Definition of welding

According to American Welding Society (AWS), a weld is defined as “a localized

coalescence (the fusion or growing together of the grain structure of the materials being
welded) of metals or non-metals produced either by heating the materials to the required
welding temperatures, with or without the application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler materials.”
Welding is defined as “a joining process that produces coalescence of materials by
heating them to the welding temperature, with or without the application of pressure or by
the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler metal.”
In less technical language, a weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined
combine and form one piece when following conditions are met:
■ enough heat is applied to raise the temperature high enough to cause softening or melting
and the pieces flow together
■ enough pressure is used to force the pieces together so that the surfaces coalesce
■ enough heat and pressure are used together to force the separate pieces of material to
combine and form one piece

Selection of the welding method

The selection of the joining process for a particular welding job depends upon many
factors. No specific rule controls the welding process to be selected for a certain job.
Following are a few of the factors that must be considered when choosing a method:
■ Availability of equipment: Types, capacity, and condition of the equipment that can be
used to make the welds.
■ Repetitiveness of the operation: How many of the welds will be required to complete the
job, and are they all the same?
■ Quality requirements: Is this weld going to be used on a piece of furniture, to repair a
piece of equipment, or to join a pipeline?
■ Location of work: Will the weld be done in a shop or on a remote job site?
■ Materials to be joined: Are the parts made out of a standard metal or some exotic alloy?
■ Appearance of the finished product: Will this be a weldment that is needed only to test
an idea, or will it be a permanent structure?
■ Size of the parts to be joined: Are the parts small, large, or different sizes, and can they be
moved or must they be welded in place?
■ Time available for work: Is this a rush job needing a fast repair, or is there time to allow
for pre- and post-weld cleanup?
■ Skill or experience of workers: Do the welders have the ability to do the job?
■ Cost of materials: Will the weldment be worth the expense of special equipment materials
or finishing time?
■ Code or specification requirements: Often the selection of the process is dictated by the
governing agency, codes, or standards.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Equipment, setup, and operation

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is a welding process that uses a flux-covered
metal electrode to carry an electrical current. The current forms an arc across the gap
between the end of the electrode and the work. The electric arc creates sufficient heat to
melt both the electrode and the work. Molten metal from the electrode travels across the arc
to the molten pool on the base metal, where they mix together. The end of the electrode and
molten pool of metal is surrounded, purified, and protected by a gaseous cloud and a
covering of molten flux produced as the flux coating of the electrode burns or vaporizes. As
the arc moves away, the mixture of molten electrode and base metal solidifies and becomes
one piece. At the same time, the molten flux solidifies, forming a solid slag. Some electrode
types produce heavier slag coverings than others.
SMAW is a widely used welding process because of its low cost, flexibility, portability,
and versatility. The machine and the electrodes are low in cost. The machine itself can be as
simple as a 110-volt, step-down transformer. The SMAW process is very versatile because
the same SMA welding machine can be used to make a wide variety of weld joint designs in
a wide variety of metal types and thicknesses, and in all positions. SMAW is a very portable
process because it is easy to move the equipment, and engine-driven generator-type welders
are available. The process is versatile, and it is used to weld almost any metal or alloy,
including cast iron, aluminum, stainless steel, and nickel.
The source of heat for arc welding is an electric current. The temperature of a welding
arc is dependent on the voltage, arc length, and atmosphere. Most SMAW arcs have
effective temperatures around 6100°C. The voltage and arc length are closely related. The
shorter the arc, the lower the arc voltage and the lower the temperature produced, and as the
arc lengthens, the resistance increases, thus causing a rise in the arc voltage and temperature.
Most shielded metal arc welding electrodes have chemicals added to their coverings to
stabilize the arc. This makes it easier to hold an arc. The amount of heat produced by the arc
is determined by the amperage. The higher the amperage setting, the higher the heat
produced by the welding arc, and the lower the amperage setting the lower the heat
produced. Each diameter of electrode has a recommended minimum and maximum
amperage range and therefore a recommended heat range. If you were to try to put too many
amps through a small diameter electrode it will overheat and could even melt. If the
amperage setting is too low for an electrode diameter, the end of the electrode may not melt
evenly, if at all. Not all of the heat produced by an arc reaches the weld. Some of the heat is
radiated away in the form of light and heat waves. Some additional heat is carried away with
the hot gases formed by the electrode covering. Heat is also lost through conduction in the
work. In total, about 50% of all heat produced by an arc is missing from the weld.

