptor populations. Nuisance odors
are often reported because pressurization of the sewer
atmosphere results in odorant emissions from manholes,
house vents, and other structures. Pressurized conditions
can result from inverted siphons, drop structures,
discharges of forces mains, reductions in pipe diameter,
and sags in the sewer that restrict air movement.
Odor control measures are designed to prevent the
formation of hydrogen sulfide or remove hydrogen sulfide
from sewer exhaust. Prevention of hydrogen sulfide
formation is usually accomplished by either improving
oxygen transfer or the addition of chemical or microbial
additives to the sewer.
ODOR PREVENTION
Improving Oxygen Transfer
Ventilation of the sewer system can be improved through
proper maintenance or the addition of appurtenances
to increase the rate of oxygen transfer. Sewer system
ventilation is a dynamic parameter that varies with
Table 1. Typical Costs for Increasing Oxygen Transfer in 2003 Dollarsa
Small Air
Injection
Condition System
Flow, m3 /d 3,785
Pipe diameter, cm 25.4
Pipe length, m 1,600
Air pressure, kPa 158
Air flow, m3 /min 2.5
Oxygen required, kg/d NA
Capital cost, $ 37,000
Oxygen cost, $/yr NA
a
Update by the Consumer Price Index from 1984 dollars (1).
change in barometric pressure along the sewer, wind
velocities past vents, sewage drag, sewage flow rates,
and the relative density of sewer and outside air. Partial
blockages of flow and buildup of the slime layer within
the sewers significantly affect ventilation and increase
hydrogen sulfide emissions. These conditions can be
mitigated through a regular program of inspections and
cleaning. Regular cleaning has been shown to temporarily
reduce the rate of sulfide buildup, particularly when
sewage deposit buildups are problematic (2).
Oxygen can be transferred mechanically into the sewer
to increase the dissolved oxygen concentration in the
wastewater and reduce hydrogen sulfide generation. Air or
oxygen may be directly injected into the sewer. The rate of
air flow required for odor reduction with direct air injection
depends on the oxygen uptake rate, detention time in the
downstream sewer, temperature and pressure, and degree
of odor control required. Direct air injection rates utilized
in practice in the United States are highly variable,
but typical ranges are 0.75–2.25 m3 air/m3 wastewater
or 0.7–1.3 m3 /h/cm-pipe-diameter. Other appurtenances
used to increase oxygen transfer into the wastewater
include venture aspirators, air lift pumps, U-tube injection
lines, and pressurized air tanks, which are described
in more detail in the referenced literature (1–8). The
costs associated with air injection are illustrated in
Table 1.
Additives
A variety of chemical additives have been employed to
reduce odors from sewers and wastewater treatment
facilities. The additives reduce hydrogen sulfide emissions
by chemical oxidation, microbial inhibition of sulfate
reduction, precipitation, and pH control. The most effective
chemical additives for control of sewage odors have been
chlorine agents, peroxides, and metal salts.
Chlorine has been used effectively to control hydrogen
sulfide emissions from wastewater. Chlorine may be
added to wastewater as hypochlorite or as chlorine gas.
Hypochlorite solutions may be used for small chlorine
dosages, but chlorine gas is more cost effective when
2.3 kg/d of chlorine or more is required. Chlorination
systems are designed based on the level of sulfide control
required, the characteristics of the wastewater, and the
degree of process control required. Sulfide is oxidized to
Large Air Small Oxygen Large Oxygen
Injection Injection Injection
System System System
37,850 3,785 37,850
61.0 36 76
1,600 1,600 1,600
158 NA NA
15.3 NA NA
NA 93 310
96,000 35,000 89,000
NA 16,000 35,000
 SEWERAGE ODORS—HOW TO CONTROL 913

