Week 1

Introduction to
technology in
language teaching
and learning
 Significance of Technology
in Language Education
Computer technology has enjoyed decades of use in
the field of second and foreign language education,
but efforts to integrate technology have at times
presented various challenges to educators due to
rapid advances in technology and occasional changes
in language teaching methods. To provide some
background on the use of technology for language
training, this chapter will begin with a brief look at the
history and evolution of the technologies and teaching
approaches that have influenced computer-assisted
language learning (CALL) over the years, followed by a
discussion of recent developments, namely MALL
(mobile-assisted language learning) and RALL (robot-
assisted language learning). The opportunities and
challenges presented by technology use in language
education will then be identified, and an example will
be provided for the application of a particular
technology. Finally, the chapter will conclude with
comments on the future of technology use in
language education.

2
The Development
Technology in education

CALL

MALL

RALL

AND MANY MORE TO COME.

3
 A Brief History
of
Language
Learning
Technology

expand their communication skills years, beginning as far back as

Many people around the world are
and pursue personal enrichment. ancient history all the way up until
utilizing technology to lear n
But have you ever wondered how today. Since there is a very clear
languages. Whether it be on their
language learners were able to digital divide created by the 1980s,
phone through Duolingo, in the car
pursue a new language in the age this first article will focus on pre-
with a favorite podcast, or online
before smartphones? In this two home computer technology, and
through Transparent Language, this
part article, we will be looking at the following article will look at how
unprecedented access to
how technology for language our digitized world has made
technology has allowed a new
learning has evolved throughout the language learning a pursuit
generation of language learners to
available to almost anyone.

4
 Although books are now as commonplace and everyday
as any object you can imagine, there once was a point
when it was considered the height of technology! The
Gutenberg printing press in many ways represents a
radical shift unprecedented until the arrival of computers
today. With the rapid creation of books, and therefore the
rapid sharing of knowledge, it was suddenly considered
an incredibly important scholarly pursuit for the noble
classes to learn Latin, until the 16th century the language
of religion, politics, and other scholarly pursuits. As Latin
fell out of favor for more vernacular tongues in day-to-
day proceedings, it was considered a noble art to pursue
another foreign language, in particular French or Italian in
Medieval Europe
Actually introduced in the 1600s, the Magic Lantern (a
predecessor to today’s) continued the idea of the
importance of images in learning, but now with the ability
to have images move, and providing a way to allow the
teacher to easily change the images. Now, instead of the
teacher relying on each student being able to find the
correct image in their textbook, they can instruct their
students all at once by projecting an image onto the
screen. This also allowed the opportunity for teachers to
do more with storytelling, especially an adept teacher who
could turn the Magic Lantern into a moving

We also see during this time the beginnings of modern

theory, many ideas which are still in use today. According
to Oxford’s Encyclopedia of Education, John Amos
Technology continued to evolve from these basic
Comenius, a Czech philosopher, established a Latin
principles, such as slide projectors eventually replacing
curriculum, Orbis sensualium pictus, that utilizes many of
the Magic Lantern and white boards replacing slates, but
the same pedagogical ideas that we see today. In
there is still one fundamental piece of the puzzle missing.
particular, Comenius stressed the importance of including
If communication is the key to language learning, how
visuals and inducing sensations as part of students truly
are students supposed to be able to listen and speak in
being able to understand a language. As anyone who has
an authentic manner? Books could be reproduced,
ever been in a language classroom can attest, having
visuals can accompany, and eventually photographs can
students visualize and sense the language, through sight,
show students authentic representations of the lands
sound, and more, is still very much en vogue.
they were learning the language of, but how are students
expected to today.