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■ Types of welding currents
The three different types of current used for welding are direct-current electrode
negative (DCEN), direct current electrode positive (DCEP) and, alternating current (AC).
In DCEN, the electrode is negative, and the work is positive. The electrons leave the
electrode and travel across the arc to the surface of the metal being welded. This results in
approximately one-third of the welding heat on the electrode and two-thirds on the metal
being welded. DCEN welding current produces a high electrode melting rate.
In DCEP, the electrode is positive, and the work is negative. The electrons leave the
surface of the metal being welded and travel across the arc to the electrode. This results in
approximately two-thirds of the welding heat on the electrode and one-third on the metal
being welded.
In AC, the electrons change direction every 1/120 of a second so that the electrode and
work alternate from anode to cathode. The rapid reversal of the current flow causes the
welding heat to be evenly distributed on both the work and the electrode, e,g., half on the
work and half on the electrode. The even heating gives the weld bead a balance between
penetration and buildup.

■ Arc blow
When electrons flow, they create lines of magnetic force that circle around the path of
flow. These lines of magnetic force are referred to as magnetic flux lines. They space
themselves evenly along a current carrying wire. If the wire is bent, the flux lines on one
side are compressed together, and those on the other side are stretched out. The unevenly
spaced flux lines try to straighten the wire so that the lines can be evenly spaced once again.
The force that they place on the wire is usually small, so the wire does not move. However,
when welding with very high amperages, 600 amperes or more, the force may actually cause
the wire to move. These uneven flux lines can, in turn, cause the arc between the electrode
and the work to move during welding. The phenomenon and the term "arc blow" refers to
this movement of the arc. Arc blow makes the arc drift like a string would drift in the wind.
Arc blow can be more of a problem when the magnetic fields are the most uneven such
as when they are concentrated in corners, at the ends of plates, and when the work lead is
connected to only one side of a plate. The more complex a weldment becomes, the more
likely arc blow will become a problem. In case of severe arc blow during a weld, welding
should be stopped and corrective measures to control the arc blow must be taken. Arc blow
can be reduced by connecting the work lead to the end of the weld joint, and then welding
away from the work lead. Another way of controlling arc blow is to use two work leads, one
on each side of the weld. The best way to eliminate arc blow is to use alternating current.
Because alternating current changes directions, the flux lines do not become strong enough
to bend the arc before the current changes direction. If it is impossible to move the work
connection or to change to AC, a very short arc length can help control arc blow. A change
in the electrode angle can also help control arc blow.
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■ Types of power sources
Two types of electrical devices can be used to produce the voltage-amperage combination
that arc welding requires. One type uses electric motors or internal combustion engines to
drive alternators or generators. The other type uses step-down transformers. Because
transformer-type welding machines are quieter, more energy efficient, require less
maintenance, and are less expensive, they are now the industry standards. However, engine-
powered generators are still widely used for portable welding.
Generators and alternators both produce welding electricity from a mechanical power
source. Both devices have an armature that rotates and a stator that is stationary. In an
alternator, magnetic lines of force rotate inside a coil of wire that produces AC. In a generator,
a coil of wire rotates inside a magnetic field. A generator produces DC. Alternators can be
smaller in size and lighter in weight than generators and still produce the same amount of
power. Engine driven generators and alternators may run at the welding speed all the time, or
they may have an option that reduces their speed to an idle when welding stops. This option
saves fuel and reduces wear on the welding machine.
A welding transformer uses the alternating current supplied at a high voltage to produce
the low voltage welding power. The heart of these welders is the "step-down transformer"
which takes a high voltage, low amperage current and changes it into a low voltage, high-
amperage current. Except for some power lost by heat within a transformer, the power (watts)
into a transformer equals the power out.