sulfate in wastewater when excess chlorine is present: is represented by

HS− + 4Cl2 + 4H2 O −−−→ SO4 − + 9H+ + 8Cl− Fe2+ + 2Fe3+ + 4HS− −−−→ Fe3 S4 + 4H+

At least 8.87 parts by weight of chlorine are required to
oxidize sulfide according to the above equation. However,
higher dosages are required in full-scale applications due
in part to limitation on the amount of mixing. Field
application rates typically required 10–15 kg Cl2 /kg H2 S.
Full-scale studies should be performed for a period of
several weeks to ensure adequate odor control is achieved
based on the control system and chlorine dose. Chlorine
feed rates may be optimized through monitoring residual
chlorine, sulfide, and wastewater flow rate. Table 2
illustrates the typical costs associated with chlorine
injection systems.
Hydrogen peroxide has been utilized to oxidize
hydrogen sulfide and reduce odorous emissions from
sewage. The hydrogen peroxide oxidation occurs rapidly
and excess peroxide results in a higher dissolved oxygen
concentration. Hydrogen peroxide is also an attractive
reagent because it can be used for gravity and pressurized
sewers, feed systems are relatively simple, and peroxide
provides effective sulfide control for up to 4 h.
The chemical mechanism of sulfide oxidation is
dependent on the pH of the wastewater:
For pH < 8.5 :H2 O2 + H2 S −−−→ S + 2H2 O
For pH > 8.5 :4H2 O2 + S− −−−→ SO4 − + 2H2 O
The stoichiometric peroxide dose required is 1 g H2 O2 /g
H2 S. Dosage varies with the BOD, pH, and temperature
of the wastewater and the hydraulic characteristics of
the sewer. Typical peroxide dosages in practice range
from 0.9 to over 3.0 g H2 O2 /g H2 S. The peroxide dose
can be optimized by monitoring wastewater flow rates,
sulfide concentrations, and chemical feed rates. The costs
associated with peroxide addition systems are shown in
Table 2.
Many metal ions react with dissolved sulfides to form
insoluble salts that precipitate from the solution. Iron and
zinc salts have been added for control of sulfur emission.
The proposed mechanism of sulfur removal with iron salts
The overall removal mechanism can be expressed as
FeSO4 + H2 S −−−→ FeS + H2 SO4
Stoichiometric removal of sulfur requires 1.6 g Fe/g H2 S
removed. Actual dosages require field testing to optimize
the iron dose required for the desired odor reduction. The
costs associated with iron injection for hydrogen sulfide
control are shown in Table 2.
Nitrates, alkalis, ozone, and potassium permanganate
have been utilized for short-term odor control measures.
These additives have been shown to help control short-
term odor problems and spikes in odor at specific locations
that require only small doses of the additives. However,
these chemicals have not been cost effective for long-term
sulfide control in large sewers.
Biological additives have been marketed to help
control odor emissions from sewage. These products
may alter the metabolism of existing microorganisms
or be ‘‘designer’’ microorganisms that out-compete odor-
producing microorganisms and thus reduce emissions.
Metabolic modification with anthraquinone products has
been effective in treating small diameter pipes and force
mains where there is a large slime layer or septic
sediments are problematic. The product is cost effective
when used as a preventative measure for small lines
with high sulfide concentrations and slow moving gravity
lines. Recommended dosages are based on the surface
area of the slime layer and are approximately 0.24 kg
of the product per 1000 m2 of surface area. Nitrate and
metabolic modifiers may be a cost-effective combination
for minimizing odors.
ODOR REMOVAL
If odor prevention is not cost effective or sufficient to
control nuisance odors, various odor control technologies
are capable of removing odorous compounds exhausted
from confined sources. The most common technologies for

Table 2. Typical Costs for Chemical Additives in 2003 Dollarsa

Chlorine Injection Hydrogen Peroxide Iron (FeSO4 )
Condition System Injection System Injection System

Flow, m3 /d 3,785 3,785 3,785

[H2 S], mg/L 5 5 5
Dose, mg/L 30 10 23
Capital cost, $ 32,000 44,000 18,000
Chemical cost, $/yr 25,000 37,000 23,000