5

In the pioneering days of CALL, the dominant
approaches to language teaching focused on structure
and form. An example of one such approach was the
audiolingual method, which emphasized the teaching of
grammar. The audiolingual method was heavily
influenced by the theories of prominent structural
linguists and behaviourist psychologists in the 1940s
and 1950s, and it remained the method of choice for
many years,
6
Warschauer (2000) divided the history of CALL into
three phases: i) structural (1970s to 1980s), during
which tutorials were developed for use on mainframe
computers to provide learners with drill-based
grammar practice for the purpose of accuracy; ii)
communicative (1980s to 1990s), during which
personal computers were used for communicative
exercises for the purpose of accuracy and fluency;
and iii) integrative (21st Century), during which
multimedia and the Internet have been used to
expose learners to authentic language for the purpose
of accuracy, fluency, and agency. Davies, Walker,
Rendall, and Hewer (2012) renamed the stages as
follows: i) Dumb CALL (1970s to 1980s) due to the
lack of sound and video capabilities at the time; ii)
Multimedia CALL (1990s onwards); and iii) Web CALL
(1993 onwards), which was used at first for more
behavioristic activities due to the limited capabilities of
the web, but allowed more interaction as sound and
video quality improved with the advent of Web 2.0.
Changes to Warschauer’s phases were also
proposed by Bax (2003), to better reflect attitudes
toward the integration of technology throughout the
history of CALL.
Some years later, although there is
evidence that technology is being
used to a lesser or greater degree
depending on the context, it
appears that there is still some
distance to go before full
integration (Bax, 2011; Godwin-
Jones, 2015). Language education
experts generally agree that the
holy grail in terms of the use of
technology in language education
is normalisation, defined by Bax
(2003) as “the stage when a
technology is invisible, hardly even
recognised as a technology, taken pedagogy are inseparably Portfolios, electronic dictionaries,
for granted in everyday life” (p. interwoven.” 
intelligent tutoring systems,
23), when computers in all shapes The options for technology use
grammar checkers, automatic
and sizes will be used “without have expanded considerably since
fear or inhibition, and equally the early days of CALL. In their speech recognition, network-based
without an exaggerated respect for review of over 350 empirical social computing, and mobile and
what they can do. They will not be studies focused on language portable devices. Presently, there is
the centre of any lesson, but they learning technologies, Golonka et a keen interest in mobile-assisted
will play a part in almost all… They al. (2014) examined the language learning (MALL) and
will go almost unnoticed” (p. 24). effectiveness of a diverse range of growing interest, as well, in robot-
Garrett (2009) concurred that, technologies, among them assisted language learning (RALL).
ideally, language educators should learning management systems These terms are briefly discussed
aim for “a dynamic complex in (LMS), interactive white boards, e
which technology, theory, and

7
MALL

The computers in the early days of CALL. Many language

teachers have not yet learned how to tap into the
opportunities for communication, collaboration, project-
based and task-based learning that mobile devices afford
(Burston, 2014; Godwin-Jones, 2017b). Furthermore, due
to lack of guidance (Brick & Cervi-Wilson, 2015; Godwin-
Jones, 2016), learners generally limit the use of mobile
devices, in terms of their language learning, to online
dictionaries and translation tools (Brick & Cervi-Wilson,
2015). reveals that learners at different levels of language Caption
proficiency use mobile devices, particularly smartphones,
for language learning purposes. This usage appears likely Mobile devices offer convenient access to technology
to increase as technology to achieve desired language for all learners, but they are especially useful for
learning outcomes and as learners become more adept at distance language learners (Demouy et al., 2016;
designing their own learning activities (Brick & Cervi- Godwin-Jones, 2017b); as well, they are a powerful tool
Wilson, 2015; Burston, 2014; Chwo, Marek, & Wu, 2016; for migrants and ref่ has been described as behaviorist
Demouy, Jones, Kan, Kukulska-Hulme, & Eardley, 2016; and teacher-centered (Burston, 2014;more teachers
Godwin-Jones, 2016, 2017b). learn how to better leverage mobile

8
 Godwin-Jones, 2017b). Furthermore, due to lack of
guidance (Brick & Cervi-Wilson, 2015; Godwin-
Jones, 2016), learners generally limit the use of
mobile devices, in terms of their language learning, to
online dictionaries and translation tools (Brick &
Cervi-Wilson, 2015).