■ Duty cycle
Welding machines produce internal heat at the same time they produce the welding
current. Except for automatic welding machines, welders are rarely used every minute for
long periods of time. The welder must take time to change electrodes, change positions, or
change parts. SMAW never continues for long periods of time. The duty cycle is the
percentage of time a welding machine can be used continuously. A 60% duty cycle means
that out of any 10 minutes, the machine can be used for a total of 6 minutes at the maximum
rated current. When providing power at this level, it must be cooled off for 4 minutes out of
every 10 minutes. The duty cycle increases as the amperage is lowered and decreases for
higher amperages. Most welding machines weld at a 60% rate or less. Therefore, most
manufacturers list the amperage rating for a 60% duty cycle on the nameplate that is attached
to the machine. The duty cycle on welding machines should never be exceeded because a
buildup of the internal temperature can cause the transformer insulation to break down and,
damaging the power source.

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■ Welding accessories
A number of items must be used with a welding machine to complete the setup.
The major items are the welding cables, the electrode holders, and the work clamps.
The terms welding cables and welding leads mean the same thing. Cables to be used for
welding must be flexible, well insulated, and the correct size for the job. Most welding cables
are made from stranded copper wire. Some manufacturers sell a newer type of cable made
from aluminum wires that are lighter and less expensive than copper. Because aluminum as a
conductor is not as good as copper for a given wire size, the aluminum wire should be one
size larger than would be required for copper. The insulation on welding cables will be
exposed to hot sparks, flames, grease, oils, sharp edges, impact, and other types of wear. To
withstand such wear, only specially manufactured insulation should be used for welding cable
to give longer service against adverse conditions. As electricity flows through a cable, the
resistance to the flow causes the cable to heat up and increase the voltage drop. To minimize
the loss of power and prevent overheating, the electrode cable and work cable must be the
correct size. Large welding lead sizes make electrode manipulation difficult.
The electrode holder should be of the proper amperage rating and in good repair for safe
welding. Electrode holders are designed to be used at their maximum amperage rating or less.
Higher amperage values will cause the holder to overheat and burn up. If the holder is too
large for the amperage range being used, manipulation is hard and operator fatigue increases.
A properly sized electrode holder can overheat if the jaws are dirty or loose, or if the cable is
loose. If the holder heats up, welding power is being lost. In addition, a hot electrode holder is
uncomfortable to work with. Replacement springs, jaws, insulators, handles, screws, and
other parts are available to keep the holder in good working order. To prevent excessive
damage to the holder, welding electrodes should not be burned too short. A 2-in. (51-mm)
electrode stub is short enough to minimize electrode waste and save the holder.
The work clamp must be the correct size for the current being used, and it must clamp
tightly to the material. Heat can build up in the work clamp, reducing welding efficiency, just
as was previously described for the electrode holder. Power losses in the work clamp are
often overlooked. The clamp should be carefully touched occasionally to find out if it is
getting hot. In addition to power losses due to poor work lead clamping, a loose clamp may
cause arcing that can damage a part. If the part is to be moved during welding, a swivel-type
work clamp may be needed. It may be necessary to tack weld a tab to thick parts so that the
work lead can be clamped to the tab.

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■ Equipment setup
Arc welding machines should be located near the welding site, but far enough away so
that they are not covered with spark showers. The machines may be stacked to save space,
but there must be enough room between the machines to ensure the air can circulate so as to
keep the machines from overheating. The air that is circulated through the machine should
be as free as possible of dust, oil, and metal filings. Even in a good location, the power
should be turned off periodically and the machine blown out with compressed air.
The welding machine should be located away from cleaning tanks and any other
sources of corrosive fumes that could be blown through it. Water leaks must be fixed and
puddles cleaned up before a machine is used. Power to the machine must be fused, and a
power shutoff switch provided. The switch must be located so that it can be reached in an
emergency without touching either the machine or the welding station. The machine case or
frame must be grounded. The welding cables should be sufficiently long to reach the
workstation but not so long that they must always be coiled. Cables should not be placed on
the floor in aisles or walkways. If cables must cross a walkway, the cable must be installed
overhead, or it must be protected by a ramp. The welding machine and its main power
switch should be off while a person is installing or working on the cables. The workstation
must be free of combustible materials. Screens or curtains should be provided to protect
other workers from the arc light. The welding cable should never be wrapped around arms,
shoulders, waist, or any other part of the body.

Tack welded tab to part To prevent people from tripping, when cables must be placed
in walkways, lay two blocks of wood beside the cables

Slag, chips from grinding, and dust must be blown out

occasionally so that they will not start a fire or cause a
short out or other types of machine failure