Macromechanics of composite

materials 8
B.K.O. Cheung, J.P. Carey
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

8.1 Introduction
Macromechanical analyses represent an important step in the design of composite
materials. Single layer laminae, though they exhibit desirable specific stiffness and
strength characteristics, have limited applications due to direction-specific strengths.
However, by combining multiple laminae into a laminate, these weaknesses can be
overcome and composites can be used in applications where they rival the material
properties of traditional metals or plastics. The foundational work in micromechanical
methods [1] and ply mechanic methods [2] underline the framework for composite ma-
terial design, but without macromechanical models, there is little practical application
for these models. The most common of these models, the Classical Laminate Plate
Theory (also known as Classical Laminate Theory), or CLPT as it will be referred
to here, is the starting point for most macromechanical models. CLPT utilizes the
well-defined two-dimensional stress and strain behavior from ply mechanics and
incorporates considerations for fiber orientations and volume fractions.

8.2 Basic concepts

The reader is referred to previous work [2] to familiarize themselves with the general-
ized Hooke’s law and the stress-strain behavior of anisotropic, monoclinic,
orthotropic, transversely isotropic, and isotropic materials. In this section, we will
consider the laminae to be primarily orthotropic, as this is the general assumption
regarding the mechanical behavior of unidirectional laminae.

8.2.1 Lamina and laminate

A lamina is defined as a single layer of unidirectional or woven fibers in a supporting
matrix, typically flat (though it may be curved, as in the example of a composite shell
for a pressure vessel) [3]. A laminate, then, is a collection of laminae, bonded together
to form a single structure. The bonding between each lamina is assumed to be perfect,
infinitesimally thin, and completely resistant to shear deformation. Together they act as
a single structural element, though the combination of fiber orientations within each
lamina will change how the structure resists loading in different directions.

Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100369-5.00008-8

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
308 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials

8.2.2 Coordinate system

The coordinate systems used in this work, shown in Fig. 8.1, are described here for
reference and are the same as those used in other works [1]. The local coordinate sys-
tem will maintain the 1-2-3 axis notation. The 1-2 plane is in the plane of each lamina,
with the 1-axis aligned parallel to the fiber direction and the 2-axis aligned perpendic-
ularly to the fiber direction. The 3-axis is aligned normal to the plane of each lamina, or
more specifically in the case of macromechanics, in the direction of the stacking
sequence of the laminate plies.
For the global coordinate system, the x, y, z coordinate system will be referenced.
Applications of this coordinate system may vary; however, in general the x-y plane will
be reserved to indicate the directions for in-plane loading while the z axis will refer to
the direction normal to the laminate planes, or in the direction of the stacking sequence.
Under the analysis of a single lamina [1], it is not necessary to discuss at length the
third out-of-plane dimension, as typically the only consideration is the thickness of the
unidirectional layer. However, with a more complex arrangement of plies to consider,
it is now necessary to establish a consistent system in order to refer to not only the
thickness of each ply but also the moment contributions of each layer. No longer
is it sufficient to describe the thickness of a laminate ply, but also its orientation and
location in reference to the rest of the composite laminate must be described. Thus,
the third z axis, as mentioned previously, will be established with its origin midplane
with respect to the full laminated plate thickness, with the z axis positive in the
downwards direction, as is convention.
Furthermore, we introduce a subscript notation to this referential z axis in order to
refer to specific surfaces and interfaces within the composite. As seen in Fig. 8.2, the
subscript notation is to reference a specific surface. Each interface is labeled as zk. If
there are N unique lamina layers within the composite, then each dimension zk repre-
sents the bottom surface of the kth layer and zk
1 represents the top surface of the kth
layer, with k ¼ 0,1. N. This notation will be quite useful in developing the full
composite stiffness and bending matrices, as it provides information regarding the
thickness t of each layer (t ¼ jzk
zk
1 j for the kth layer) while simultaneously
describing the position of that layer with respect to the overall composite.

(a) (b) 3

x
2

y
1
z
Figure 8.1 Coordinate system in the (a) global and (b) local orientations.
Macromechanics of composite materials 309

Z0

Z1

Z
Z2

Z3

Figure 8.2 Schematic representing the subscript notation for lamina referencing.