RALL

Inspired by AI (artificial intelligence) technology

(Kessler, 2018), the research and development of
RALL started around 2004 in a small number of
Asian countries (Han, 2012). Robots have since
proven to be an effective tool for motivating children
to learn in foreign language learning contexts where
it is often difficult to find native-speaking teachers of
the target language (Han, 2012; Hong, Huang, Hsu,
& Shen, 2016; Vogt, de Haas, de Jong, Baxter, &
Krahmer, 2017). One of the challenges with this
technology, however, is its limited ability to recognize
children’s speech (Vogt et al., 2017). Since the
concept is still in its infancy, considerable research is
needed in the area of RALL to ensure that robots are
designed to meet the needs of learners and teachers
in different language learning contexts (Han, 2012;
Hong et al., 2016).

9
As the brief history and evolution of CALL above
illustrate, technology use in language learning
has progressed considerably since its humble
beginnings, but it is still far from full integration.
The sections below discuss the opportunities and
challenges related to the use of various
technologies in language education.
Opportunities
The following list offers an overview of some of
the affordances of technology for language
education:
• Enables multimodal language activities in which
reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills are
integrated, not isolated, thereby accommodating
the strengths of different learners (Blake, 2016;
Felix, 2008)
 collections of authentic language) that can be used
• Reduces language learning anxiety (Hong et al.,
2016) and increases motivation and participation
(Felix, 2008; Kessler, 2018), e.g., through game-
based activities and opportunities to be creative,
such as via mashups and digital storytelling
(Kessler, 2018)
 and simulations, and telepresence or
• Enables learners to collaborate, co-construct
knowledge, and build communities (Kessler,
2018; Reinders & White, 2016)

10
• Allows learners to construct a new social identity
online which may give them confidence to interact
with native speakers, i.e., to find a medium
between their first language and the target
language (Blake, 2016; Garrett, 2009; Godwin-
Jones, 2015; Kern, 2006; Kessler, 2018)

• Facilitates individualized learning experiences for
learner-centered instruction (Kessler, 2018), in
which learner analytics is expected to play an
increasing role as the ability to monitor and track
students’ progress increases (Adams Becker,
Rodriguez, Estrada, & Davis, 2016; Kessler, 2018),
e.g., with adaptive learning tools like the online
language learning platform Busuu (Adams Becker
et al., 2016) and intelligent language tutors like
Chatbot Lucy (Wang & Petrina, 2013)

• Enables access to big data such as corpora (large
by teachers to create authentic learning activities
(Godwin-Jones, 2017a; Kessler, 2018)

• Enables immersion in authentic contexts via the
use of immersive technologies such as virtual
reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), online games
videoconferencing tools (Adams Becker et al.,
2016; Blyth, 2018; Godwin-Jones, 2014)

