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Macromechanics of Composite
Macromechanics of Composite
Macromechanics of Composite
materials 8
B.K.O. Cheung, J.P. Carey
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
8.1 Introduction
Macromechanical analyses represent an important step in the design of composite
materials. Single layer laminae, though they exhibit desirable specific stiffness and
strength characteristics, have limited applications due to direction-specific strengths.
However, by combining multiple laminae into a laminate, these weaknesses can be
overcome and composites can be used in applications where they rival the material
properties of traditional metals or plastics. The foundational work in micromechanical
methods [1] and ply mechanic methods [2] underline the framework for composite ma-
terial design, but without macromechanical models, there is little practical application
for these models. The most common of these models, the Classical Laminate Plate
Theory (also known as Classical Laminate Theory), or CLPT as it will be referred
to here, is the starting point for most macromechanical models. CLPT utilizes the
well-defined two-dimensional stress and strain behavior from ply mechanics and
incorporates considerations for fiber orientations and volume fractions.
(a) (b) 3
x
2
y
1
z
Figure 8.1 Coordinate system in the (a) global and (b) local orientations.
Macromechanics of composite materials 309
Z0
Z1
Z
Z2
Z3
Figure 8.2 Schematic representing the subscript notation for lamina referencing.
This matrix transforms between the global (x, y, and z) coordinate system and the
local (1, 2, and 3) coordinate system, allowing the stresses and strains to be easily
expressed in either coordinate system. The inverse transform matrix [T]1 performs
the transformation in the other direction, returning stresses and strains from the local
coordinate system to the global.
2 3 2 3
s1 sx
6 7 6 7
6 s2 7 ¼ ½T6 sy 7 (8.2)
4 5 4 5
s12 sxy
2 3 2 3
ε1 εx
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
6 ε2 7 6 εy 7
6 7 ¼ ½T6
6
7
7 (8.3)
6 7 6 7
41 5 41 5
g12 gxy
2 2
310 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials
(a) y (b) y
2
2
30° x
x 30°
1
Figure 8.3 Two plies oriented at 30 degree, with (a) þ30 degree ply and (b) 30 degree ply.
The angle ply (as it will be referred to) will be designated by the angle by which the
local coordinate system deviates from the global coordinate system, as per the trans-
formation matrix required to orient the coordinate system to be consistent with the
direction of the fibers in the ply. For example, consider the following two angle plies
viewed normal to their 1-2 planes, as shown in Fig. 8.3.
If a global coordinate system is established in the x-y directions as shown, then each
of these plies can be considered a 30-degree angle ply. However, their stress-strain
behavior under load, although similar and symmetric to each other, will be sufficiently
different and further clarification will be needed. To clarify, the angle is then deemed
either a positive or negative rotation, measured counterclockwise from the global x-axis.
Symmetric [0 /30 /60 ]S [0 /30 /60 /60 /30 /0 ]
Split symmetric 0 =30 =60 S [0 /30 /60 /30 /0 ]
Repeating (sequence) [0 /30 /60 ]3 [0 /30 /60 /0 /30 /60 /0 /30 /60 ]
Repeating (single lamina) ½0 =302 =60 [0 /30 /30 /60 ]
Complete (no repeating or [0 /30 /60 /30 ]T [0 /30 /60 /30 ]
sequence)
Differing thicknesses ½0t =302t =60t 30 ply is twice as thick as 0 and 60
plies
Or, rewritten in reference to the z axis, it can be shown that the total normal force
acting on the surface of an N-layered composite laminate is:
N Z
X zk
Nx ¼ sx dz (8.6)
k¼0 zk1
We can include both in-plane and shear directions of force as well for completeness:
2 3 2 3
Nx sx
6 7 N Z
X zk 6 7
6 Ny 7 ¼ 6 sy 7 dz (8.7)
4 5 4 5
k¼0 zk1
Nxy sxy k
312 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials
The global strains εx, εy, and gxy can also be represented by a summation of the
strains at the origin εox , εoy , and goxy and the associated laminate curvatures kx, ky,
and kxy, that is:
2 3 2 3 2 3
εx εox kx
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 εy 7 ¼ 6 εoy 7 þ z$6 ky 7 (8.9)
4 5 4 5 4 5
gxy g o
xy kxy
Thus the global stresses can be written as a combination of the strains at the origins
and the curvatures of the laminate as follows:
2 3 2 3 02 o 3 2 31
sx Q11 Q12 Q16 B ε x k x
6 7 6 7 B6 o 7 6 7C
6 sy 7 ¼ 6 Q Q26 7 6 εy 7 þ z$6 ky 7C
4 5 4 12 Q22 5 B
@ 4 5 4 5C
A
(8.10)
sxy Q16
k
Q26 Q66 gxy
o
k
kxy
In terms of the normal forces, the stiffness and strains as related to the global
stresses can be substituted back into the equation of normal forces. Knowing that
the reduced stiffness matrix, origin strains, and curvatures are all independent of z,
the following simple integration remains:
2 3 2 3 02 o 3 2 3 1
Nx ε k
Q Q12 Q16 B x Z x
Z C
6 7 X N 6 11 7 B6 o 7 zk 6 7 zk C
6 Ny 7 ¼ 6Q Q22 7 6 ε
Q26 5 B4 y 5 7 6
dz þ 4 ky 57 z dzC (8.11)
4 5 4 12 @ A
k¼0 zk1 zk1
Nxy Q16 Q26 Q66 goxy
k
kxy
Solving and expanding the above, we can achieve the following relationship:
2 3 2 3 2 3
Nx εox kx
6 7 N h
X i 6 o 7 1 N h
X i 6 7
6 Ny 7 ¼ Qij ðzk zk1 Þ6 7 z2k z2k1 6 7
4 5 k 4 εy 5 þ 2 Qij
k 4 ky 5
k¼0 k¼0
Nxy goxy kxy
(8.12)
Macromechanics of composite materials 313
The layer thicknesses and reduced stiffness matrix are combined into a single
matrix [A], the extensional stiffness matrix, to simplify the analysis.