Flow, m3 /d 37,850 37,850 37,850

[H2 S], mg/L 5 5 5
Dose, mg/L 30 10 23
Capital cost, $ 71,000 89,000 23,000
Chemical cost, $/yr 243,000 335,000 230,000
a
Update by the Consumer Price Index from 1984 dollars (1).
914 SEWERAGE ODORS—HOW TO CONTROL
treating sewer-related odors are carbon adsorption, biofil-
tration, absorption, ozonation, and thermal oxidation.
Four major factors need to be considered to select and
design a cost-effective system to remove odorants from
exhaust air. The concentration and composition of the
odorants in the air stream must be determined from
sampling and laboratory analysis. The flow rate of the
exhaust air stream must be minimized. The cost associated
with the control technologies, both capital and operational
costs, must be considered. Selection and design of control
technologies should include pilot scale testing to ensure
odors are adequately removed. Experience and judgment
are inherent and necessary parts of designing an effective
odor control system.
Adsorption Systems
Carbon adsorption systems utilize the attractive van
der Waals forces on porous granulated activated carbon
(GAC) surfaces to capture and contain organic pollutants.
GAC systems are commonly applied to a wide variety
of odor control situations due the simplicity of design,
low capital costs, and minimal maintenance requirements.
Carbon adsorption systems are ideal for small applications
dictated by space and low capital investment.
The activated carbon acts as a capture and control
device. The odorants adhere to the surface of the GAC and
eventually consume all available surface sites. The mass-
transfer zone (MTZ), where odorants are being removed,
gradually moves from the inlet side of the carbon bed
to the outlet side. As time passes and more odorants
are adsorbed, the amount of spent carbon increases.
Breakthrough occurs when the zone of mass transfer
reaches the exit of the carbon bed and there is no longer an
excess of active carbon sites available. When the carbon
adsorption bed efficiency decreases, as the bed nears
saturation, the carbon must be replaced or regenerated.
The vendor of the material typically regenerates the GAC
off-site.
Monitoring of the carbon adsorption system is critical
to prevent and detect breakthrough of the odorants as
the bed nears the end of its useful life span. Regular
monitoring of the system allows accurate measurement
of cycle times and service contracts should be created to
minimize episodes of poor efficiency. The capital costs,
illustrated for two different air flow rates in Table 3, and
the operational costs may be considerable.
Biological Control Systems
Biofilters have been used for many years in the United
States for odor control and have a reputable history
Table 3. Typical Costs for Odor Removal from Confined Space Exhaust Air in 2003 Dollarsa
Air Flow Adsorption Biofiltration
Rate,
m3 /min Capital Annual Capital Annual
28 53,000 11,000 17,000 500
280 227,000 85,000 158,000 5,000
a
Update by the Consumer Price Index from 1984 dollars (1).
for odor control in many European countries. Odorants
are degraded by microorganisms in the biofilter. Odorant
removal occurs in a thin liquid film or biofilm. The end
products of the degradation are carbon dioxide, water,
biomass, and (when removing high concentrations of
hydrogen sulfide) sulfuric acid. Because biotrickling filters
have the ability to ‘‘store’’ the contaminants as a food
source, they are often applied to situations that have
variable influent loading rates.
Biofilters represent a low cost alternative for treating
low concentration, high volume exhaust streams as
shown in Table 3. The capital and operational costs
for biofiltration systems are relatively low. In addition,
biofilters produce no secondary waste if properly operated,
except for periodic media replacement. Historically,
biofilters were limited in their application due to variable
removal efficiencies caused in part by their intolerance
to fluctuation in air flow rates, concentrations, and
temperatures. In addition, biofilters typically require a
very large area footprint compared to other types of organic
control technologies.
Absorption Systems
Absorption systems or scrubbers involve the selective
transfer of the odorants from the gas phase to a contacting
liquid. The odorants must have preferential solubility
in the liquid. The soluble odorants diffuse from the gas
through a gas–liquid interface and the odorants are
dispersed in the liquid.
Absorption systems are ideal for controlling water-
soluble odorants, such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and
organic acids. The soluble pollutants must be continually
destroyed or treated to maintain operational efficiencies.
For both ammonia and hydrogen sulfide removal, the
pH of the system must be continuously monitored and
controlled. Absorption systems are sometimes combined
with chemical additives to increase aqueous phase
reaction rates. Absorption systems are often used to
remove large quantities of hydrogen sulfide prior to a
second stage scrubber or carbon bed used to remove
less concentrated odorants such as mercaptans and
volatile acids, which without treatment would result in
nuisance odors.
Ozone Contactors
Ozone is utilized for odor control in the exhaust air as
well as preventing odors from forming in the wastewater.
Sufficient time and ozone concentrations are required in
the contacting chamber to ensure adequate ozone removal.
Detailed ozone reaction mechanisms are complex and
Absorption Ozone
Contactor Thermal Oxidizer
Capital Annual Capital Capital
69,000 4,000 54,000 56,000
136,000 35,000 120,000 91,000