• Develops learner autonomy (Kessler, 2018;
• Enables localization (situated learning) and
Reinders & White, 2016) and allows informal
personalization via the use of mobile devices
learning experiences that empower learners
(Godwin-Jones, 2016), as with the MASELTOV
(Adams Becker et al., 2016; Godwin-Jones, 2017b; Incorporating the use of several which technological
project (http://www.maseltov.eu/), proved
Jones et al., 2017) applications allows for students tothe participate in
effective in accommodating language
• Allows learners to explore and engage in higher-order thinking, enhance
learning and settlement needs communication,
of migrants in
meaningful, authentic language practice with native engage
Europein(Jones
collaborative problem-solving activities
et al., 2017)
speakers via computer-mediated communication •and discussions, critically reflect on content and
Facilitates one-on-one language advising/
(CMC) tools (Blake, 2016; Garrett, 2009), such as expand digitalsupport
competencies
language between(Schindler
teacherset and al.,
texting, chats, e-mail, online discussions, blogging, 2017  ). Studies haveaccess
compared differences in
students via online (Reinders & White,
wikis, and web-based word processing, e.g., academic
2016). achievement between students who
Google Docs (Kessler, 2018) have been taught with technological
• Enables computer-adaptive testing, which improves enhancement (i.e. lecture recordings and
test security and prevents cheating (Chapelle & podcasts) and those who been taught without it.
Voss, 2016) The results demonstrated that students who
• Allows for real-time feedback on assessments learned academic content in the technology
(Chapelle & Voss, 2016) enhanced classroom outperformed those who
• Enables automated feedback on written tasks via learned the content without technology (Carle,
automated writing evaluation and chatbots, which Jaffee & Miller, 2009 ). Performance was greater
can be created by teachers for text chat practice; in the intervention group in all objectively graded
also enables spoken feedback via automated assessments which include papers, midterm/final
speech recognition (ASR) (Golonka et al., 2014; exam scores and individual assignments. Other
Kessler, 2018), although a few reservations have research has demonstrated that implementing
been expressed concerning the effectiveness of technology into the classroom enhances student
ASR for some language learners (Blyth, 2018; motivation to understand and complete tasks
Chapelle & Voss, 2016; Golonka et al., 2014; Vogt (Mistler-Jackson & Songer, 2000).
et al., 2017)

