Chapter 4

Environmental Impacts of Energy Sources

1. EMISSION HAZARDS

Emissions rising in the atmosphere and which are major causes of atmospheric pollution are:
1. Carbon monoxide (from incomplete combustion of fuels),
2. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide (from industrial and vehicular exhaust),
3. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, refrigerant discharges),
4. Mercury emissions (from industries, fluorescent lamps and the burning of coal),
5. Carbon dioxide (fossil fuel burning and greenhouse gas),
6. Methane gas (cow farming, landfill emissions and natural sources, greenhouse gas),
7. Volatile organic compounds (from fuel vapours, solvent, paint, etc),
8. Particulate Matter
9. Ozone (which is bad at low altitudes and does not survive to replenish the high altitude ozone
layer which protects us from UV light) 

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

SO2 pollution, which takes a major toll on public health, includes contributing to the
formation of small acidic particulates that can penetrate into human lungs and be absorbed by
the bloodstream. SO2 also causes acid rain, which damages crops, forests, and soils, and
acidifies lakes and streams.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Oxides of nitrogen or NOx, is the generic term for a group of highly reactive gases, all of
which contain nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. Many of the nitrogen oxides are
colourless and odourless. However, one common pollutant, nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) along
with particles in the air can often be seen as a reddish-brown layer over many urban areas.
Nitrogen oxides form when fuel is burned at high temperatures, as in a combustion process.
The primary manmade sources of NOx are motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other
industrial, commercial, and residential sources that burn fuels. NOx can also be formed
naturally. NOx pollution causes ground level ozone, or smog, which can burn lung tissue,
exacerbate asthma, and make people more susceptible to chronic respiratory diseases.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, poisonous gas produced by the incomplete
burning of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. The main source of carbon monoxide in our air is
vehicle emissions.

Particulate matter

Particulate matter is the term for solid or liquid particles.  Some particles are large or dark
enough to be seen as soot or smoke, but most are fine particulate matter. Fine particulate
matter is composed of very small objects found in the air, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke,
and liquid droplets.

Particulate matter can travel deep into the lungs where it can aggravate asthma, chronic
bronchitis, emphysema, and other lung conditions. Our respiratory system filters out larger
particles, but smaller particles get trapped in the lungs, while the smallest are so tiny they
pass through the lungs into the blood stream. Particles may trigger or cause significant health
problems, such as:

 Coughing and difficult or painful breathing

 Haze obstructing visibility
 Aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema
 Decreased lung function
 Weakening of the heart, heart attacks
 Premature death

Hydrocarbons (HC)

Hydrocarbons are chemical compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon. Most motor
vehicles and engines are powered by hydrocarbon-based fuels such as gasoline and diesel.
Hydrocarbon pollution results when unburned or partially burned fuel is emitted from the
engine as exhaust, and also when fuel evaporates directly into the atmosphere. Hydrocarbons
include many toxic compounds that cause cancer and other adverse health effects.
Hydrocarbons also react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight to form ozone.
Hydrocarbons, which may take the form of gases, tiny particles, or droplets, come from a
great variety of industrial and natural processes. In typical urban areas, a very significant
fraction comes from cars, buses, trucks, and non road mobile sources such as construction
vehicles and boats.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds are emitted from a variety of sources, including motor vehicles,
chemical plants, refineries, factories, consumer and commercial products, and other industrial
sources. Volatile organic compounds also are emitted by natural sources such as
vegetation. Hydrocarbons (HC) are a large subset of VOC, and to reduce mobile source VOC
levels there are maximum emissions limits for hydrocarbon as well as particulate matter.

Ozone
Ground-level ozone, the main ingredient in smog, is formed by complex chemical reactions
of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and NOx in the presence of heat and sunlight. Ozone
forms readily in the lower atmosphere, usually during hot summer weather.

Greenhouse Gases
Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human
activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone, and water vapour. Certain human activities add to the levels of most of these
naturally occurring gases:
o Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon Dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas,
and coal), and wood and wood products are burned.
o Methane (CH4)
Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil
o Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Nitrous Oxide is produced during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during
combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.