highly dependent on the chemical composition of the
treated wastewater or air stream. Examples of overall
reactions of ozone with hydrogen sulfide, amines, and
mercaptans are illustrated by
major pathway
H2 S + O3 −−−−−−−−→ S + H2 O + O2
minor pathway
H2 S + O3 −−−−−−−−→ SO2 + H2 O
R3 N + O3 −−−→ R3 NO +O2
(amine oxide)
CH3 SH +O3 −−−→ CH3 S − SCH3
Methyl
mercaptan
+O3 −−−→ CH3 SO3 H +O2
methyl sulfonic
acid
Ozone is an unstable gas that must be produced on-site.
Ozone is typically generated by corona discharge, which
requires significant electrical consumption and excess
heat. Three to four ppm of ozone are required in the
exhaust air to sufficiently control odors. Reaction times,
typically in the range of 10–60 s, vary widely depending
on the degree of control required, odorant concentration,
humidity, and ozone concentration. The ozone dosage must
be controlled to minimize the discharge of unreacted ozone
or excess ozone can be discharged into the wastewater.
Occupational and environmental health and safety aspects
must be considered due to the potential exposure to ozone
and electrical currents. Typical costs for ozone contactors
are provided in Table 3.
Thermal Oxidation Systems
Thermal oxidation systems reliably maintain nearly com-
plete destruction of odor-causing compounds. Thermal
oxidizers are designed based on operating temperature,
residence time, and turbulence or mixing in the reac-
tor. Temperature requirements for destruction range from
typical design temperatures of 480 to 870 ◦ C. Thermal oxi-
dation systems can maintain high destruction efficiencies
even with wide fluctuations in concentration. However,
thermal oxidation systems do not tolerate wide flow rate
fluctuations well. Thermal oxidation systems also con-
sume large quantities of fossil fuels and as a result they
are sources of nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and possibly
acid gases for sulfur-containing waste streams. Further-
more, thermal oxidation systems are typically run 24 h/d
due to the long start-up and shut-down times required
for operation.
The volumetric flow rates of the fuel and air streams
along with the size of the reaction chamber are important
to ensure adequate retention time and destruction
efficiency. For low concentration air streams, additional
make-up air is not necessary if there is sufficient oxygen
in the polluted air stream to maintain combustion. A
mass balance and enthalpy balance should be performed
to estimate the required fuel flow rate to maintain the
desired operational temperature.
Fuel costs make up the majority of operational costs
and must be considered in order to select the most
cost-effective treatment systems. Adequate design and
SEWERAGE ODORS—HOW TO CONTROL 915
operation of thermal oxidation systems is dependent on
the temperature, the residence time of the gas, and
turbulence or mixing within the reaction chamber. These
variables are dependent on one another. The kinetic
rate constants increase exponentially with temperature.
Reaction times on the order of 0.1–0.5 s are usually
sufficient to allow the reactants to reach the desired degree
of chemical destruction. Turbulence within the reaction
chamber ensures sufficient mixing. Therefore, a higher
reaction temperature results in a shorter residence time,
a smaller combustion chamber, and lower capital costs. A
higher residence time lowers the operating temperature,
results in less fuel usage, and in higher capital costs.
The operational costs versus capital investment should
be considered during selection and design of thermal
oxidation systems. Factors that should be considered when
determining the capital costs illustrated in Table 3 include
the materials of construction, instrumentation, costs
of heat exchangers, engineering fees, and construction
fees.
CONCLUSION
Odor control requires a comprehensive maintenance pro-
gram, preventive measures to reduce odor control costs,
and possible implementation of control systems where
sewage odor is a nuisance. Research, experience, and
comprehensive testing programs are important for deter-
mining the most cost-effective odor control methods.
Regardless of the technologies implemented, there are
ongoing costs for preventing and controlling odors that
must be included in the operational budget of the wastew-
ater authority.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. US EPA. (1985). Design Manual, Odor and Corrosion Control
in Sanitary Sewerage Systems and Treatment Plants. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
2. Thistlewayte, D.K.B. (1972). The Control of Sulphides in
Sewerage Systems. Ann Arbor Sciences and Publishers, Ann
Arbor, MI.
3. WEF. (2004). Control of Odors and Emissions from Wastewater
Treatment Plants. WEF Manual of Practice No. 25, Water
Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA, pp. 5–7, 133–146,
239–293.
4. Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F.L., and Stensel, H.D. (2003).
Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, 4th Edn.
Metcalf and Eddy/McGraw Hill, Boston, pp. 1650–1693.
5. Pomeroy, R.D. and Bowlus, F.D. (1946). Progress report on
sulfide control research. Sewerage Works J. 18(4): 597–640.
6. WPCF. (1976). Chlorination of Wastewater. Manual of Practice
No. 4, Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, DC.
7. WPCF. (1969). Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm
Sewers. Manual of Practice No. 9, Water Pollution Control
Federation, Washington, DC.
8. Duggan, S.W. (1980). A Perspective on Hydrogen Sulfide in
Sewers. Presented at New Jersey Water Pollution Control
Association Technology Transfer Seminar, November 19, 1980.
916 ULTRAFILTRATION—COMPLEXATION IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
ULTRAFILTRATION—COMPLEXATION IN
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
RAFFAELE MOLINARI
PIETRO ARGURIO
Universitá della Calabria
Rende, Italy
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
General
Wastewater treatment represents one of the most
important fields of study today in the wide subject of
pollution problems solving. A ‘‘rational hydrologic resource
management’’ is necessary because of the world’s increased
demand of water, particularly in these last years, owing
to a lack of this resource (1). As a result, the main
challenge is to create new resources and to fully reuse the
existing ones (2). In particular, water frequently contains
numerous ionic solutes, many of which are not desirable,
and it is used either for residential or industrial purposes.
In the last fifty years, pressure-driven membrane
processes have become a routine technique for the removal
of environmentally relevant and hazardous substances
from aqueous systems (3–10). A membrane can be
defined as a selective barrier between two phases (5,11).
Transport through the membrane takes place when
a driving force is applied. The main goals of such
processes are: a) concentration of a solute by removing
the solvent, b) purification of a solution by removing
nondesirable components, and c) fractionation of liquid
or gaseous mixtures.
The separation of solutes with ionic dimensions can be
accomplished by using the reverse osmosis operation, but
this will result in high operative costs, low permeate flow
rate, and low ions selectivity. In order to overcome these
problems, the hybrid ultrafiltration-complexation process
was introduced (12–17). It was named polymer-assisted
ultrafiltration (PAUF) or polymer-enhanced ultrafiltration
(PEUF). This process can be applied for various purposes
such as the treatment of waste effluents, groundwater, and
seawater (13–15,18,19). The advantages of this method
are the low energy requirements involved in UF, the
conceptual simplicity, the modularity typical of membrane
processes, the high permeate flow rate, the high removal
efficiency because of effective binding while reducing the
initial waste volume significantly, the selectivity achieved
when an appropriate complexing agent is considered, and
the optimal quality of treated water (6,16,20–22).
The separation process will be successful if the
polymer meets the following requirements: good solubility,
high selectivity, regeneration possibility, chemical and
mechanical stability, low toxicity, high molecular weight
with low viscosity, and low cost (12).
The complexation-ultrafiltration technique is mainly
applied today in the separation of metal ions from aque-
ous solutions, covering processes ranging from production
of potable water to leaching and recovery of metals from
washing water of contaminated soil or from ores to detox-
ification of process water and wastewater, also for water
recycling and reuse (23–27). Indeed, metal contamination
is a dangerous cause of water pollution and it constitutes a
big health hazard (28–34). Some metal ions play an essen-
tial role in many biological processes, and their deficiency,
unusual accumulation or imbalance, may lead to biological
troubles, e.g., Cu2+ ion is an essential nutrient, but when
people are exposed to copper levels of above 1.3 mg/l for
short periods of time, stomach and intestinal problems
occur. Long-term exposure to Cu2+ leads to kidney and
liver damage (35,36), producing DNA mutation, evidence
of its cancerogeneous character.
In the following, the application of PAUF technique
is reported with particular focus on metal removal
from water.
Historical Background
In 1980, Nguyen et al. (37) considered the application
of ultrafiltration to the concentration and separation of
solutes of low molecular weight in water. Their results
showed a high rejection of these species by complexing
them with a suitable soluble macromolecule. Furthermore,
they demonstrated that it is possible to separate a specific
cation from a mixture by using a polymer that shows a
marked selectivity for one cation.
Another similar approach was published in 1982
by Renault et al. (38), which studied the recovery of
chromium from effluents by using ultrafiltration.
In 1984, Buffle and Staub (39) gave a fundamental con-
tribution to increase research interest on PAUF method
with a work in which they applied the ultrafiltration
for measurement of complexation equilibrium constants
of metal ions in water in natural conditions. Thus, the
coupling of the terms complexation and ultrafiltration
was used.
In successive years, several research efforts were made
to study mainly the technical and economical feasibility of
PAUF to meet the limits fixed by pollution laws for metal
removal from water of various origins.
Tabatabai et al. (17) studied the feasibility in the
removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions from hard water by using
the sodium polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) polymer (water
softening). They demonstrated (with some economical
considerations) that the PSS needs to be recovered from
the retentate and regenerated appropriately to be reused.
Juang and Shiau (20) studied the metal removal from
aqueous solutions using chitosan-enhanced membrane
filtration, and in two other works (2,40), Juang and
Chiou considered the problem of technical feasibility
on the use of PAUF for brackish water softening and
wastewater treatment by using three weakly basic, water-
soluble polymers like chitosan, polyethylenimine (PEI),
and poly(diallyl dimethylammonium chloride) to remove
ions like Ca2+ , Mg2+ , Na+ , K+ , Cu2+ , and Zn2+ .
An et al. (28) evaluated the ability of crab shell
(practically chitosan) to remove heavy metals from
aqueous solutions by comparison with several sorbents.
They found, for crab shell heavy metals, removal capacity
higher than cation exchange resins, zeolite, powered
activated carbon, and granular activated carbon. Besides,
this process is selective, removing Pb and Cr in preference
to Cd and Cu.
 ULTRAFILTRATION—COMPLEXATION IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT 917