11
 assessments which include papers, midterm/final exam
scores and individual assignments. Other research has
demonstrated that implementing technology into the
classroom enhances student motivation to understand
and complete tasks (Mistler-Jackson & Songer, 2000).
Challenges
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory has always
played a tremendous role in the development and use
of CALL, but this is perhaps the greatest hindrance to
the use of Challenges f CALL, but this is perhaps the
greatest hindrance to the use of technology in the
teaching of languages other than English, particularly
less commonly taught languages. Because SLA theory
originated in the field of English as a Second Language
(ESL), it applies to some extent to commonly taught
languages like Spanish and French that are closely
related to English, but it does not apply to languages
that are very different, especially those with a non-
Roman script (Garrett, 2009; Godwin Jones, 2013).
According to Sauro (2016), studies published in four
CALL journals during the four-year period from 2012 to
2016 focused on 16 languages, including one artificial
language and one Native American language. English
was identified as the focus of 64% of the studies. In her
commentary, Sauro, a teacher and CALL practitioner in
a teacher education program in Sweden, referred to a
12
2015 influx of about 163,000 refugees, over 35,000
of whom were unaccompanied minors, and all of
whom needed to learn Swedish.
Much existing CALL research did not apply to
teaching Swedish; as a result, the pre-service
teachers with whom she worked were not convinced
of the relevancy of the literature to their context.
Sauro and her pre-service teachers were further
disappointed to find that although Swedish was one
of the languages featured on the popular, free
language learning platform, Duolingo, the user
interface was English, making it inaccessible for
anyone who did not know English. An overwhelming
focus in CALL literature on technology use for the
purpose of English language instruction has been
viewed by others as a prevailing issue (Garrett,
2009; Golonka et al., 2014).
Studies have revealed that instructors believe there
is insufficient time in class to deliver content and
teach digital competencies to students (Kirkscey,
2012). While many instructors feel they they have
adequate training and are comfortable with teaching
students to use technology, there is simply not
enough time to do so. Other barriers to technology
implementation within the classroom are limited
technical ability of students, lack of funding, feelings
of isolation when learning, difficulty connecting with
peers, distraction with other applications and setting
boundaries between class and personal life (Sun et
 al., 2016  ). However, with mindful pedagogical
strategies, instructors can overcome these barriers
and use technology to enhance student engagement
and success.
Much existing CALL research did not apply to
teaching Swedish; as a result, the pre-service
teachers with whom she worked were not convinced
of the relevancy of the literature to their context.
Sauro and her pre-service teachers were further
disappointed to find that although Swedish was one
of the languages featured on the popular, free
language learning platform, Duolingo, the user
interface was English, making it inaccessible for
anyone who did not know English. An overwhelming
focus in CALL literature on technology use for the
purpose of English language instruction has been
viewed by others as a prevailing issue (Garrett,
2009; Golonka et al., 2014).
The following presents additional challenges with
technology use in language education, a few of
which are common to other teaching disciplines.
13
• Godwin-Jones (2016) observed that exposure to
different types of online genres provides
opportunities for learners to become acquainted
with informal language not typically found in
textbooks. Kern (2006) found this somewhat
problematic in that “CMC language is often less
correct, less complex, less coherent than other
forms of language use” (p. 194) and that learners
might lack the ability to distinguish between
standard and non-standard uses of language; thus,
he advised teaching students appropriate registers
(levels of formal and informal language) for
different communicative contexts. Chapelle and
Jamieson (2008) offered similar advice. Blyth
(2018) further suggested that the dynamic nature
of speaker identity in online cultural interaction
requires teachers to help learners make sense of
such language exchanges. Somewhat related,
Haugh (2017) cautioned against learner reliance
on translation tools that might miss cultural
nuances.
• As learning becomes more personalized, teachers
in all disciplines are increasingly required to take
on new roles such as facilitating and guiding
(Adams Becker et al., 2016; Blyth, 2018; Godwin-
Jones, 2015; Kern, 2006; Kessler, 2018; Reinders
& White, 2016). Adoption of new roles may
• disruptive for some (Reinders & White, 2016),
particularly those who lack the know-how to
effectively adapt technology for use in their
specific context (Godwin-Jones, 2015; Kessler,
2018); yet, they will need to take on the
responsibility of researching and testing tools for
learners to use inside and outside the classroom
(Godwin-Jones, 2015, 2016). Godwin-Jones
(2015) suggested that these tasks might be
facilitated by a basic working knowledge of the
design and coding of certain digital tools
(Godwin-Jones, 2015). Such expectations of
teacher autonomy (Reinders & White, 2016) may
seem daunting, but enrolment in a MOOC or
active participation in a community of practice
(CoP) are two recommended ways to gain the
skills and knowledge to ease the process
(Godwin-Jones, 2015).
• To reasonably assess the use of the technologies
they wish to incorporate into their teaching,
teachers need to acquire practical knowledge of
such tools (Brick & Cervi-Wilson, 2015; Godwin-
Jones, 2016); as well, they should be prepared to
train learners, even the most tech-savvy ones, to
14
• use various tools effectively, to reduce anxiety and
cognitive load, and enable achievement of
language learning goals (Chapelle & Jamieson,
2008; Chwo et al., 2016; Felix, 2008; Garrett,
2009; Godwin-Jones, 2015, 2016; Hubbard, 2013;
Kern, 2006; Sydorenko, Hsieh, Ahn, & Arnold,
2017). This is critical for learners of less commonly
taught languages, who should be provided with
resources and training early in their language
learning experience (Garrett, 2009; Godwin-Jones,
2013).
Conclusions and Future Recommendations
To provide the reader with some helpful background
on the use of technology in foreign and second
language education, this chapter commenced with a
brief history of CALL and its evolution over the
years. The succeeding sections focused on the
various opportunities and challenges of CALL, some
of which are shared in common with other subject
areas. Factors that are generally considered in
discussions of technology use in education were
omitted, e.g., institutional policies, infrastructure,
teacher permanency (or lack thereof), student
ownership of mobile devices (Chwo et al., 2016),
financial considerations, and hardware constraints
(Burston, 2014).
 The greatest challenges with technology use in
language education appear to relate to a lack of
studies on a diversity of languages in CALL
research. Also, more studies on technology use for
younger language learners are needed. Perhaps
future research will bring increased focus on these
areas.
In spite of the hurdles that have yet to be
surmounted, this much is evident: in this age of
automation, language teachers need not fear being
replaced by technology. Even as their traditional
roles evolve, they will still be needed to help learners
make sense of the cultural nuances of language. And
such skills will be indispensable as people worldwide
continue to realize the value in learning languages to
increase their options for business and employment
in a globalized economy.
15
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