8.2.3 Laminate notation

Since the mechanical system is composed of more than a single unidirectional layer,
it is important to establish a notation in order to refer to the orientation of each of
these layers in a universal manner. In order to transform the coordinates of a unidi-
rectional ply to an off-axis ply at an angle q, the transformation matrix [T] can
be used.
2 3
cos2 q sin2 q 2 sin q cos q
6 7
½T ¼ 6
4 sin2 q cos2 q
2 sin q cos q 7
5 (8.1)

sin q cos q sin q cos q cos2 q
sin2 q

This matrix transforms between the global (x, y, and z) coordinate system and the
local (1, 2, and 3) coordinate system, allowing the stresses and strains to be easily
expressed in either coordinate system. The inverse transform matrix [T]
1 performs
the transformation in the other direction, returning stresses and strains from the local
coordinate system to the global.
2 3 2 3
s1 sx
6 7 6 7
6 s2 7 ¼ ½T6 sy 7 (8.2)
4 5 4 5
s12 sxy

2 3 2 3
ε1 εx
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
6 ε2 7 6 εy 7
6 7 ¼ ½T6
6
7
7 (8.3)
6 7 6 7
41 5 41 5
g12 gxy
2 2
310 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials

(a) y (b) y
2
2

30° x

x 30°

1
Figure 8.3 Two plies oriented at 30 degree, with (a) þ30 degree ply and (b)
30 degree ply.

The angle ply (as it will be referred to) will be designated by the angle by which the
local coordinate system deviates from the global coordinate system, as per the trans-
formation matrix required to orient the coordinate system to be consistent with the
direction of the fibers in the ply. For example, consider the following two angle plies
viewed normal to their 1-2 planes, as shown in Fig. 8.3.
If a global coordinate system is established in the x-y directions as shown, then each
of these plies can be considered a 30-degree angle ply. However, their stress-strain
behavior under load, although similar and symmetric to each other, will be sufficiently
different and further clarification will be needed. To clarify, the angle is then deemed
either a positive or negative rotation, measured counterclockwise from the global x-axis.

8.2.4 Stacking sequence notation

The stacking sequence refers to the order in which the angle plies are arranged in a
laminate and provides the designer with a quick way to reference particular arrange-
ments of laminae in a laminate. A single lamina is designated by an angle q, the
difference between the fiber and global primary axis as mentioned previously. For
example, a [0 /30 /60 ] laminate has a 0 lamina, a 30 lamina, and a 60 lamina
stacked on top of each other. A [30 /0 /60 ] laminate is composed of the same three
laminae, though it will behave differently due to the sequence of laminae.
More complex laminae arrangements can be created by adding subscripts and other
markings to the sequencing to cut down on the length of the full expanded notation.
Different notations and examples of stacking arrangements are shown in Table 8.1.

8.3 Plate stiffness and compliance

In [2], the reduced stiffness and reduced compliance matrices are defined as [Q] and
[S], respectively. Furthermore, it was shown
 that the stiffness of an off-axis angle
ply could be determined by finding Q , the transformed reduced stiffness matrix,
by using the transformation matrix between the local and global coordinates. Herein,
we will build off the basis provided in [2] but consider the contribution from multiple
different layers within a stacked composite material.
Macromechanics of composite materials 311

Table 8.1 Common shorthand notations

Arrangement Shorthand notation Expanded notation

Symmetric [0 /30 /60 ]S [0 /30 /60 /60 /30 /0 ]
  
Split symmetric 0 =30 =60 S [0 /30 /60 /30 /0 ]
Repeating (sequence) [0 /30 /60 ]3 [0 /30 /60 /0 /30 /60 /0 /30 /60 ]
Repeating (single lamina) ½0 =302 =60  [0 /30 /30 /60 ]
Complete (no repeating or [0 /30 /60 /
30 ]T [0 /30 /60 /
30 ]
sequence)
Differing thicknesses ½0t =302t =60t  30 ply is twice as thick as 0 and 60
plies

8.3.1 Normal forces, extensional stiffness, and

bending-extension coupling
The equivalent normal force Nx, acting along the x-axis on a normal surface A, can be
related to the normal stress sx by the following relationship:
Z
Nx ¼ sx dA (8.4)
A

For a macromechanical analysis of the composite laminate, we can first assume a

unit width for the laminate and reduce the equation to just the thickness of the layer:
Z t=2
Nx ¼ sx dt (8.5)

t=2

Or, rewritten in reference to the z axis, it can be shown that the total normal force
acting on the surface of an N-layered composite laminate is:

N Z
X zk
Nx ¼ sx dz (8.6)
k¼0 zk
1

We can include both in-plane and shear directions of force as well for completeness:
2 3 2 3
Nx sx
6 7 N Z
X zk 6 7
6 Ny 7 ¼ 6 sy 7 dz (8.7)
4 5 4 5
k¼0 zk
1
Nxy sxy k
312 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials

The transformed reduced

  stiffness matrix for a single lamina k is given by the
reduced stiffness matrix, Q , which relates the global stresses and global strains of
a lamina under load.
2 3 2 3 2 3
sx Q11 Q12 Q16 εx
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 sy 7 ¼ 6 Q Q26 7 6 7
4 5 4 12 Q22 5 4 εy 5 (8.8)
sxy Q16
k
Q26 Q66
k
gxy

The global strains εx, εy, and gxy can also be represented by a summation of the
strains at the origin εox , εoy , and goxy and the associated laminate curvatures kx, ky,
and kxy, that is:
2 3 2 3 2 3
εx εox kx
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 εy 7 ¼ 6 εoy 7 þ z$6 ky 7 (8.9)
4 5 4 5 4 5
gxy g o
xy kxy

Thus the global stresses can be written as a combination of the strains at the origins
and the curvatures of the laminate as follows:

2 3 2 3 02 o 3 2 31
sx Q11 Q12 Q16 B ε x k x
6 7 6 7 B6 o 7 6 7C
6 sy 7 ¼ 6 Q Q26 7 6 εy 7 þ z$6 ky 7C
4 5 4 12 Q22 5 B
@ 4 5 4 5C
A
(8.10)
sxy Q16
k
Q26 Q66 gxy
o
k
kxy

In terms of the normal forces, the stiffness and strains as related to the global
stresses can be substituted back into the equation of normal forces. Knowing that
the reduced stiffness matrix, origin strains, and curvatures are all independent of z,
the following simple integration remains:

2 3 2 3 02 o 3 2 3 1
Nx ε k
Q Q12 Q16 B x Z x
Z C
6 7 X N 6 11 7 B6 o 7 zk 6 7 zk C
6 Ny 7 ¼ 6Q Q22 7 6 ε
Q26 5 B4 y 5 7 6
dz þ 4 ky 57 z dzC (8.11)
4 5 4 12 @ A
k¼0 zk
1 zk
1
Nxy Q16 Q26 Q66 goxy
k
kxy

Solving and expanding the above, we can achieve the following relationship:
2 3 2 3 2 3
Nx εox kx
6 7 N h
X i 6 o 7 1 N h
X i  6 7
6 Ny 7 ¼ Qij ðzk
zk
1 Þ6 7 z2k
z2k
1 6 7
4 5 k 4 εy 5 þ 2 Qij
k 4 ky 5
k¼0 k¼0
Nxy goxy kxy
(8.12)
Macromechanics of composite materials 313

The layer thicknesses and reduced stiffness matrix are combined into a single
matrix [A], the extensional stiffness matrix, to simplify the analysis.

N 
X 
Aij ¼ Qij ðzk
zk
1 Þ (8.13)
k
k¼1

The second summation, which is second order in reference to the z dimension,

couples the curvatures to the normal forces, is represented by [B], and is known as
the bending-extension coupling matrix.

N   
1X 
Bij ¼ Qij z2k
z2k
1 (8.14)
2 k¼1 k

The [B] matrix is known as the bending-extension coupling matrix as it couples the ef-
fects of extension to laminate bending, as we will see in the following analysis. Thus in
summary, the normal forces acting on a composite laminate can be represented as follows:
2 3 2 3 2 3
Nx εox kx
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 Ny 7 ¼ ½Aij 6 εoy 7 þ ½Bij 6 ky 7 (8.15)
4 5 4 5 4 5
Nxy goxy kxy

Or, in expanded form,

2 3 2 32 3 2 32 3
Nx A11 A12 A16 εox B11 B12 B16 kx
6 7 6 76 o 7 6 76 7
6 Ny 7 ¼ 6 A12 A26 76 7 6 B26 76 7
4 5 4 A22 54 εy 5 þ 4 B12 B22 54 ky 5 (8.16)
Nxy A16 A26 A66 goxy B16 B26 B66 kxy

8.3.2 Bending moments, bending-extension coupling,

and bending stiffness
A similar analysis can be done with the bending reactions of the laminate. As before,
the bending moment, Mx, can be related to the normal stress, sx, acting on the surface
of a lamina and can be written as:

N Z
X zk
Mx ¼ sx $z dz (8.17)
k¼0 zk
1

Note that the only difference between this equation and the previous normal force
equation is the extra z term within the integration. The next steps are the same as with
the normal force analysis, only with this extra z term included. These are not written in
314 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials

detail here but readers are encouraged to test them themselves. The following result is
obtained:
2 3 2 3 2 3
Mx εox kx
6 7 XN h i  6 o 7 1 X N h i  6 7
6 My 7 ¼ 1 Qij z2k
z2k
1 6 εy 7 Qij z3k
z3k
1 6 7
4 5 2 k 4 5 þ
3 k 4 ky 5 (8.18)
k¼0 k¼0
Mxy goxy kxy

Note that the terms in the first half of the equation are identical to the [B] matrix
derived earlier. The “bending-extension coupling” naming of this matrix are quite
apparent here, where the extensional strains are shown directly related to the bending
moments by the single [B] matrix (Eq. (8.14)). The second half of the equation is
a new, third-order equation with respect to the z coordinate, is termed the bending
stiffness equation, and is represented by the [D] matrix.

N   
1X 
Dij ¼ Qij z3k
z3k
1 (8.19)
3 k¼1 k

In summary, then, the bending moments of the laminate plate can be related to the
extensional strains and laminate curvatures by the following equation:
2 3 2 32 3 2 32 3
Mx B11 B12 B16 εox D11 D12 D16 kx
6 7 6 76 o 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 ¼ 6 B12 B26 7 6 7 6 D26 76 7
4 5 4 B22 54 εy 5 þ 4 D12 D22 54 ky 5 (8.20)
Mxy B16 B26 B66 goxy D16 D26 D66 kxy

8.3.3 Complete laminate stiffness matrix

Often, for completion, the [A], [B], and [D] matrices are all included in one, 6  6
matrix commonly referred to as the [ABD] matrix. This matrix contains all the stiffness
information regarding the normal force and moment behavior of the complete compos-
ite laminate and is thus quite useful in describing the expected mechanical behavior of
the laminate under load conditions. All of these stiffness matrices are symmetric, that
is, Aij ¼ Aji, Bij ¼ Bji, and Dij ¼ Dji.

2 N 3 2 32 3
x
A11 A12 A16 B11 B12 B16 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 B26 7 6
76 ε y
7
6 7 6 A12 A22 A26 B12 B22 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 Nxy 7 6 76 go 7
6 7 6 A16 A26 A66 B16 B26 B66 7 6 xy 7
6 7¼6 76 7
6 Mx 7 6 76 7 (8.21)
6 7 6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 D16 7 6 k 7
6 7 6 76 x 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 6 76
D26 76 ky
7
4 5 6
4
B12 B22 B26 D12 D22
54
7
5
Mxy B16 B26 B66 D16 D26 D66 kxy
Macromechanics of composite materials 315

It can often be useful to identify particular elements of this matrix for interpretation
of the predicted laminate behavior. Each of the three subsets of this matrix ([A], [B],
and [D]) are associated with a particular load-strain response, as mentioned previously.
The [A] matrix, or extensional stiffness matrix, represents the in-plane behavior of the
loaded laminate. A16 and A26 are of particular interest, as they represent the in-plane
shear-extension coupling of the laminate, similar to what can be expected of a single
angle-ply lamina. The [B] matrix is the bending-extension coupling matrix, which
couples in-plane extensions to out-of-plane bending behavior. Thus any in-plane
extension will not only deform or shear the laminate as would be expected in a single
lamina, but will also cause the laminate to bend or twist as determined by [B]. These
stiffnesses are also the cause of the twisting and warpage seen postcure from a
composite laminate that has not been designed such to negate the effects of
bending-extension behavior, resulting from the residual stresses during the curing
process, creating internal strains that lead to the bending behavior. Finally, the [D]
matrix represents the bending stiffnesses, with D16 and D26 representing the
bending-twist coupling.

8.4 Design of composite laminates

Having developed a standard notation and knowing the stiffness and compliance
behavior of a composite laminate, we can discuss the potential design opportunities
available with composite laminates. We will begin by discussing the most common
laminate types.

8.4.1 Symmetric laminates

A symmetric laminate is one that is symmetric in both geometry and material proper-
ties about the midplane of the laminate, for example, a [0 /30 /60 /60 /30 /0 ] or
[0 /30 /30 /0 ] laminate. In a symmetric matrix, all Bij ¼ 0, thus only the [A] and
[D] matrices remain.