Barron-Zambrano et al. (23) investigated the separa-
tion of mercury from aqueous solutions using PEI as
polymeric complexing agent. They considered the develop-
ment of a two-stage process: The first one enables mercury
concentration and the production of a purified stream,
whereas the second one was required to separate the mer-
cury from the polymer and to recycle the polymer (chemical
regeneration).
Steenkamp et al. (35) considered the copper(II) removal
from polluted water with alumina/chitosan composite
membrane, giving attention prevalently to the problems
related to the synthesis of the composite support and to the
factors that influence metal removal efficiency, like pore
radii variation with temperature and powder mixtures
used and chitosan coating thickness.
Vieira et al. (41) studied the metal removal from
wastewater of the pulp and paper industry. Zakrzewska-
Trznadel et al. (42) tested the application of PAUF for
radioactive waste processing purposes. Their results
showed that this process could be an alternative to
reverse osmosis.
Canizares et al. (18) studied a semicontinuous labora-
tory-scale application of polymer-enhanced ultrafiltration
for the recovery of lead and cadmium from aqueous
effluents. They emphasized that this process includes two
stages: a) metal retention, where a permeate stream free
of heavy metals is obtained and b) polymer regeneration,
where the polymer is regenerated in order to be reused.
The pH for metal retention and polymer regeneration and
the binding capacity to know the metal amount that can
be treated are also important parameters.
FUNDAMENTALS OF POLYMER-ASSISTED
ULTRAFILTRATION
The idea of the PAUF process is that ultrafiltration
can be used for removal of ions from aqueous streams,
provided that they are preliminarily bound to water-
soluble polymers (2,12,43,44). The unbound ions pass
through the membrane, whereas the polymers and their
complexes are retained (13,14,42,45).
Low-molecular-weight species such as metal ions can be
bound to macromolecules by intermolecular forces, mainly
ionic interaction and complex binding, or the combination
of both.
Formation of complexes is significantly more selective
than ionic interactions. An example of this binding mech-
anism is the complexation reaction among the polymeric
agent (PEI), the proton (H+ ), and the metal cation (Cu2+ ),
which is represented by the equilibrium equations:
− Permeate
PEI + n H2 O ←
−−−
−−
→− PEIHn+
n + n OH (1)
PEI + a Cu2+ ←
−−−
−−
→− PEICu2a+
a (2)
commercial PEI, widely used in literature, has a polymeric
chain of MW 60 kDa and considering that a monomeric
unit –CH2 –CH2 –NH–has MW 43.062 Da, n = 1393 is
obtained (30).
An ionic interaction mechanism can be described, for
example, in the removal of dihydrogen arseniate ion with
a polymer R+ Cl− , by the following reactions:
R+ Cl− ←
−−−
−−
→− R+ + Cl− (3)
+ −
R + H2 AsO4 ←
−−−
−−
→− RH2 AsO4 (4)
This is an ion-exchange reaction, similar to that which
takes place in anion-exchange resin. In another case,
the water-soluble polymers polyacrylic acid (PAA) and
polyacrylic acid sodium salt (PAASS) interact with
copper cation by ion-exchange reactions, described by the
following equations:
PAA + n Cu2+ ←
−−−
−−
→− PAACun + 2n H+ (5)
← +
−−−
−−− PAACum + 2m Na
2+
PAASS + m Cu → (6)
Ionic exchange interaction mechanism has low selectivity
and the disadvantage to release another ion (H+ or Na+
in this case) in the feed solution, so that to remove an ion
from an aqueous solution, another one must be released.
In contrast, reactions such as in Eq. 2 do not present this
disadvantage.
It should be taken into account that, in general, solid
resins and water-soluble polymers have similar functional
groups, which would result in similar chemical properties,
e.g., the ability to bind certain ions. These analogies in the
properties can be used in order to predict the behavior of
an unknown hydrophilic polymer if the properties of the
functional group of the resin are known.
The PAUF process can be economically more feasible if
the polymer could be regenerated, releasing the metal to
separate, and be reused. The general scheme of the overall
process is represented in Fig. 1.
Polymer regeneration could be carried out by three
major methods (12):
1. Chemical regeneration means the change of pH of
the retentate in order to cleave the polymer–metal
bond (21,30,46);
2. Electrochemical regeneration means the electrolysis
of the retentate resulting in a deposition of the
metal on an electrode, whereas the polymeric agent
remains in the solution (44);
Membrane
Feed
Complexation
Step