N
X
Aij ¼ Qij ðzk zk1 Þ (8.13)
k
k¼1
N
1X
Bij ¼ Qij z2k z2k1 (8.14)
2 k¼1 k
The [B] matrix is known as the bending-extension coupling matrix as it couples the ef-
fects of extension to laminate bending, as we will see in the following analysis. Thus in
summary, the normal forces acting on a composite laminate can be represented as follows:
2 3 2 3 2 3
Nx εox kx
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 Ny 7 ¼ ½Aij 6 εoy 7 þ ½Bij 6 ky 7 (8.15)
4 5 4 5 4 5
Nxy goxy kxy
N Z
X zk
Mx ¼ sx $z dz (8.17)
k¼0 zk1
Note that the only difference between this equation and the previous normal force
equation is the extra z term within the integration. The next steps are the same as with
the normal force analysis, only with this extra z term included. These are not written in
314 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials
detail here but readers are encouraged to test them themselves. The following result is
obtained:
2 3 2 3 2 3
Mx εox kx
6 7 XN h i 6 o 7 1 X N h i 6 7
6 My 7 ¼ 1 Qij z2k z2k1 6 εy 7 Qij z3k z3k1 6 7
4 5 2 k 4 5 þ
3 k 4 ky 5 (8.18)
k¼0 k¼0
Mxy goxy kxy
Note that the terms in the first half of the equation are identical to the [B] matrix
derived earlier. The “bending-extension coupling” naming of this matrix are quite
apparent here, where the extensional strains are shown directly related to the bending
moments by the single [B] matrix (Eq. (8.14)). The second half of the equation is
a new, third-order equation with respect to the z coordinate, is termed the bending
stiffness equation, and is represented by the [D] matrix.
N
1X
Dij ¼ Qij z3k z3k1 (8.19)
3 k¼1 k
In summary, then, the bending moments of the laminate plate can be related to the
extensional strains and laminate curvatures by the following equation:
2 3 2 32 3 2 32 3
Mx B11 B12 B16 εox D11 D12 D16 kx
6 7 6 76 o 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 ¼ 6 B12 B26 7 6 7 6 D26 76 7
4 5 4 B22 54 εy 5 þ 4 D12 D22 54 ky 5 (8.20)
Mxy B16 B26 B66 goxy D16 D26 D66 kxy
2 N 3 2 32 3
x
A11 A12 A16 B11 B12 B16 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 B26 7 6
76 ε y
7
6 7 6 A12 A22 A26 B12 B22 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 Nxy 7 6 76 go 7
6 7 6 A16 A26 A66 B16 B26 B66 7 6 xy 7
6 7¼6 76 7
6 Mx 7 6 76 7 (8.21)
6 7 6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 D16 7 6 k 7
6 7 6 76 x 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 6 76
D26 76 ky
7
4 5 6
4
B12 B22 B26 D12 D22
54
7
5
Mxy B16 B26 B66 D16 D26 D66 kxy
Macromechanics of composite materials 315
It can often be useful to identify particular elements of this matrix for interpretation
of the predicted laminate behavior. Each of the three subsets of this matrix ([A], [B],
and [D]) are associated with a particular load-strain response, as mentioned previously.