Mercury

Emissions of mercury, a toxic heavy metal causes brain damage and heart problems. Just
1/70th of a teaspoon of mercury deposited on a 25-acre lake can make the fish unsafe to eat.
A typical uncontrolled coal plants emits approximately 170 pounds of mercury each year.
Activated carbon injection technology can reduce mercury emissions by up to 90 percent
when combined with bag houses.

Other harmful pollutants emitted include approximately lead, cadmium, other toxic heavy
metals, and trace amounts of uranium. Bag houses can reduce heavy metal emissions by up to
90 percent.
 Major emissions, their sources and environmental effects

Pollutant Natural Source Anthropogenic Source Environmental Effect

Nitrogen Lightning, soil High temperature fuel Primary pollutants that produce
oxides bacteria combustion—motor photochemical smog, acid rain,
(NO+NO2) vehicles, industrial, and and nitrate particulates.
utility Destruction of stratospheric ozone.
Particulate Forest fires, wind Combustion of bio fuels Reduced atmospheric visibility.
Matter erosion, volcanic such as wood, and fossil Human health impact. Black
eruption fuels such as coal or carbon particulates contribute to
diesel global warming.
Sulphur Volcanic eruptions Coal combustion, ore Acid rain. Human health impact.
dioxide and decay smelters, petroleum
refineries, diesel engines
burning high-sulphur
fuels
Ozone Lightning, Secondary pollutant Damage to plants, crops, and man-
photochemical produced in made products. Human health
reactions in the photochemical smog impact.
troposphere
Carbon Unnoticeable Rich & stoichiometric Human health impact
Monoxide combustion, mainly from
motor vehicles
Carbon Animal respiration, Fossil fuel and wood Most common greenhouse gas
dioxide decay, release from combustion
oceans
Non-methane Biological processes Incomplete combustion, Primary pollutants that produce
hydrocarbon solvent utilization photochemical smog
(VOC)
Methane Anaerobic decay, Natural gas leak and Greenhouse gas
cud-chewing combustion
animals, oil wells
Chlorofluoro- None Solvents, aerosol Destruction of stratospheric ozone
carbons propellants, refrigerants
(CFC)

2. BATTERY HAZARD

The increasing global demand for batteries is largely due to the rapid increase across all
segments spanning from households to large industrial enterprises in portable power-
consuming products such as cellular phones and video cameras, toys and laptop computers.
They are also a major source of backup power for activities that require an uninterruptible
supply of power. Each year consumers dispose of billions of batteries, all containing toxic or
corrosive materials. Some batteries contain toxic metals such as cadmium and mercury, lead
and lithium, which become hazardous waste and pose threats to health and the environment if
improperly disposed. Manufacturers and retailers are working continuously to reduce the
environmental impact of batteries by producing designs that are more recyclable and contain
fewer toxic materials. 
Batteries are mainly categorized as primary (one time use batteries) and secondary (can be
recharged and used again). Most of them contain cadmium, lead, mercury, copper, zinc,
manganese, lithium, or potassium, which are all hazardous to the environment and also to
human health.

Thus, disposal of batteries has come to occupy an extremely significant position in the eyes
of battery manufacturers and recycling organizations. Unfortunately, one widely used method
is to send them to landfills, although this is definitely not an environment friendly option.

Harmful Effects

For humans, both lead and cadmium can be taken only by ingestion or inhalation. Mercury
another harmful metal can even be absorbed through the skin, although this metal's use in
batteries has declined greatly due to laws and regulations that have been put in place to
reduce its content.

These harmful substances permeate into the soil, groundwater and surface water through
landfills and also release toxins into the air when they are burnt in municipal waste
combustors. Moreover, cadmium is easily taken up by plant roots and accumulates in fruits,
vegetables and grass. The impure water and plants in turn are consumed by animals and
human beings, who then fall prey to a host of ill-effects. Studies indicate that nausea,
excessive salivation, abdominal pain, liver and kidney damage, skin irritation, headaches,
asthma, nervousness, decreased IQ in children and sometimes even cancer can result from
exposure to such metals for a sufficient period of time.