Retentate
where 0 ≤ n ≤ n and 0 ≤ a ≤ a with n equal to the
number of monomers contained in a single polymeric
chain and a representing the maximum complexation Regeneration By product
n to dispose
ratio of the polymers with copper ions (a = for PEI-
4 Recycle
Cu complex because of Cu2+ tetra-coordination with
four nitrogen of PEI). In particular, considering that Figure 1. Flowsheet of PAUF separation process.
918 ULTRAFILTRATION—COMPLEXATION IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
3. Thermal regeneration could be also possible if the
polymer-metal bond can be cleaved by heating the
retentate, but it has found no practical application
so far.
SOME STUDIES OF PAUF IN THE REMOVAL OF METAL
IONS FROM AQUEOUS SYSTEMS
In the following, attention will be focused on the appli-
cation of the complexation-ultrafiltration process in the
removal of the model ion copper(II) from aqueous systems,
using water-soluble polymers as chelating agents.
Copper(II) Removal from Water by Using Polyethylenimine
(30)
The mechanism of the water-soluble polymer PEI—copper
interaction can be described by the previously reported
equilibrium reactions (1) and (2). In those reactions, a
competition exists between Cu2+ and H+ for the polymer
because, depending on pH, the PEI is able to complex
copper ions by means of Eq. (2), but, at low pH, it stays in
aqueous solution in the PEIHn+ n form incapable to interact
with copper.
Thus, the first step in the application of the complexa-
tion ultrafiltration technique consists in the determination
of optimal chemical conditions (pH) for copper complexa-
tion (bound) and de-complexation (release) at isothermal
conditions (e.g., temperature of 25 ◦ C). To quantify the
copper-polyethylenimine (Cu-PEI) complex formation, the
spectrophotometric technique was used by reading at
620 nm wavelength.
The complexation-decomplexation process was quanti-
fied by plotting vs. the pH the complexation percentage
C% = (ABS/ABSmax ) × 100, where ABSmax is the maxi-
mum value of the absorbance that corresponds the maxi-
mum amount of complex (100%). The results, reported in
Fig. 2, show that PEI is able to complex copper ion at pH
6 or higher, whereas the decomplexation happens at pH
< 3.
Similar results were obtained by working at different
polymer concentrations observing that maximum binding
pH does not depend on polymer concentration. This
behavior agrees with the chemical mechanism of polymer-
copper interactions (Eqs. 1–2). Indeed, at high pH, the
complexation reaction (2) takes place.
To determine the binding capacity of PEI (maximum
copper amount (mg) that can be complexed by a fixed
amount (1 g) of polymer), some complexation tests were
carried out with a polymer concentration of 150 mg/l and
changing copper concentration at a fixed pH (∼6). The
Table 1. Some Characteristics of the UF Membranes Tested in the PAUF Process
Membrane
Type Material
Iris 10 Poly ether sulphone (PES)
FS 40 PP Fluoride-polypropylene
GR 40 PP Polysulphone-polypropylene
Iris 30 Poly ether sulphone (PES)
PAN 40 Polyacrylonitrile
120
100
80
C%
60
40
20
0
2 4 6 8 10
pH
Figure 2. Cu-PEI complex formation C%(= (ABS/ABSmax ) ×
100) vs pH in complexation tests of PEI (150 mg/l) with copper
(50 mg/l).
obtained value of the binding capacity was 0.333 mg
Cu2+ /mg PEI. It must be observed that a high-binding
capacity means a lower cost of the PAUF process.
Ultrafiltration tests were carried out by using five
different membranes (Table 1), two operative trans-
membrane pressures (2 and 4 bar), pH ca. 6, and five
different weight concentrations of PEI and Cu2+ with the
same ratio (150/50, 270/90, 375/125, 480/160, 600/200).
Working at increasing PEI and Cu2+ concentrations
and maintaining the same ratio, it is permitted to simulate
the increase of retentate concentration in a hypothetical
industrial plant where the permeate, free of metals, is
withdrawn using the PAUF technique.
It was obtained that simultaneously increasing copper
and polymer concentrations (ratio PEI/Cu2+ = 3 fixed) in
the retentate, the separation efficiency (R%) decreased,
resulting in an increase of copper and polymer concen-
trations in the permeate and a little decrease of permeate
flux. As a result of increased concentration in the retentate,
rejection first decreased, but then increased, because of the
formation of a selective dynamic layer (by concentration
polarization), which caused a little decrease of permeate
flux too, because of mass transfer resistance increase.
It should be observed that an optimal PAUF process
should produce a high permeate flux (JP ) and a low
copper concentration (Cp ). So, in order to compare
membrane performances, an appropriate parameter Jp/Cp
was introduced. This parameter has no dimensional
significance, but it answers the previous requirements
to optimize PAUF processes by choosing the membrane
that gives the highest ratio.
To evaluate the possibility of polymer regeneration,
some UF tests were carried out (operative conditions:
Cut-off Water Flux [l/h × m2 ]
(kDa) Producer (2–4 bar)
10 Tech-Sep 33.85–55.00
40 Dow 220.0–397.7
40 Dow 220.0–444.3
30 Tech-Sep 114.2–207.3
40 Tech-Sep 291.1–528.9
 ULTRAFILTRATION—COMPLEXATION IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT 919

