MODULE IV

4.1.0 Appreciate the effect of forces on spring

4.1.1 List the types of springs.
4.1.2 Distinguish between closely coiled and open coiled helical spring.
4.1.3 Define the terms spring index and stiffness.
4.1.4 Understand the expressions for deflection, stiffness, torque and energy stored in the
spring.
4.1.5 Calculate the stress induced diameter, deflection and stiffness of closely coiled helical
spring subjected to axial loads.
4.2.0 Appreciate the shear force and bending moment diagrams
4.2.1 Explain types of beams and loading.
4.2.2 Define shear force and bending moment.
4.2.3 Draw bending moment and shear force diagram for cantilever with point load.
4.2.4 Draw bending moment and shear force diagram for cantilever with uniformly distributed
load.
4.2.5 Draw bending moment and shear force diagram for cantilever with point load and
uniformly distributed load.
4.2.6 Draw bending moment and shear force diagram for simply supported beam with point
load.
4.2.7 Draw bending moment and shear force diagram for simply supported beam with
uniformly distributed load.
4.2.8 Draw bending moment and shear force diagram for simply supported beam with point
load and uniformly distributed load.
4.2.9 Calculate the maximum bending moment on the section.
4.2.10 Understand overhanging beam and point of contra flexure.
4.3.0 Compute deflection and slope of beams
4.3.1 Derive the equation for simple bending
4.3.2 Define the slope and deflection.
4.3.3 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of simply supported beam with central
point load.
4.3.4 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of simply supported beam with uniformly
distributed load over entire span.
4.3.5 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of cantilever beam with a point load at free
end.
4.3.6 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of cantilever beam with uniformly
distributed load over entire span.

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4.4.0 Apply the theory of axial loads
4.4.1 Define column and struts.
4.4.2 Distinguish between long and short columns.
4.4.3 Define the terms buckling load or crippling load, effective length and slenderness ratio.
4.4.4 State Euler’s formulae and Rankine’s formula.
4.4.5 Calculate the slenderness ratio, equivalent length and buckling load on columns using
the two formulae under different end conditions.

Content Details
1. Springs
Introduction - types of spring - leaf spring - helical springs - closely coiled and open coiled
helical spring with round wire – spring index - formulae for deflection- stiffness- torque and
energy stored (no proof )
-simple problems on closely coiled helical springs subjected to an axial load to find out stress
induced deflection -stiffness and diameter.
2. Shear force and bending moment
Types of beams - cantilever beam- simply supported beam- over hanging beam- built in beam
or fixed beam and continuous beam - types of loading - concentrated or point load- uniformly
distributed load and uniformly varying load –
Shear force and bending moment diagrams
Cantilever beams - point load uniformly distributed load and combination of point load and
uniformly distributed load –
Simply supported beam - point load- uniformly distributed load and combination of point load
and uniformly distributed load - maximum bending moment on the section.
Introduction to overhanging beam – Point of contra flexure.
3. Deflection of beams
Introduction –derivation of bending equation – M/I = σb /Y = E/R - simply supported beam with
central point load (no proof) - simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load on entire
span (no proof)
- cantilever with a point load at the free end (no proof) — cantilever with a uniformly
distributed load over entire span (no proof) - simple problems on cantilever and simply
supported beams.
4. Columns and struts
Introduction - column- strut- buckling load- equivalent length- slenderness ratio - types of
columns - short column- medium size column- long column - Euler's equations and its
assumption for crippling load for different end conditions (no proof) - both end hinged -one
end is fixed and other is free- one end is fixed and other is hinged- both ends fixed-equivalent
length - Rankine's formulae for columns - simple problems on columns to calculate buckling
load- slenderness ratio- equivalent length on different end conditions.

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 SPRING
SPRING
INTRODUCTION

Springs are elastic members which distort under load and

regain their original shape when load is removed

Or in other words springs are elastic bodies or resilient

members which are used to or absorb energy and to release it
as and when required

They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters,

motorcycles, rickshaws, governors etc.

According to their uses, the springs perform the following

functions:

 To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage

springs.
 To store energy as in clock springs.
 To apply forces to and to control motions as in
brakes and clutches.
.  To measure forces as in spring balances.
 To change the variations characteristic of a
member as in flexible mounting of motors.