In addition, potassium, if it leaks, can cause severe chemical burns thereby affecting the eyes
and skin. Landfills also generate methane gas leading to the ‘greenhouse effect’ and global
climatic changes.

The global environmental impact of batteries is assessed in terms of four main

indicators. These indicators further distinguish the impact of disposable and
rechargeable batteries.

Consumption of Natural Resources

Production, transportation and distribution of batteries consume natural resources, thereby

contributing to an accelerating depletion of natural resources. Rechargeable batteries
consume less non renewable natural resources than disposable batteries because fewer
rechargeable batteries are needed to provide the same amount of energy.

Climate Change and Global Warming

The increase in the average temperature of the Earth's surface is caused by an increasing
greenhouse gas effect. The manufacture and transportation of batteries emits exhaust and
other pollutants into the atmosphere, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect. Per unit of
energy delivered, rechargeable batteries contribute less to global warming than disposable
batteries. This is because less greenhouse gas emissions are associated with the manufacture
and transportation of rechargeable batteries.

Photochemical Smog Pollution and Air Acidification

Exhaust pollutants undergo photochemical reactions which produce toxic chemicals

including ozone, other harmful gases and particulate substances. The thermal inversions
associated with large cities can lead to a dangerous build up of photochemical smog, which is
known to cause human deaths. Air acidification is the accumulation of acidic substances in
atmospheric particles. These particles, deposited by rain, have an impact on soil and
ecosystems. Rechargeable batteries contribute less to these atmospheric effects than
disposable batteries because they contribute less to air pollution.
Eco toxicity and Water Pollution

Potential toxic risks are associated with emission of battery chemicals into aquatic
ecosystems. Improper or careless handling of waste batteries can result in release of corrosive
liquids and dissolved metals that are toxic to plants and animals. Improper disposal of
batteries in landfill sites can result in the release of toxic substances into groundwater and the
environment.

Recycling

About 90 percent of lead-acid batteries are now recycled. Reclamation companies send
crushed batteries to facilities for reprocessing and manufacture into new products.
Nonautomotive lead-based batteries, which are accepted by many automotive companies and
waste agencies, are subject to the same recycling processes. Several reclamation companies
in the U.S. now process all types of dry-cell batteries, both disposable and rechargeable,
including alkaline and carbon-zinc, mercuric oxide and silver oxide, zinc-air and lithium.

Recycling - A Good Option?

Recycling batteries is a much better option than dumping them in landfills. Some advantages
that recycling offers include:

 Saves natural resources and energy

 Reduces pollution and need for landfill

 Generates income

 Lessens the amount of regulations as it no more falls under the category of hazardous
waste

 Reduces imports

Many organizations have been set up and laws have been passed to promote proper disposal
and recycling of batteries in order to provide a safer environment. Developing nations
typically pay less attention to this mounting environmental problem as they feel that other
issues such as poverty and population explosion are much weighty of a problem and funds
tend to appease these problems first.

Solutions
Some steps that can be taken to reduce or minimize the damage caused to the environment
due to improper battery disposal include the following:

 Recycling of used batteries

 Using rechargeable batteries more than primary batteries

 Making collection of batteries from the source easier and cost effective

 Providing appropriate remuneration to consumers for selling the used batteries

 Formulation and implementation of more stringent laws regarding battery disposal

 Buying batteries containing less mercury, lead and cadmium

 Providing complete information to customers at the time of purchase about the battery
suitability, safety and ways of disposal.

 More R&D in alternative energy storage devices like fuel cells, which are also less
hazardous to the environment.

 Looking at renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, water.

Conclusion

With the ever-growing usage of batteries in today’s times, their disposal issues have come to
occupy the centre stage due to their deteriorating effects on human health and environment.
Much attention needs to be paid to solve this problem especially by developing countries so
that a cleaner, greener and healthy world is what we and our future generations get to live in!

3. NUCLEAR HAZARD

The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle, operation,

and the effects of nuclear accidents. The routine health risks and greenhouse gas
emissions from nuclear fission power are small relative to those associated with coal, but
there are "catastrophic risks", such as the possibility of over-heated fuel releasing massive
quantities of fission products to the environment.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of the atom; the resulting energy can be used for
a variety of purposes. The first controlled fission of an atom was carried out in Germany in
1938. However, the United States was the first country to develop an atomic bomb, which
was subsequently dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The world's
first electricity-generating reactor was constructed in the United States in 1951 and the Soviet
Union built its first reactor in 1954.