PEI = 150 ppm; Cu = 50 ppm; pH = 3) withdrawing the 120

permeate at established time and analyzing copper and
TOC (Total Organic Carbon) concentrations. Obtained 100
data showed that all the copper passed through the 80
membrane, whereas the polymer remained in the
PAA

C%
retentate (rejection of 95% with PAN 40 kDa membrane); 60
PEI
that means a good possibility of polymer regeneration,
40 PDEHED
recovery, and reuse.
20
Comparison of Copper(II) Removal from Waters by Using
Various Polymers (21) 0
2 4 6 8 10
Some water-soluble polymers, such as polyetilenimine pH
(PEI), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyacrilic acid sodium salt
Figure 3. Comparison of Cu-polymer complex formation C%
(PAASS), and poly(dimethylamine–co–epichlorohydrin– (= (ABS/ABSmax ) × 100) vs pH in complexation tests of PEI
co–ethylenediamine) (PDEHED) as chelating agents (150 mg/l), PAA (150 mg/l), and PDEHED (150 mg/l) with
(Table 2), have been tested by using the Cu2+ as model ion. copper (50 mg/l).

Optimal Chemical Conditions. For PAA and PAASS, an

ionic interactions mechanism, such as the equilibrium
reactions (5) and (6), occurs. It is influenced by the pH:
at low pH, the protonation of carboxylic group of the
polymer is favored, whereas at higher pH complexation,
the reaction is shifted right, meaning macromolecular
complex formation with the metal ion. The interaction
between the copolymer PDEHED and copper ion is
more complicated: both the lone pair of the nitrogen in
dimethylamine and ethylenediamine monomers and the
oxygen of epichlorohydrin could bind copper with both
complex bond and ionic interactions.
From Fig. 3 it can be observed that copper ion is
complexed by PEI, PAA or PAASS, and PDEHED at pHs
higher than 6, 4.6, and 8, respectively. The decomplexation
reactions took place at pH < 3.
Binding capacity was 0.333 mg Cu2+ /mg polymer for
PEI and PAA. At pH 8.5, working with a polymer concen-
tration of 50 mg/l and changing copper concentration, a
binding capacity of 2 mg Cu2+ /mg PDEHED was obtained;
at higher ratios, a cloud solution was observed, probably
because of limited complex solubility.
Ultrafiltration Tests. Ultrafiltration tests were realized
at two transmembrane pressures (2 and 4 bar), by
using five different membranes, and determining flux and
rejection. Copper concentration was fixed at 50 mg/l to
simulate the treatment of the same pollution load.
The results, summarized in Table 3, show that the
fluxes (JP ) obtained with the PDEHED are lower than
that registered using PEI and PAA. Regarding the
separation efficiency, measured by R%, this is in the order
PDEHED > PAA > PEI. This behavior could be caused
by the higher membrane fouling and/or polarization
concentration caused by the copolymer.
Inspection of membranes at the end of the experimental
runs showed a thin layer on the filtering surface: the cake
was cerulean with the color of polymer-copper complexes,
and it appeared like an incrustation in the case of
PDEHED, whereas for PAA and PEI it was a simpler
deposit easily removable.
The polymer PDEHED is useful if the objective of
wastewater treatment is to obtain a complete copper
removal. In opposition, the polymer PAA with the

Table 2. Some Polymeric Binding Agents

Average
Molecular
Weight
Polymer General Formula (kDa)