The [A] matrix, or extensional stiffness matrix, represents the in-plane behavior of the
loaded laminate. A16 and A26 are of particular interest, as they represent the in-plane
shear-extension coupling of the laminate, similar to what can be expected of a single
angle-ply lamina. The [B] matrix is the bending-extension coupling matrix, which
couples in-plane extensions to out-of-plane bending behavior. Thus any in-plane
extension will not only deform or shear the laminate as would be expected in a single
lamina, but will also cause the laminate to bend or twist as determined by [B]. These
stiffnesses are also the cause of the twisting and warpage seen postcure from a
composite laminate that has not been designed such to negate the effects of
bending-extension behavior, resulting from the residual stresses during the curing
process, creating internal strains that lead to the bending behavior. Finally, the [D]
matrix represents the bending stiffnesses, with D16 and D26 representing the
bending-twist coupling.
2 3 2 32 3
Nx A11 A12 A16 0 0 0 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 76 ε 7
6 7 6 A12 A22 A26 0 0 0 76 y 7
6 7 6
6
76
76 go
7
7
6 Nxy 7
6 7 6 A16 A26 A66 0 0 0 76 xy 7
6 7¼6
6
76
76
7
7 (8.22)
6 7
Mx 7 6 76 kx 7
6 0 0 0 D11 D12 D16
6 7 6 76 7
6 7 6
6
76
76 k
7
7
6 My 7 6 76 y 7
4 5 4 0 0 0 D12 D22 D26
54 5
Mxy 0 0 0 D16 D26 D66 kxy
There is no shear-extension coupling in these laminates. Not only does this greatly
simplify loading analyses, but these laminates will not bend or warp after the curing
316 Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials
process. In a symmetric laminate, all of the thermally induced strains brought on by the
curing process will be balanced, and the laminate will remain in-plane.
Notice that in the matrix above A22 ¼ A11, A12 ¼ nA11, A66 ¼ 1n 2 A11 , as the
material approaches isotropy. As well, the shear-extension coupling terms are
removed, as expected in an isotropic material (A16 ¼ A26 ¼ 0). If the material was
fully isotropic, then all Bij ¼ 0 as well as D16 ¼ D26 ¼ 0; however, this confirms
the statement that a quasi-isotropic exhibits isotropy with regards to the in-plane
extensional stiffness.
2 N 3 2 32 3
x
A11 A12 0 B11 B12 B16 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 B26 7 6
7 6 εy
7
6 7 6 A12 A22 0 B12 B22 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 Nxy 7 6 76 go 7
6 7 6 0 0 A66 B16 B26 B66 7 6 xy 7
6 7¼6 76 7
6 Mx 7 6 76 7 (8.24)
6 7 6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 D16 7 6 k 7
6 7 6 76 x 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 6 76
D26 76 ky
7
4 5 6
4
B12 B22 B26 D12 D22
54
7
5
Mxy B16 B26 B66 D16 D26 D66 kxy
2 3 2 32 3
Nx A11 A12 0 B11 B12 B16 εox
6 7 6 76 o 7
6 Ny 7 6 B26 7 6
7 6 εy
7
6 7 6 A12 A22 0 B12 B22 7
6 7 6
6
76
76 go
7
7
6 Nxy 7
6 7 6 0 0 A66 B16 B26 B66 7 6 xy 7
6 7¼6
6
76
76
7
7 (8.25)
6 Mx 7
6 7 6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 0 7 6 k 7
6 7 6 76 x 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 My 7 6 76
0 76 ky
7
4 5 6
4
B12 B22 B26 D12 D22
54
7
5
Mxy B16 B26 B66 0 0 D66 kxy
8.5 Conclusion
Composite laminate-based macromechanical models are one more fundamental piece
to modeling and designing braided and other composite materials. Here, we provided
detailed explanations on the development of the key elements that allow predicting the
macrobehavior of composites plates. Designers must have an understanding of the
implication of designing laminates while considering the extensional stiffness,
bending stiffness, and bending-extension coupling matrices; herein, we provided a
number of design examples, as well as one which applies directly to braided
composites.
References
[1] G.W. Melenka, A.J. Hunt, F.K. Ko, C.M. Pastore, J.P. Carey, Advanced testing of braided
composite materials, in: J.P. Carey (Ed.), Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite
Materials: Theory, Production, Testing and Applications, Woodhead Publishing, 2016.
[2] M. Ivey, J.P. Carey, C. Ayranci, Ply mechanics for braided composite materials, in:
J.P. Carey (Ed.), Handbook of Advances in Braided Composite Materials: Theory,
Production, Testing and Applications, Woodhead Publishing, 2016.
[3] R.M. Jones, Mechanics of Composite Materials, second ed., 1999.
[4] G.W. Melenka, C.M. Pastore, F.K. Ko, J.P. Carey, Advances in 2D and 3D braided
composite materials modeling, in: J.P. Carey (Ed.), Handbook of Advances in Braided
Composite Materials: Theory, Production, Testing and Applications, Woodhead Publishing,
2016.
[5] E.J. Barbero, Introduction to Composite Materials Design, second ed., 2011.
[6] I.M. Daniel, O. Ishai, Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, second ed., 2006.
[7] A.K. Kaw, Mechanics of Composite Materials, second ed., 2006.