2 3 2 32 3
Nx A11 A12 A16 0 0 0 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 76 ε 7
6 7 6 A12 A22 A26 0 0 0 76 y 7
6 7 6
6
76
76 go
7
7
6 Nxy 7
6 7 6 A16 A26 A66 0 0 0 76 xy 7
6 7¼6
6
76
76
7
7 (8.22)
6 7
Mx 7 6 76 kx 7
6 0 0 0 D11 D12 D16
6 7 6 76 7
6 7 6
6
76
76 k
7
7
6 My 7 6 76 y 7
4 5 4 0 0 0 D12 D22 D26
54 5
Mxy 0 0 0 D16 D26 D66 kxy

There is no shear-extension coupling in these laminates. Not only does this greatly
simplify loading analyses, but these laminates will not bend or warp after the curing
316 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials

process. In a symmetric laminate, all of the thermally induced strains brought on by the
curing process will be balanced, and the laminate will remain in-plane.

8.4.2 Quasi-isotropic laminates

A quasi-isotropic laminate is one that exhibits isotropic behavior within the in-plane
extensional stiffness of the laminate. In order to create a quasi-isotropic laminate,
the laminate must consist of at least N ¼ 3 unique laminae, with each of those laminae

arranged such that the angle between adjacent laminae is equal to q ¼ 180 N . The
simplest quasi-isotropic laminate that can be manufactured is the [0 /þ60 /
60 ].
Since the in-plane stiffness is then equal, the [A] matrix begins to appear isotropic,
as shown in the reduced [ABD] matrix below.
2 3
A11 nA11 0
6 B16 7
2 N 3 6 B11 B12 72 εo 3
x 6 7
6 76 x 7
6 7 6 nA11 A11 0 B26 7
6 Ny 7 6 B12 B22 76 εoy 7
6 7 6 76
6
7
7
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Nxy 7 6 1
n B66 7 gxy
6 7 6 0 B16 B26 76 7
76 7
0 A11
6 7¼6 2 6 7 (8.23)
6 Mx 7 6 76 kx 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 7 6 D16 7
6 7 6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 76 7
6 My 7 6 76 ky 7
4 5 6 76
4
7
5
6 7
6 B12 B22 B26 D12 D22 D26 7
Mxy 6 7 kxy
4 5
B16 B26 B66 D16 D26 D66

Notice that in the matrix above A22 ¼ A11, A12 ¼ nA11, A66 ¼ 1
n 2 A11 , as the
material approaches isotropy. As well, the shear-extension coupling terms are
removed, as expected in an isotropic material (A16 ¼ A26 ¼ 0). If the material was
fully isotropic, then all Bij ¼ 0 as well as D16 ¼ D26 ¼ 0; however, this confirms
the statement that a quasi-isotropic exhibits isotropy with regards to the in-plane
extensional stiffness.

8.4.3 Balanced laminates

A balanced laminate is one that is composed of pairs of q laminae with identical
thickness and elastic properties, regardless of the stacking sequence. For example, a
laminate composed of 30 and 60 layers could be arranged symmetrically as
a [
30 /30 /60 /
60 ]s laminate. However, a balanced laminate may not neces-
sarily exhibit any such symmetry, as a laminate with a [
30 /30 /60 /
60 ]
sequence would also classify as a balanced laminate, though it is clearly
asymmetric.
Macromechanics of composite materials 317

With a balanced laminate, the shear-extension coupling behavior is removed from

the stiffness matrix by the “balancing” of each of the angle laminae; that is
A16 ¼ A26 ¼ 0. The [ABD] matrix is thus reduced to the following:

2 N 3 2 32 3
x
A11 A12 0 B11 B12 B16 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 B26 7 6
7 6 εy
7
6 7 6 A12 A22 0 B12 B22 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 Nxy 7 6 76 go 7
6 7 6 0 0 A66 B16 B26 B66 7 6 xy 7
6 7¼6 76 7
6 Mx 7 6 76 7 (8.24)
6 7 6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 D16 7 6 k 7
6 7 6 76 x 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 6 76
D26 76 ky
7
4 5 6
4
B12 B22 B26 D12 D22
54
7
5
Mxy B16 B26 B66 D16 D26 D66 kxy

If a balanced laminate is arranged symmetrically, then all Bij ¼ 0 as well, thus

removing the bending-extension coupling behavior of the laminate.

8.4.4 Antisymmetric laminates

A balanced laminate can also be arranged antisymmetrically. An antisymmetric lami-
nate is a special configuration of balanced laminate that consists of balanced pairs of
plies located symmetrically with respect to the midplane of the laminate. For example,
a [30 /
30 /30 /
30 ] laminate is antisymmetric. Antisymmetric configurations do
not remove the bending-extension coupling behavior as a symmetric balanced lami-
nate would but instead remove the bend-twist coupling terms, as D16 ¼ D26 ¼ 0.