The springs are usually made of either high carbon steel (0-7 to 1-0%) or medium carbon alloy steels.
Phosphor bronze, brass, 18/8 stainless steel and monel and other metal alloys are used for corrosion
resistance springs.

Various types of springs are employed for different purposes; some of them are as follows:

Types of springs

Various types of springs can be designed for their purpose and place; but depending upon the type of
resilience, springs may be broadly divided into two categories:

(a) Bending springs (b) Torsion springs.

(a) Bending springs

The types of springs which are subjected to
bending only and the resilience occurs due to
this are called bending springs. Examples are: (i)
Laminated springs (ii) Leaf springs

(b) Torsion springs

The types of springs which are subjected to torsion or twisting only and the resilience occur due to this
is called Torsion springs. Examples: (i) Helical springs

Helical spring is a length of wire or bar wound in to a helix (torsion spring).

There are two types of helical springs: (i) Close coiled helical springs , (ii) Open coiled helical springs

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 (i) Close coiled helical springs
springs:
In this type of spring, the wire is turned so closely that
each turn is nearly right angle to the axis of the spring
and thee pitch distance between two consecutive turn is
small. The bending stress is negligible as compared to
the torsional stress. Helix angle is less than 100
(ii) Open coiled helical springs:
In this type of spring wire is coiled in such a way, that
there is a large gap between two consecutive turns
compared to Close coiled helical springs. The pitch
distance between two consecutive turn is large
compared to the Close coiled helical springs. Helix
angle is greater than 100. As a result of this the spring
can take compressive load al also.

Differences between close coiled and open coiled helical spring

Close Coiled Spring Open Coiled Spring

Wire of the open coiled helical spring is
Wire of the close coiled helical spring is wound
wound not so tightly and thus sufficient
tightly providing no gap between two adjacent
space or gap exists between two adjacent
coils of the spring.
coils.

Helix angle of this spring is usually 10° or below

Helix angle of this spring is more than 10°.
that.

Pitch of spring
ng wire is smaller due to small helix Pitch of spring wire is comparatively larger
angle. as a result of larger helix angle.

Open coiled springs are designed to undergo

Close coiled springs cannot undergo axial
extension and compression; and deflect its
compression. It is designed to resist stretching
length accordingly under the action of axial
and twisting.
load.

This type of spring is commonly used in heavy This type of spring is commonly used in low
duty applications such as: duty applications such as:

 Garage doors  Spring-operated

operated ball point pen
 Vice-grip pliers  Bike shock absorber
 Self-closing door hinges  Certain cam-followers,
followers, valves, brakes and
 Bike or cycle stand spring clutches

Helix angle: Is the angle which the axis of spring wire makes
.
with horizontal line perpendicular to the axis of the spring

Spring
. Index:: is the ratio of mean coil diameter to the
diameter of spring wire

Stiffness: is defined as the load per unit deflection in N/mm

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Consider a closed coil helical spring subjected to an axial load W

 It may be noted that each section of the coil is

under torsion but there are small bending and
shearing stresses which being small are usually
neglected.

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 Shear force and bending moment
Types of beams and loading
A member subjected to external forces which are act at right angles to its longitudinal axis is
called beam.
It is subjected to bending due to external loads.
Unless otherwise stated, all beams may be considered horizontal and straight.
It is important to know the load carrying capacity of beams for designing any engineering
structure.
With the help of Shear Force (SF) and Bending Moment Diagrams (BMD) we can able to
analyse the performance of beam under given loading condition.
Types of Beams
Depending upon the end conditions there are different type of beams. The most common
types are:
a) Cantilever beam,
b) Simply supported beam,
c) Overhanging beam,
d) Continuous beam,
e) Fixed (Restrained or encastred or built-in) beam.
Cantilever beam
A beam which is rigidly fixed at only one end.
When a load is applied to the cantilever a
reaction and a resisting moment are
produced at the fixed end.

Simply supported beam

Both ends are supported. There are vertical
reactions at the supports but no resisting
moments.
Overhanging beam
Projects beyond one or both of its supports
and is subjected to loads outside the supports
as well as between them. There are reactions
at the supports but no resisting moments.

Continuous beam
Beam with more than two supports.

Fixed beam
Both ends rigidly fixed. There are reactions
and resisting moments at the ends.