Although nuclear power is being used today as a reliable source of electricity, several serious
accidents have caused worldwide concern about the safety and disposal of radioactive wastes.
A number of nuclear explosions have already been made during recent past in different parts
of the world. Irrespective of judgments about the ethics of this practice, these tests occurred,
injecting substantial amounts of radioactivity into the environment. Nuclear explosions are
very rapid and based on a rough estimate, in an explosion about 50 per cent of the energy
goes to the blast, 33 per cent as heat and the rest 17 per cent or so to radioactivity. The
radioactive dust that falls to the earth after atomic explosion is called radioactive fallout. The
estimated percept dose to world population from fallout of past nuclear explosions is 10
microsievert per year.

Biological effects of radiations

Radioactive substances are among the most toxic substances known. Radium is 25,000 times
more lethal than arsenic. The cell, which is the fundamental unit of life, is the primary site of
radiation damage. If too many cells are damaged, the symptoms show up in the growing
tissues as in the case of loss of hair, ulceration of the mouth, the reddening and
haemorrhaging of the skin and lowering of the blood count. If these symptoms grow more
severe, death will result.

(i) Somatic effects

These are the direct results of action of radiation on the body cell and tissues. Uranium
mineworkers, painters of radium dials and Radiologists suffer most. These effects may be
immediate or delayed. More evidence of degree and kind of damage from radiation came
from studies of the Nagasaki and Hiroshima survivors. If one survives the phase of radiation
illness in the 50 to 500 rad. range, the other illness one is likely to become a victim are-
cardiovascular disorder, cataract, leukaemia, sterility, premature ageing and shortenings of
life span. All these are somatic effects.

(ii) Genetic effects

There is another more serious type of effect of ionizing radiations, known as genetic effect.
This arises from the damage to the sex cells. If a sex cell is damaged and if that sex cell is one
of the pair that goes into the production of a fertilized ovum, it will give rise to an offspring
with various kinds of major or minor physical defects.

Radioactive gases and effluents

Most commercial nuclear power plants release gaseous and liquid radiological effluents into
the environment as a by product of the Chemical Volume Control System, which are
monitored in the US by the EPA and the NRC. Civilians living within 50 miles (80 km) of a
nuclear power plant typically receive about 0.1 μSv per year. For comparison, the average
person living at or above sea level receives at least 260 μSv from cosmic radiation.

The total amount of radioactivity released through this method depends on the power plant,
the regulatory requirements, and the plant's performance. Atmospheric dispersion models
combined with pathway models are employed to accurately approximate the dose to a
member of the public from the effluents emitted. Effluent monitoring is conducted
continuously at the plant.

Radioactive Wastes from Nuclear Power Plants

The hazards of radioactive materials stem from their basic characteristic that radiation cannot
be detected by sense organs except in massive doses. Further, there is no way of destroying
radioactivity. The radioactive waste from nuclear plants may be in form of gases, liquids or
solids.

There is no suitable and cheap method of storing the radioactive waste. At any time,
radioactivity is likely to escape from the waste in water bodies, concrete cases and salt
formations in high mountains. The nuclear waste is thus likely to get leached into the
biosphere. Among the long-lived fission products the most hazardous are Strontium-90 (half
life 28.9y) and caesium- 137 (half life 30.2y). The gaseous fission product iodine-131 (half
life 8.1 days) is of hazardous nature in the event of its leakage during reactor operation.

The highly toxic alpha-active element plutonium (half life 24,100y) is another reactor product
that has to be taken care of. All these elements enter the human system and get deposited in
various parts of the body causing cell damage. Some of the radio nuclides in these effluents
have long half-lives. Sr-90 is produced in larger amounts than others. Radionuclide’s have
become distributed throughout the environment and are transmitted to man via the food
chain. When taken in by man, some radio nuclides become concentrated in specific organs
where they become injurious to health.