2 3 2 32 3
Nx A11 A12 0 B11 B12 B16 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 B26 7 6
7 6 εy
7
6 7 6 A12 A22 0 B12 B22 7
6 7 6
6
76
76 go
7
7
6 Nxy 7
6 7 6 0 0 A66 B16 B26 B66 7 6 xy 7
6 7¼6
6
76
76
7
7 (8.25)
6 Mx 7
6 7 6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 0 7 6 k 7
6 7 6 76 x 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 6 76
0 76 ky
7
4 5 6
4
B12 B22 B26 D12 D22
54
7
5
Mxy B16 B26 B66 0 0 D66 kxy

8.4.5 Cross- and angle-ply laminates

Cross- and angle-ply laminates are of particular interest to the macromechanical
analysis of braided composites, as their configurations best resemble the geometry
and loading behavior of braids. A cross-ply laminate is one that is manufactured
completely out of 0 and 90 plies, while an angle-ply laminate is one composed
completely of pairs of laminae oriented at q (thus the cross-ply laminate is a specific
318 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials

case of angle-ply laminate). These are often manufactured in either symmetric or

antisymmetric configurations, and their advantage is primarily in their simplicity of
construction, as they do not hold any mechanical advantages beyond what has already
been discussed for balanced, symmetric, and antisymmetric configurations.
Two-dimensional braiding, whether in the flat or tubular case, is similar in construc-
tion to an angle-ply laminate. Each of the braiding strands will lie at an angle of q to
the longitudinal axis of the manufactured braid and thus is the best representation of a
braided composite using traditional CLPT formulation. Though a braided composite is
neither truly symmetric nor antisymmetric due to the undulating behavior of the yarns
and interwoven structure, they may exhibit some of the same negating of coupling
behaviors as symmetric or antisymmetric laminates show.

8.5 Conclusion
Composite laminate-based macromechanical models are one more fundamental piece
to modeling and designing braided and other composite materials. Here, we provided
detailed explanations on the development of the key elements that allow predicting the
macrobehavior of composites plates. Designers must have an understanding of the
implication of designing laminates while considering the extensional stiffness,
bending stiffness, and bending-extension coupling matrices; herein, we provided a
number of design examples, as well as one which applies directly to braided
composites.

8.6 Future trends

Improvements to macromechanical models must be done to meet the modeling and
design needs of the textile composite material industries and be tailored to different
composite architectures. For the cases of simple laminates, future trends should focus
on the inclusion of more realistic architectures, consideration of voids, and possibly
include stochastic elements to better appreciate the sources of variability. For textiles,
this work has begun but could still be improved. Such developments are at the core of
Chapter 9 [4] of this book. Work has focused on examining the effect of off-axis strand
paths, strand geometries, and void content, as well as unit cell curvature and ply
thickness. Such work is applicable to different composite textile architectures.

Sources of further information and advice

The development of macromechanical models has been presented in a number of
works. Further development of models is again examined in [4]. Readers can refer
to the following list of books for additional information on the fundamental aspects
of macromechanical modeling. These include, but are not limited to, Barbero’s
Macromechanics of composite materials 319

Introduction to Composite Materials Design [5], Jones’ Mechanics of Composite

Materials [3], Daniel’s Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials [6], and
Kaw’s Mechanics of Composite Materials [7]. These works also provided the founda-
tion for much of this summary.

References
[1] G.W. Melenka, A.J. Hunt, F.K. Ko, C.M. Pastore, J.P. Carey, Advanced testing of braided
composite materials, in: J.P. Carey (Ed.), Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite
Materials: Theory, Production, Testing and Applications, Woodhead Publishing, 2016.
[2] M. Ivey, J.P. Carey, C. Ayranci, Ply mechanics for braided composite materials, in:
J.P. Carey (Ed.), Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials: Theory,
Production, Testing and Applications, Woodhead Publishing, 2016.
[3] R.M. Jones, Mechanics of Composite Materials, second ed., 1999.
[4] G.W. Melenka, C.M. Pastore, F.K. Ko, J.P. Carey, Advances in 2D and 3D braided
composite materials modeling, in: J.P. Carey (Ed.), Handbook of Advances in Braided
Composite Materials: Theory, Production, Testing and Applications, Woodhead Publishing,
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[5] E.J. Barbero, Introduction to Composite Materials Design, second ed., 2011.
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