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Types of Load
The types of load that can be carried by bea
beams
ms can be classified as follows.
1. Concentrated or point load
2. Distributed load
a) Uniformly distributed load, (UDL)
b) Uniformly varying load (triangular load).

Concentrated or point load is one which can be considered to be applied at a point.

Distributed load
A load that is spread along the beam over the entire length or part of its length is called
distributed load.
Distributed load that spread uniformly
iformly (i.e., the rate of loading over the beam is uniform) over
the beam is called uniformly distributed load ((UDL.).
Distributed load that spread no
non uniformly i.e., rate of loading varies from point to point along
the beam is called non-uniformly
uniformly dist
distributed (varying) load.
(If the load is zero at one end and increases uniformly to the other end,
e it is usually referred
as triangular load. )

Definitions:
i. Reactions
A beam loaded externally set up forces at the supports.
These forces at the supports are known as reactions.
The reactions at suppo
support A and B are indicated in below

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 ii. Shear force:
The algebraic sum of the forces acting to the right or left of the section is known as
shear force (SF) at that section.

SF at section XX

F3 - Rb = Ra - F1 - F2
From the above equation, it is clear that

Ra+Rb=F1+F2+F3
i.e., Sum of upward forces = Sum of the downward forces
iii. Bending moment:
The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting to the right or left of the
section is called Bending moment (BM).

BM at section XX

Ra AX - F1 CX - F2 DX

iv. Point of contraflexure

lexure:
A point of contraflexure (or in
inflexion)
exion) in a beam is that point at which the bending
moment is zero or changes sign from positive to negative or vice-versa.
vice
v. Shear force diagram
diagram:
A graph showing the variation of shear force along the beam is called shear force
diagram.
vi. Bending moment diagram
A graph showing the variation of bending moment along the beam is called bending
moment diagram.
Sign Convention:
There is no universally accepted convention for the sign of Shear Force
orce (SF).
For constructing SF diagram we are using following sign cconvention.
Shear force.
SF is positive when the resultant force acting on the portion of the beam to the right of the
section considered acts downward. (i.e., shear forces which tend the portion of the beam
to the right move down and that portion to the left move up are considered positive
positive.)
The Sign convention may
therefore be stated as;

Left-up, Right-down is Positive

ositive.
Left-down, Right-up is Negative.
egative.

Positive (+) SF Negative (--) SF

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Bending moment
The BM will be positive if the resultant moment is
clockwise on the left and anti-clockwise on the
right.
{i.e., BM is positive when it tends to bend the
beam such that its top surface is concave
(sagging).}
The BM is negative, if the resulting moment is anti-
clockwise on the left and clockwise on right.
{i.e., BM is negative when it tends the beam to
bend such that its top surface is convex
(hogging).}

This leads to state the convention as; sagging is positive, hogging is negative.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams:

The values of SF and BM vary from section to section along the beam
Therefore, it is necessary to draw SF and BM diagrams to know variations of these quantities.
The following steps are suggested to draw SF and BM diagrams.
1. Find the reactions at the beam and draw the load diagram with reaction.
2. Draw the vertical lines from the key points through the space below, where SF diagram
will-be drawn.
3. Draw horizontal line (horizontal axis of SF diagram) equal to the length of the beam
Show the units for shear forces on vertical lines
4. Starting from the right end of the beam, plot the graph showing shear force variation
across the entire beam.
5. Compute the BM at key sections; it is important to follow same sign convention
throughout the entire beam.
6. Starting from the right end of the beam plot the graph showing BM variation along the
beam.
Features of S.F and B.M Diagrams:
The following are some general points with regards to shear force and bending moment
diagrams.
1. The bending moment is a maximum when the shear force is zero.
2. SF changes abruptly at points where concentrated loads are applied.
3. SF graph is a straight, horizontal line between concentrated loads (Where there are no
distributed loads) the shear force is constant between concentrated load points.
4. SF graph is a straight, inclined line between points where UDL is applied.