Waste streams

Nuclear power has at least four waste streams that may harm the environment:-

 They create spent nuclear fuel at the reactor site (including plutonium waste)

 They produce tailings at uranium mines and mills
 During operation they can release small amounts of radioactive isotopes
 During accidents they can release large quantities of dangerous radioactive materials

Waste Heat

As with some thermal power stations, nuclear plants exchange 60 to 70% of their thermal
energy by cycling with a body of water or by evaporating water through a cooling tower. This
thermal efficiency is somewhat lower than that of coal fired power plants, thus creating
more waste heat.

The cooling options are typically once-through cooling with river or sea water, pond cooling,
or cooling towers. Many plants have an artificial lake like the Shearon Harris Nuclear Power
Plant or the South Texas Nuclear Generating Station. The environmental effects on the
artificial lakes are often weighted in arguments against construction of new plants, and during
droughts have drawn media attention. The Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station is
credited with helping the conservation status of the American Crocodile, largely an effect of
the waste heat produced.

It is possible to use waste heat in cogeneration applications such as district heating. The

principles of cogeneration and district heating with nuclear power are the same as any other
form of thermal power production. However, district heating with nuclear power plants is less
common than with other modes of waste heat generation: because of either siting
regulations and/or the NIMBY effect, nuclear stations are generally not built in densely
populated areas. Waste heat is more commonly used in industrial applications.
During Europe's 2003 and 2006 heat waves, French, Spanish and German utilities had to
secure exemptions from regulations in order to discharge overheated water into the
environment. Some nuclear reactors shut down

Reactor Accidents (Chernobyl Accident)

A reactor is one in which fission of atomic fuel occurs. The power plants are designed in a
way that there is no leakage of radioactive materials in any form. However, no nuclear plant
is contamination proof. During recent years nuclear power programmes have been beset with
problems. The radiological impact from the routine operation of nuclear power stations
(NPS) is negligible, but concern remains about the consequences of potential accidents. The
concerns have increased manifold after the accident at Unit-4 of the Chernobyl NPS is USSR
on 26th April, 1986.

The accident occurred during a low power engineering experiment, when safety systems were
bypassed. Radioactive gases and dust particles were environmentally released, causing
radioactive contamination all around the world in varying intensity. It is estimated that about
7,000 kilograms of highly radioactive material containing iodine-131, strontium-90 and
caesium-137 and plutonium as well as other nuclides with a total activity of 50-100 million
curies were released in the explosion. The radioactive dust got dispersed over vast areas in
Europe, affecting (in addition to USSR), France and even parts of UK. Dose values as high as
760 microsievert per year, has been reported for some European countries following the
accident. In the weeks following the accident, fresh vegetables in many parts of Europe
showed levels of radioactivity much above the permissible levels.

Cattle grazing on contaminated grass were soon producing milk with significant radioactivity.
Large populations in the area around the reactor were evacuated. The soil samples from the
farmland in the area show radioactivity 170 times the value regarded as tolerable. Some
forecasts suggest that the radioactive fallout from Chernobyl could cause as many as 40,000
deaths from cancer world-wide, mainly in Europe.

Greenhouse gas emissions

Nuclear power plant operation emits no or negligible amounts of carbon dioxide. However,
all other stages of the nuclear fuel chain — mining, milling, transport, fuel fabrication,
enrichment, reactor construction, decommissioning and waste management — use fossil fuels
and hence emit carbon dioxide.
Decommissioning

Both nuclear reactors and uranium enrichment facilities must be carefully decommissioned
using processes that are occupationally dangerous, and hazardous to the natural environment,
expensive, and time-intensive.

Aquatic Lives
Nuclear power plants use large quantities of water for steam production and for cooling,
affecting fish and other aquatic life. Likewise, heavy metals and salts can build up in the
water used in the nuclear power plant systems. When water is discharged from the power
plant, these pollutants can negatively affect water quality and aquatic life.

Note: The sievert  is the International System of Units (SI) derived unit of equivalent

radiation dose, effective dose, and committed dose.
 1 Sv = 1 J/kg
 1 microsievert (1 μSv = 0.000001 Sv)