Polyacrylic acid (PAA) 100

CH2 CH

COOH n
Polyethylenimine (PEI) CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 60
NH NH NH NH
Polyacrylic acid, sodium salt (PAASS) 30
CH2 CH

COONa n
Poly(dimethylamine-co-epichlorohydrin- 75
CH3
co-ethylenediamine)
+
(PDEHED) N CH2 CH CH2 NH CH2 CH2 NH
Cl−
CH3 OH
n
920 ULTRAFILTRATION—COMPLEXATION IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Table 3. Results of Ultrafiltration Tests Using: PEI (150 mg/l) and Cu++ (50 mg/l) at pH = 6.2; PAA (150 mg/l) and Cu++
(50 mg/l) at pH 4.6; PDEHED (50 mg/l) and Cu++ (50 mg/l) at pH = 8.5
PANGKSS PANGKSS UTC 60
Membrane Iris 10 kDA Iris 30 kDa HV3/T HV2/T ROPUR

Pressure
Polymer [bar] Jp [l/hm2 ] R% Jp [l/hm2 ] R% Jp [l/hm2 ] R% Jp [l/hm2 ] R% Jp [l/hm2 ] R%

PDEHED 2 93.08 100.0 110.0 99.9 122.7 99.9 131.2 99.9 50.8 100.0
4 55.0 99.9 67.7 99.9 71.9 99.8 71.9 99.8 50.8 100.0
PEI 2 120.58 99.0 156.5 98.7 241.2 99.1 253.9 99.1 29.6 99.9
4 173.47 98.9 232.7 98.5 262.3 98.7 262.3 98.6 63.5 99.9
PAA 2 105.78 99.1 156.5 98.3 258.1 99.5 275.0 99.6 25.4 100.0
4 143.85 99.5 190.4 99.3 220.0 99.5 215.8 99.5 50.8 99.9

membrane PAN GKSS HV2/T can be used when very
low metal concentration is not required because of the
higher flux (rejection 99.6% and permeate flux 275 l/h·m2
at 2 bar). Indeed, it is better operating at transmembrane
pressure of 2 bar rather than at 4 bar because the little
increase of the permeate flux obtained at steady state for
PEI and PAA polymers does not justify the higher costs
(e.g., electrical energy and cooling).
Data of the optimization parameter Jp /Cp for the
transmembrane pressure of 2 bar, for the PEI and PAA
polymers, showed that PAN GKSS membranes gave the
best combination of the two parameters. Furthermore,
a higher Jp /Cp for PAA was registered, meaning more
interesting performances in copper removal from waters.
The optimization parameter for PDEHED has no practical
significance, in this case, because of copper concentration
next to the zero.
Membrane Washing and Reuse. The possibility of mem-
brane reuse in the complexation-ultrafiltration process
was evaluated by carrying out three UF runs in series
by using the polymer PDEHED, which gave the highest
fouling. Each run was composed by four steps in sequence:
1. membranes characterization;
2. UF test carried out until reaching steady-
state conditions;
3. washing of membranes and system with tap water
for 2 hours without recycle (open loop);
4. washing of membranes and system with 20 l of
demineralized water without recycle; and
5. return to (1).
Steps 3 and 4 were carried out at maximum cross flow and
minimum transmembrane pressure to avoid further cake
compaction during membrane washing.
The results showed that, after a flux decrease was
observed in the second run, membrane performance
remained the same in the third run, which is interesting
for a long-time use of the same membrane.
CONCLUSION
The experimental work available in the literature on
the PAUF process show that satisfactory results were
obtained by applying it in the separation and concentra-
tion of metallic cations from wastewaters. This technique
combines both the advantages of classical adsorption
(i.e., ion exchange and complexation interactions) method
for metal removal from aqueous systems and of mem-
brane processes.
The chemical fundamentals of the process have to
be preliminarly studied in order to find the optimal
chemical conditions of: 1) pH for the metal retention
stage (complexation) and for the polymer regeneration
stage (decomplexation) and 2) polymer-binding capacity
(loading ratio = g metal/g polymer).
These results have to be transferred in the realization
of the two stages of metal separation and recovery
process: (1) metal retention, where a permeate stream
free of heavy metals can be obtained, and (2) polymer
regeneration, where the polymer is regenerated in order
to be recycled.
Several factors influence the separation of the target
substance, such as membrane type, composition of
water to treat, pH, binding capacity of the polymer,
polymer adsorption on the membrane (fouling), and
hydrodynamics.
The complexation-ultrafiltration technique could be
competitive in the near future provided a significant
knowledge on the main process parameters are realized:
(1) design and preparation of polymeric binding agents
with the desired properties (good solubility, high selec-
tivity, regeneration possibility, chemical and mechanical
stability, low toxicity, high molecular weight with low
viscosity, and low cost); (2) proper membrane choice;
(3) accurate approach to the fluid dynamics and to the
chemistry of the process; (4) appropriate study of poly-
mer regeneration; and (5) appropriate study on membrane
washing and reuse.
The complexation-ultrafiltration process is a relatively
new separation technique, but the results reported in
the literature clearly indicate its potential in wastewater
treatment with some reasonable technological improve-
ments.
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