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 SF and BM Diagrams for Cantilever
1. Cantilever with Point Load at Free End
Consider the cantilever beam with a point load at
free
. end as shown in figure (a)
Consider
. section XX at a distance of x from
free end
Shear Force Diagram:
SF At section ‘XX’ = + W ( Right down is + ve)
SF is constant between A and B as there is no
load between these points.
The shear force diagram is shown in figure (b)
Bending Moment Diagram:
BM at section XX = --W. x (Clockwise BM on
right --ve)
The BM is proportional to the distance from free
end.
At x = O, BM=0 and at x=L, BM=--WL
The bending moment diagram is shown in figure
(c)

2. Cantilever with uniformly distributed load

Cantilever with uniformly distributed load of w
newtons per unit length is given here
Consider the section ‘XX’ at a distance x from free
end.
Shear Force Diagram:
Shear force at section XX, Fx = + wx.
Hence the variation of SF follows the linear law.
When x = 0, SF= 0
When x = L, SF = wL.
Bending Moment Diagram :
To calculate BM at any section, it is assumed that
the total load due to U.D.L. acts at the middle of the
loaded part of the beam.
Therefore, BM at section XX,
−w. x. x −w. x
M = =
2 2
The variation of BM follows the parabolic law.
When x = 0, BM =0,
.
When x = L, BM =

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 SF & BM Diagrams for Simply Supported Beams
1. Simply Supported Beam with Central Point Load:
Consider a simply supported beam with central point load
As the load is at the centre of the span, the reactions at supports
1.
RA and RB will be equal to
.
S.F Diagram:
Consider a section 'XX' at a distance 'x'
from B
W
SF at xx, FX =−
2 (right up is --ve)
SF between B and C is constant and
W
equal to ‘−
2
At C, SF changes abruptly due to
concentrated load W
SF after the load at C,

F= W− = +
WL
4
At C, SF changes from − to + and
remains constant between C and A

BM Diagram

BM at section XX, MX = + .x
At B, x=0, BM at B, MB=0

At C, x= BM at C, MC= . =
At A, x= L BM at A, MA= .L−W = 0

 For simply supported beam, BM will be always zero at the supports.

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 2. Simply Supported Beam with Uniformly Distributed Load:

A simply supported beam of span L m With UDL of w M/m over the entire span as shown in
figure
Since the loading is symmetrical,
reaction at supports will be equal to

SF Diagram
Consider a section 'XX' at a distance
'x' from B
SF at xx,
L
FX = x − −
2
At B, x=0, SF at B,
L
FB= RB=−
2

At C, x= SF at C,

L L
FC= − =0
2 2

At A, x= L SF at A,
L
FA= L− =+
2

BM Diagram:
Consider section ‘XX’ at a distance ‘x’ from B
BM at section XX, MX = R . x −
L. x x
= − = (Lx − x )
2 . 2 2
At B, x=0, BM at B, MB=0

At C, x= BM at C, MC= ( − )=
W 2 2
At A, x= L BM at A, MA= 2 ( L − L ) = 0

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Summary:
1. Beam: Member subjected to external forces acting at right angles to the longitudinal
axis.
2. Shear force: The algebraic sum of the forces acting to the right or left of the section.
3. Bending moment: The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting to the
right or left of the section.
4. SF diagram: A graph showing variation of shear force along the beam
5. BM diagram: A graph showing variation of bending moment along the beam.
6. Point
. of. contraflexure (inflexion): Point at which
the bending moment is zero or changes sign from
positive to negative

7. Sign convention:

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4.3.0 Compute deflection and slope of beams
4.3.1 Derive the equation for simple bending
4.3.2 Define the slope and deflection.
4.3.3 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of simply supported beam with central
point load.
4.3.4 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of simply supported beam with uniformly
distributed load over entire span.
4.3.5 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of cantilever beam with a point load at free
end.
4.3.6 Calculate the maximum deflection and slope of cantilever beam with uniformly
distributed load over entire span.

Deflection of beams
Introduction –derivation of bending equation – M/I = σb /Y = E/R - simply supported beam with
central point load (no proof) - simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load on entire
span (no proof) - cantilever with a point load at the free end (no proof) — cantilever with a
uniformly distributed load over entire span (no proof) - simple problems on cantilever and
simply supported beams.

Introduction:
In many engineering structures members are required to resist forces that are applied laterally
or transversely to their axes. These type of members are termed as beam.
There are various ways to define the beams such as
 A beam is a laterally loaded member, whose cross-sectional dimensions are small as
compared to its length.

 A beam is nothing simply a bar which is subjected to forces or couples that lie in a plane
containing the longitudinal axis of the bar. The forces are understood to act
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar.

 A bar working under bending is generally termed as a beam.

Theory of Bending

Transverse loading causes bending

and bending is a very severe form of
stressing a structure.

The bent beam goes into tension

(stretched) on one side and
compression on the other

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Assumptions in Theory of Bending
 The material of the beam is stressed within elastic limit and obeys Hooke’s law.
 The transverse sections which are plane before bending remains plane after bending.
 The material of the beam is perfectly homogenous.
 Each layer of the beam is free to expand and contract independently of the layer, above
or below it
 The value of young’s modulus for the material of beam is same in tension and
compression.

Bending Equations for Beams

Where, M= bending moment,

I=Moment of inertia of the area of cross section.
σ=Bending stress
y=distance of extreme fibre from the neutral axis
E=Young’s modulus
R=radius of curvature.

From the bending equation Or,

where Z is the section modulus

Neutral Axis
This is the axis along the length of the beam which remains unstressed, neither compressed
nor stretched when it is bent. Normally the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the
cross sectional area.

Consider that the beam is bent into an

arc of a circle through angle radians.
AB is on the neutral axis and is the
same length before and after bending.
The radius of the neutral axis is R

(Length of an arc
= radius x angle in radians)
.
Radius of Curvature
Normally the beam does not bend into a circular arc. However, what ever shape the beam
takes under the sideways loads; it will basically form a curve on an x –y graph.

Relationship between Strain and Radius of Curvature

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The length of AB AB = Consider figure there is a layer of material distance y from the
neutral axis and this is stretched because it must become longer.
The radius of the layer is +

The length of this layer is denoted by the line DC. DC= ( + )

This layer is strained and strain () is defined as  = change in length/original length
( )
Substitute AB = and DC= ( + )

The modulus of Elasticity (E) relates direct stress () and direct strain () for an elastic
material and the definition is as follows.
Stress σ
E= =
Strain ε
Substitute strain

It follows that stress and strain vary along the length of the beam depending on the radius of
curvature.
We will now go on to show that the radius of curvature depends upon the bending moment M
acting at any given point along the length of the beam.
Relationship between Stress and Bending Moment
Consider a beam with a consistent shape along its length. An arbitrary oval shape is shown
here.
Think of the beam as being made of many
thin layers of material running the length of
the beam and held together by molecular
forces.
Consider one such elementary layer at a
given point along the length at a distance y
from the neutral axis.

When the cross section is viewed end on it appears as an elementary strip width b and
thickness y.
The cross sectional area is A.
The elementary strip is a small part of the total cross sectional Area and is denoted as A.
The strip may be regarded as a thin rectangle width b and height y so A = b y

The stress on the strip is =

If the layer shown is stretched, then there is a small force F pulling normal to the section
trying to slide the layer out of the material in a lengthwise direction.
This force must be the product of the stress and the area and is a small part of the total force
acting on the section F.

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Consider that the whole beam is made up of many such layers. Some are being stretched and
pull normal to the section and some are compressed and push. The total force acting on the
section is the sum of all these small forces.

In the limit asy tends to zero, the number of strips to be summed tends to infinity. The small
quantities y and A become the differential coefficient dy and dA. The total force is given by
the integration

The expression is by definition the first moment of area of the shape about the centroid.

Evaluating this expression would give zero since any first moment of area is zero about the
centroid.
The centroid in this case is on the
neutral axis.
The areas above and below the
neutral axis are equal.
Half the force is a compressive
force pushing into the diagram, and
half is tensile pulling out.
They are equal and opposite so it
follows that F = 0 which is sensible
since cross sections along the
length of a beam obviously are
held in equilibrium.
The diagram indicates that the two forces produce a turning moment about the neutral axis
because half the section is in tension and half in compression
This moment must be produced by the external forces acting on the beam making it bend in
the first place.
The centroid in this case is on the neutral axis.
The areas above and below the neutral axis are equal.
Half the force is a compressive force pushing into the diagram, and half is tensile pulling out.
They are equal and opposite so it follows that F = 0 which is sensible since cross sections
along the length of a beam obviously are held in equilibrium.
The diagram indicates that the two forces produce a turning moment about the neutral axis
because half the section is in tension and half in compression.

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This
his moment must be produced by the external forces acting on the beam making it bend in
the first place.
This moment is called the bending moment M.
Consider the moment produced by the force on the elementary strip F.
It acts a distance y from the neutral axis so the moment produced is M
 = y F
In the limit as y tends to zero the total moment is found by reverting to calculus again.

The expression is by definition the second moment of area (Moment of Inertia)

about the neutral axis and this is not zero but has a definite value. In general it is denoted by
the symbol I

We may now write the moment as and rearrange it to

This is called the bending equation and it has 3 parts

If the stress is required at a given point along the beam we use either

 This indicates that the stress in a beam depends on the bending moment and so the
maximum stress will occur where the bending moment is a maximum along the length
of the beam.
 It also indicatess that stress is related to distance y from the neutral axis so it varies
from zero to a maximum at the top or bottom of the section.
 One edge of the beam will be in maximum tension and the other in maximum
compression.

Deflection of a Beam: The deflection at any point on the axis of the beam is the distance
between its position before and after loading. (In
In other words the lateral displacement of a
beam under the load is termed as deflection
deflection)

Slope of a Beam: Slope at any section in a deflected b beam

eam is defined as the angle in radians
which the tangent at the section makes with the original axis of the beam.

Flexural Rigidity of Beam:: The Product EI is called flexural rigidity of the beam and is
usually constant along the beam.

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Differential equation for deflected beam

Maximum deflection and slope of simply supported beam with central point load.

A simply supported beam having length L,

carrying a central point load W as shown in
figure

Slope =

Deflection y =

Maximum deflection and slope of simply supported beam with uniformly distributed
load over entire span

A simply supported beam having length L,

carrying a UDL of w N/mm over entire length
as shown in figure

Slope =

Deflection y =

Maximum deflection and slope of cantilever beam with a point load at free end.

A cantilever beam having length L fixed at

A, carrying a point load at free end B as
shown in figure

Slope =

Deflection y =

Maximum deflection and slope of cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load over
entire span

A Cantilever beam having length L, fixed at

A, carrying a UDL of w N/mm over entire
length as shown in figure

Slope =

Deflection y =

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4.4.0 Apply the theory of axial loads
4.4.1 Define column and struts.
4.4.2 Distinguish between long and short columns.
4.4.3 Define the terms buckling load or crippling load, effective length and slenderness ratio.
4.4.4 State Euler’s formulae and Rankine’s formula.
4.4.5 Calculate the slenderness ratio, equivalent length and buckling load on columns using
the two formulae under different end conditions.
Columns and struts
Introduction - column- strut- buckling load- equivalent length- slenderness ratio - types of
columns - short column- medium size column- long column - Euler's equations and its
assumption for crippling load for different end conditions (no proof) - both end hinged -one
end is fixed and other is free- one end is fixed and other is hinged- both ends fixed-equivalent
length - Rankine's formulae for columns - simple problems on columns to calculate buckling
load- slenderness ratio- equivalent length on different end conditions.

Columns and Struts

Any member or structure subjected to axial compressive load is called the Strut.
But in General we classified as
 Column - A Long vertical member subjected to axial compressive load
(Eg: Pillars of a building)
 Strut - An inclined member( Other than Vertical) subjected to axial compressive load
(Eg: Piston rods, Connecting rods)
 A strut may also be a horizontal member
Load carrying capacity of a compression member depends not only on its cross sectional
area, but also on its length and the manner in which the ends of a column are held.
Columns are classified as follows
(1)Short column (2) Medium Column (3) Long Column
Short column
A column for which the slenderness ratio is less than 32 is called short column.
In this failure occurs mainly due to direct compressive stress (crushing) only and the role
of bending stress is negligible
(The columns which have lengths less than 8 times their respective diameter are called
short columns)
Medium Column
A column for which the slenderness ratio is lies between 32 and 120 is called medium
column.
In this failure occurs by a combination of direct compressive stress and bending stress
(Crushing and Buckling).
(The columns which have lengths varying from 8 times their diameter to 30 times their
respective diameter are called medium columns)

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N.S.S Polytechnic College, Pandalam.
 Long Column
A column for which the slenderness ratio is more than 120 is called long column.
In this failure occurs mainly due to bending stress (Buckling) and the role of direct
compressive stress is negligible.
(The columns which have lengths more than 30 times their respective diameter are called
short columns)

Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the length of a column (L) and the radius of gyration (k)
of its cross section
•Slenderness Ratio = L/k

Buckling load, critical load or crippling load

The minimum load at which the column tends to have lateral displacement or tends to buckle
is called buckling load, critical load or crippling load.
The buckling takes place about the axis having minimum radius of gyration or least moment of
inertia.
For a long column the value of buckling load will be less than the crushing load.

The following four types of end conditions are important for columns:-
1. Both ends hinged or pin jointed.
2. Both ends fixed.
3. One end fixed and other end hinged.
4. One end fixed and other end free.

One end fixed and other

One end fixed and other end free
Effective column length (Le) end hinged

The effective column length can be defined as the length of an equivalent pin-ended column
having the same load-carrying capacity as the member under consideration.
If the effective length is smaller for a particular column, the chance of danger of lateral
buckling is less and the load carrying capacity is high.

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 End conditions Effective length (Le)

Both ends hinged or pin jointed.

Both ends fixed.

One end fixed and other end

hinged.

One end fixed and other end

free.

Sign conventions used for bending of the columns

Bending moment with negative sign Bending moment with positive sign
Bending moment which will tend to bend the Bending moment which will tend to bend the
column with its concavity towards its initial column with its convexity towards its initial
central line will be considered as negative central line will be considered as positive

Euler’s Theory
Columns and struts which fail by buckling may be analyzed by Euler’s theory
The following assumptions are made while deriving Euler's formula
1. The column is initially straight and the applied load is truly axial
2. The material of the column is homogeneous and isotropic.
3. The material of the column obeys Hooks law.
4. The length of the column is very large as compared to the cross-sectional area of the
column
5. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length
6. The column is free from initial stress.
7. The direct stress is very small as compared to the bending stress (the material is
compressed only within the elastic range of strains).
8. The column fails only by buckling or bending stress alone
9. The weight of the column is neglected.
10. Pin joints are friction-less and fixed ends are rigid.

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 Relation Between
End conditions Effective length (Le) Crippling Load (P)
and Actual length (L)
Both ends hinged

Both ends fixed.

One end fixed and other

end hinged.

One end fixed and other

end free.

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Limitations of Euler’s Formula
 Euler’s formula is applicable for columns that are initially perfectly straight and the load
is exactly axial, But There is always some eccentricity and initial curvature present. In
practice a strut suffers a deflection before the Crippling load.
 The Euler's formula holds good only for long columns
 This formula is valid up to and certain value of slenderness ratio.
Rankine’s Formula (Rankine - Gorden Formula)
Euler’s formula is applicable to long columns only for which L/k ratio is larger than a particular
value
Also doesn’t take in to account the direct compressive stress.
Thus for columns of medium length it doesn’t provide accurate results.
Rankine devised an empirical relation which is suitable for all columns whether they are short
or long.
1 1 1
= +
Where is the Crippling load.
is the crushing or compressive load.
= . , = Ultimate compressive stress
= Area of Cross section of the column

= Euler’s load

. = Effective length of the column.

.
Rankine Formula
( )
Where,
= Ultimate compressive stress
= Area of Cross section of the column
= is Rankine constant for a material

=Buckling factor
Rankine constant
Material Compressive stress
N/mm2 =
1
Wrought Iron 250
9000
1
Cast Iron 550
1600
1
Mild Steel 320
7500
1
Timber 50
750

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Distinguish between long and short columns
Long Column
 A column for which the slenderness
ratio is more than 120 is called long
column.
 It is generally fails by buckling.
 The columns which have lengths
more than 30 times their respective
diameter are called short columns.
 Slenderness ratio is greater than 120.
 As the height of column increases the
load carrying capacity is less.
 Radius of gyration is less.
 For long column, Euler’s theory will
be applicable.
 Long column is subjected to buckling
stress
Department of Mechanical Engineering.
N.S.S Polytechnic College, Pandalam.
Short Column
 A column for which the slenderness
ratio is less than 32 is called short
column. .
 It generally fails by crushing.
 The columns which have lengths
less than 8 times their respective
diameter are called short columns
 Slenderness ratio is less than 32.
 As the height of column decreases
the load carrying capacity is more.
 Radius of gyration is more.
 For short column, Rankine’s theory
will be applicable
 Short column is subjected to
compressive stress.
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